MAJOR PROJECT

On

SOLAR DRIVEN ADSORPTION COOLING SYSTEM

Submitted to

Amity University Uttar Pradesh

Guided by: Dr. Meeta Sharma

Submitted by:

Mr. Vishal Kumar, A2399818078

Mr. Priyemant Raj, A2399818072

Mr. Ajay Vashist, A2399818074

AMITY UNIVERSITY UTTAR PRADESH

GAUTAM BUDDHA NAGAR

1
 Declaration by the Student

We Priyemant Raj, Vishal kumar and Ajay kumar Vashist, B. Tech Mechanical Engineering
students, hereby declares that the report entitled " Solar Driven Adsorption cooling
refrigeration system ", which we submitted to Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity
School of Engineering and Technology (ASET), Amity University, (Noida) Uttar Pradesh in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Award of the degree of B. Tech Mechanical
Engineering, is true and correct.

Except for brief snippets requiring simply proper acknowledgement in scholarly writing, the
Author attest that the permission reserved to make use of any copyrighted material included
in the report, and that any such usage is recognized.

Date: __________________

2
 CERTIFICATE

On the basis of as per report that submitted by Priyemant Raj , Vishal kumar And Ajay
Vashist, students of B.Tech (Mechanical Engineering), I hereby certify that the report “Solar
Driven Adsorption cooling refrigeration system” is an original contribution based on existing
knowledge and a faithful record of work completed by me undermine supervision and
guidance and submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of
Engineering And Technology (ASET), Amity University ,Uttar Pradesh (NOIDA) in the
partial fulfilment of requirement for the Award of degree of Bachelor of Technology.

To the best as per my knowledge, this project has never been submitted in part or in whole
for any degree or diploma at this University or anywhere else.

Noida

Date:

Name of Guide: Dr Meeta Sharma

Designation: Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO NAME OF FIGURE PAGE NO

1.1 Simple adsorption cooling system 2
1.2 Condenser 4
1.3 Expansion Device 5
1.4 Evaporator 5
2.1 Two bed adsorption cooling system 20
2.2 Clapeyron diagram of the proposed two-bed solar 21
adsorption cooling system
4 Input heat distribution within the adsorbent bed 32
component
4.1 Variation of adsorbent bed pressure with cycle 33
temperature
4.2 Adsorbate concentration ratio with cycle temperature 34
4.3 Adsorbate phase volume fraction with cycle temperature 35
4.4 Effect of desorption temperature on effective mass of 36
refrigerant desorbed during isobaric process (2-3)
4.5 Effect of adsorbent bed pressure on effective mass of 37
refrigerant adsorbed during isothermal process (4-1)
4.6 Accumulated amount of specific energy applied to the 37
adsorbent bed during heating process (1-2-3)
4.7 Accumulated amount of specific energy expelled from 38
adsorbent bed during cooling process (3-4-1)
4.8 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on COPsy 39
and refrigeration effect.
4.9 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on chilled 40
water outlet temperature with different adsorbent pair
4.10 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on specific 40
cooling power of the cycle with different adsorbent pair
4.11 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on COP on 41
the cycle with different adsorbate pair

4
4.12 It shows the different COP of adsorbent/adsorbate pair 42
4.13 It shows the SCP of adsorbent / adsorbate pair 42

5
 CONTENT-LIST

Cover page i
Declaration ii
Certificate iii
Abstract iv
Nomenclature v
PAGES
CHAPTER I- INTRODUCTION 1-17
1.1 Simple adsorption cooling system 2
1.2 Working cycle 3
1.3 Main components of refrigeration cycle 3-5
1.4 Different Working adsorbent/refrigerant pairs 6-7
1.5 Literature Review 8-17
CHAPTER II- PRESENT WORK 18-21
2.1 System Description 18-21
CHAPTER III- MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 22-29
3.1 Modelling for two bed system 23-24
3.2 Thermodynamics analysis of SAC system 25-28
3.3 Performance indices of SAC system 28-29
CHAPTER IV- RESULTs AND DISCUSSION 30-42
4.1 Adsorbent bed pressure-temperature correlation 32-33
4.2 Influence of adsorption bed temperature on the adsorbate 33-34
Concentration ratio and volume fraction
4.3 Evolution of the effective mass of refrigerant desorbed/ 34-35
Adsorbed during the isobaric heating adsorption
4.4 Accumulated amount of specific energy added/removed 35-38
During heating/cooling process of adsorbent bed
4.5 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on the 38-41

4.6 Comparison of COP’s and SCP of different 41-42

adsorbent/adsorbate pair

6
CHAPTER V- CONCLUSION 43-44
CHAPTER VI- FUTURE SCOPE 45-46
REFERNECES 47-50

ABSTRACT

7
The purposed model is a needed and satisfactory alternative to all conventional cooling
system as it is eco-friendly in its working because no greenhouse gases emission is done
during its operations. This work shows the study of this solar based adsorption cooling
system and presents a thermodynamic model for analysing the performance of solar
adsorption cooling system (SAC). It proposes isothermal adsorption rather than isobaric
adsorption to reduce adsorption heat and hence improve the performance of the SAC system.
For this study, a 500 W adsorption chiller with a 5 °C evaporator temperature and a 45 °C
condenser temperature was chosen. The working pair for the proposed adsorption chiller is
activated carbon/ethanol. An evaporator pressure of 2.01 kPa and a condenser pressure of
23.1 kPa are used in the refrigeration cycle. The input heat distribution in the bed component
is also carried out, followed by an assessment of the influence of the maximum desorption
temperature on the system's performance. For a desorption temperature of 95 °C, the
maximum coefficient of performance of 0.68 is observed. For the adsorbate fraction,
adsorbent bed pressure, and the effect of desorption temperature on various parameters, the
system's thermal performance is also investigated. It has been observed that the isothermal
adsorption method improves the SAC's thermal performance, with the coefficient of
performance of the system with isothermal adsorption calculated to be higher than that of the
system with standard isobaric adsorption. The study's goal is to find a viable alternative to
adsorption cooling systems' poor performance

8
Nomenclature
C specific heat [J.kg−1K−1]
H isosteric heat of adsorption/desorption [J.kg−1]
h enthalpy [J.kg−1]
L latent heat-vaporisation [J.kg−1]
m mass [kg]
P pressure [Pa]
Q sensible heat [J]
R gas constant [J.kg−1K−1]
T temperature [K]
X0 maximum adsorption capacity [m3.kg−1]
X adsorbate concentration ratio at equilibrium
y wetness fraction [-]

Greek Symbols
∆ change/difference [-]
ψ∗ adsorbate volume fraction [-]
ε total adsorption bed porosity [-]
ρ density [kg.m−3]
η efficiency [-]

Subscripts
ac activated carbon
ad adsorption
am ambient
c constant
con condenser
cwao chilled water out
cwai chilled water in
des desorption
e ethanol
eva evaporator

9
ef effective
fl saturated liquid
gen generator
in input
max maximum
min minimum
mc metal cover
reje reject
ref refrigerant
rm refrigerant mass utilisation
sa saturation
sl saturated liquid
sy system

Abbreviation
B Bed
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
COP Coefficient of performance
CP Cooling power
HCFC Hydrofluorocarbon
SAC Two-bed solar adsorption cooling
SCP Specific cooling power
V Valve

10
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1
 INTRODUCTION

Solar adsorption refrigeration is an option to overtake the drawbacks of the conventional

cooling system. Adsorption refrigeration system uses adsorbent beds to adsorb and desorbs a
refrigerant to obtain cooling effect. Adsorption systems mainly use a natural working fluid
which have zero ozone depletion potential. Inventors propose technologies to improve
adsorption system and make it become a realistic alternative. Using renewable source of
energy. Helps to reduce CO2 emission from combustion. Contains Thermal Compressor
which operates on heat. Same as Vapour absorption refrigeration system Because it is
environmentally friendly and releases no greenhouse emissions, the proposed model is a
needed and satisfactory replacement to all traditional cooling systems. The study into this
solar-based adsorption cooling system is described in this publication, along with a
thermodynamic model for analyzing the system's performance (SAC). It recommends
isothermal adsorption rather than isobaric adsorption to reduce adsorption heat and hence
boost the efficiency of the SAC system. This study used a 500 W adsorption chiller with a
5°C evaporator temperature and a 45°C condenser temperature. The working pair for the
suggested adsorption chiller is activated carbon/ethanol.

1.1 Simple Adsorption cooling system

Fig 1.1- Simple adsorption cooling system

2
WORKING CYCLE

Heating and pressurization: - The temperature of the adsorbent increases, which induces an
increase in pressure from the evaporation pressure to the condensing pressure. This period is
equivalent to the "compression" phase in compression cycles.

Heating and desorption + condensation: - During this period, the adsorber continues to
receive heat as long as it is connected to the condenser, which now overrides its pressure. The
temperature of the adsorbent continues to rise, which causes vapor desorption. This desorbed
vapor is liquefied in a condenser. The condensation heat is transferred to the second radiator
at an intermediate temperature. This period is equivalent to "condensation" in compression
cycles.

Cooling and depressurization: - During this period, the adsorber releases heat while it is
closed. The temperature of the adsorbent decreases, which induces a decrease in pressure
from the condensing pressure to the evaporating pressure. This period is equivalent to
"expansion" in compression cycles.

Cooling and adsorption + evaporation: - During this period, the adsorber continues to
release heat while connected to the evaporator, which now overcomes its pressure. The
adsorbent temperature continues to decrease, which induces vapor adsorption. This adsorbed
vapor evaporates in the evaporator. The evaporation heat is provided by the low temperature
heat source. This period is equivalent to "flash off" in compression cycles.

Main components of refrigeration cycle

In simple terms, a refrigeration cycle's mission is heat absorption and heat rejection. The
refrigeration cycle, sometimes called a heat pump cycle, is a means of routing heat away
from the area you want to cool. This is accomplished by manipulating the pressure of the
working refrigerant (air, water, synthetic refrigerants, etc.) through a cycle of compression
and expansion.  

Compressor

Compression is the first stage of the refrigeration cycle, and the compressor is the equipment
that increases the pressure of the working gas. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a low
pressure, low temperature gas and exits the compressor as a high pressure, high temperature
gas.

3
Condenser

The condenser or condenser coil is one of two types of heat exchangers used in the main
refrigeration circuit. This component is supplied with high-temperature, high-pressure vapor
refrigerant exiting the compressor. The condenser removes heat from the hot refrigerant
vapor until it condenses into a saturated liquid state, also known as condensation.

Fig 1.2-Condensor

Expansion device

These components come in a few different designs. Popular configurations include fixed
orifices, thermostatic expansion valves (TXV) or thermal expansion valves (pictured above),
and the more advanced electronic expansion valves (EEVs). But regardless of configuration,
the job of a system’s expansion device is the same - create a drop in pressure after the
refrigerant leaves the condenser. This pressure drop will cause some of that refrigerant to
quickly boil, creating a two-phase mixture.  

4
 Fig 1.3-Expansion Device

Evaporator

The evaporator is the second heat exchanger in a standard refrigeration circuit, and like the
condenser, it’s named for its basic function. It serves as the “business end” of a refrigeration
cycle, given that it does what we expect air conditioning to do – absorb heat.

FIG-1.4 Evaporator

5
Different Working adsorbent/refrigerant pairs

The utilised working adsorbent/refrigerant pairs have a significant impact on the overall
performance, as well as the design and operating parameters for an ARS. In general, good
adsorbents should have a larger temperature range of adsorption capacity, better heat and
mass transfer capabilities, thermal stability, and low contamination susceptibility. In addition,
the heat of vaporisation, thermal conductivity, boiling point and working pressures, reactivity
and stability, toxicity, environmental impact, and freezing point of a refrigerant should all be
investigated. Adsorption isotherms, as depicted, are often used to assess the adsorption
capacity of an adsorbent-refrigerant pair. These isotherms give the quantity of adsorbed mass
taken up by the adsorbent as a function of pressure at constant temperatures after reaching
thermodynamic equilibrium. As a result, isotherms can be used to compare adsorbent-
adsorbate couples and their evolution. When the adsorbent domain is subjected to transient
operating circumstances, however, a kinetic model is necessary to characterise the mass
transfer kinetics and to calculate the instantaneous amount of adsorbate via a relationship
with the equilibrium uptake determined by the isotherms. Intra-particle mass transport
resistance is referred to as mass transfer kinetics. The ability of an ARS to have a significant
cooling capacity is increased by increasing its adsorption capacity, which determines the total
amount of refrigerant that can be adsorbed in a cycle. However, because the duration of the
adsorption cycle is controlled by mass transfer kinetics, faster mass transfer kinetics are
necessary to ensure increased cooling capacity.

Silica gel-water systems

Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, and extremely porous amorphous silicon dioxide (SiO2)
manufactured synthetically from sodium silicate. High-density silica gel, such as Fuji
Davison kinds 'A' and 'RD' silica gel, with pore diameters in the range of 2.0–3.5 nm, pore
volume of 0.3–0.4 cm3/g, and specific surface area of 400–700 m2/g. Other silica gels with
large pore diameters can be employed as a host material in composite adsorbents. Several
researchers explored the thermodynamics properties of the silica gel-water working pair
experimentally as in, and the empirically discovered parameters for the isotherm equations
were obtained from the experimental data. Several studies tested the performance of the two-
bed silica gel-water system experimentally and analytically.

The fundamental advantage of silica gel over other adsorbents is that its regeneration
temperature is approximately 85°C, making it ideal for solar energy and low-temperature

6
waste heat sources. Furthermore, when a multi-stage setup system is used, it could go as low
as 50°C. In this instance, the dynamic losses owing to the heat capacities of the adsorber
components are minimised, resulting in greater COPs because the adsorbent and the container
vessel do not need to be heated to high temperatures. However, the temperature of desorption
must not be too high. Silica gel is destroyed at temperatures above 120°C . Adsorption heat is
2500–2800 kJ/kg, which is higher than activated carbon pair. In addition, silica gel porosity
(100–1000 m2/g) is smaller than activated carbon. Under typical operating conditions, the
maximal adsorption capacity at equilibrium may be between 0.35 and 0.4 kg/kg silica gel, but
the net change in the instantaneous amount of adsorbate could not exceed 0.1 kg water/kg
silica gel. Another disadvantage is the freezing point of water, which limits the evaporation
temperature, and the absorption is also hampered by a low vacuum, making silica gel-water
refrigeration systems better suited to air conditioning applications with high chilled water
flow rates.

Zeolite-water systems

Zeolites are alumina silicate crystals made of alkali or alkali soil that are microporous. The
desorption temperature range for the zeolite-water working pair is 70–250°C. The adsorber
can be directly heated by engine exhaust gases due to its steady performance at high
temperatures. As a result, the zeolite-water system is less complicated than the hot water
system. However, zeolite-water adsorption heat is higher than silica gel-water adsorption
heat, ranging between 3300 and 4200 kJ/kg, resulting in low COPs, in addition to the
disadvantages of utilising water as a refrigerant. Several experimental and theoretical
research have been presented to study and improve the performance of zeolite-water
adsorption systems, especially for car air cooling.

Literature Review

Cho et al. [1] theoretically and experimentally explored and executed that the recovery of
low-grade waste heat using a silica gel-water adsorption cooling system. There were four
parts to this system: two adsorbers, a condenser, and an evaporator. It had a cold generation
capability of 1.2 RT and could create chilled water between 4 and 7 degrees Celsius. They
did this by using a numerical model that can anticipate the system's thermal performance.
They use this model to calculate the impact of a component's heat transfer rate on its cold

7
generation capacity. They claimed that by altering the heat-transfer rates of the condenser and
adsorber, the thermal performance could be increased by three times. As illustrated in fig. 1,
the experimental equipment comprises of two silica-gel adsorbers linked to an evaporator and
a condenser. The condensate flowed constantly downhill into the evaporator thanks to the use
of a U-tube. The adsorber is made up of 110 kg of silica gel (2-3 mm dia) packed in
aluminum circular-fin tube heat exchangers with a surface area of 46.9 m2. With a surface
area of 2.5 m2, the condenser was a shell and tube type exchanger. The heat-transfer area of
the evaporator is 8.15 m2. The cooling water flow rate and temperature were 1.111 kg/sec
and 14°C, respectively.

The hot water flow rate and temperature were 0.833 kg/sec and 85°C, respectively. Chilled
water flow rate and temperature were 0.278 kg/sec and 8.4 °C, respectively. The chilled
water's output temperature ranged from 4 to 7 degrees Celsius. At an average temperature of
8.4°C, it was heated and recycled to the adsorption chiller. The whole cycle duration was
around 350 minutes, and the refrigeration capacity was approximately 1.2 RT. They observed
temperature and pressure fluctuations in the adsorber over time in their research report. The
temperature and pressure in the adsorber in their study changed dramatically at the start of a
cycle. They varied smoothly after that until the regeneration stage was done.

Saha et al. [2] presents the results of an analytic examination into the influence of thermal
conductance of absorption elements on the performance of a silica-gel-water advanced
adsorption chiller. They used a cycle-simulation model that they created for the analysis. The
chiller was powered by waste heat at 50 degrees Celsius, with a cooling source at 30 degrees
Celsius for air conditioning and refrigeration. Tdes = 50°C and Tads = 30°C were used in
their study cycle. The sensible heat exchanger cycle took 30 seconds and the adsorption-
desorption cycle took 300 seconds. For numerical simulation, they assumed (i) that all
component refrigerant mass flows were equivalent; (ii) that adsorption/desorption
equilibrium was attained at all times; (iii) that no adsorption/desorption occurs during the
sensible heat exchange process; (iv) that all three adsorbers (or desorbers) operate at the same
temperatures; (v) that the dependences of specific heats on temperature and adsorption heat
on concentration were neglected; (vi) They get a cooling capacity of 1.5-1.7 kW, a COP of
0.2-0.3, and an efficiency of 0.25-0.45 in their study. Due to the intense sensible
heating/cooling requirements resulting from batched cycle operation, the thermal capacitance
and adsorber/desorber thermal conductance had a significant impact on cycle performance.
They also come to the conclusion that (i) raising the thermal capacitance ratios could increase

8
the chiller's overall performance. (ii) In the adsorber/desorber heat exchanger, increasing the
adsorbent masses improved both cooling capacity and chiller efficiency.

Wang et al. [3] creates a prototype of a revolutionary SI-Water adsorption chiller. According
to their findings, the RC and COP for a heat source at 84.80°C, cooling water temperature of
30.60°C, and chilled water outlet temperature of 11.70°C were 7.15 kW and 0.38,
respectively, for a heat source at 84.80°C, cooling water temperature of 30.60°C, and chilled
water outlet temperature of 11.70°C. The RC was measured at 6 kW at 650°C, with cooling
water temperatures of 30.50°C and chilled water output temperatures of 17.60°C. They came
to the conclusion that a 900-second cycle time would be a superior option. With an increase
in heat source temperature, mass recovery time was sped up. Finally, they came to the
conclusion that the chiller might be improved if the evaporator's refrigeration output loss was
avoided in the structural design.

Wang et al. [4] shown that a four-bed adsorption chiller may produce a 12 percent higher
final cooling capacity than a two-bed adsorption chiller for the same heat exchanger
inventory allocation. The Silica gel-water adsorption chiller was chosen for this purpose
because it has been proven to be an excellent approach to capture the potential of low-grade
waste heat and solar energy for practical cooling. They created a controller that allows for
programming flexibility, allowing the test facility to run in two-bed and four-bed modes.

Two of the beds operate in phase in the two-bed operating mode, but all four beds operate
with a constant phase difference in the four-bed operating mode. A cooling water inlet
temperature of 29.4 °C, a chilled-water inlet temperature of 12.2 °C, and a hot-water inlet
temperature of 85 °C were used as the operating conditions for both operation modes. The
four-bed mode provides a 12 percent higher ultimate specific cooling power for a given heat-
exchanger inventory allocation (SCP). The improvement in COP is between 3 and 6 percent
for the same cooling capacity and cycle periods between 250 and 275 seconds. The COP of
the two-bed chiller is increased by 14% at long cycle periods and 38% at short cycle times.
The COP of the four-bed chiller, on the other hand, is increased by 25%.

Xiaolin Wang and H.T. Chua [5] investigated the COP and how it might be enhanced using
an effective lumped parameter model. The main idea is always the system's COP. As a result,
when the cooling water is switched on, it first travels past the hot adsorber, which must be
precooled before desorption. They discovered that the cooling water temperature should be as
low as feasible to maximise the adsorber bed's efficiency using the Lumped parameter model.

9
Because the temperature is low, maximum adsorption can occur, but the temperature must
not be lower than the evaporator temperature. As a result, COP can rise to 0.3-0.4. They can
conclude from the experiment that the water circulation system played a significant influence
in the adsorption technology.

A 49.4 m2 Glass tube solar collector, a silica gel–water adsorption chiller, a cooling tower,
and a fan coil unit were created by Luo et al. [6] for an unique solar-powered adsorption
cooling system for low-temperature grain storage. The adsorption chiller was made up of two
similar adsorption units with an adsorber, a condenser, and an evaporator/receiver in each.
Between July and September of 2004, the device was used to cool the headspace of a grain
bin in an experimental setting. After three months of operation, the results were promising.
With a daily solar cooling coefficient of performance ranging from 0.096 to 0.13, the chiller
had a cooling power between 66 and 90 W/m2 of collector surface. The COP of electric
cooling ranged between 2.6 and 3.4.

In Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Xia et al. [7] developed a unique SI-Water adsorption
chiller. It was a hybrid of two bed systems with no vacuum valves. There was only one
condenser, one adsorber, and one evaporator in their first design. They changed the chiller's
three vacuum chambers, which included two adsorption/desorption vacuum chambers and
one heat pipe that served as a vacuum chamber. Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the
experimental setup. The system's capacity was 8.69 kW, with a COP of 0.388 for a heat
source at 82.50°C and cooling water temperature of 32° c. If dehumidification was not
required, the COP reached 0.432 and the RC was approximately 11 kW. The chiller's
evaporator was more efficient and reliable. The chiller's mass recovery technique resulted in
the highest levels of RC (about 65%) and COP (around 32%).

W.S. Chang et al. [8] designed and built a solar-powered compound heating and cooling
system for a house in Taiwanese golf course. As an adsorber, evaporator, and condenser, they
used plate fin and tube heat exchangers. A Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of their
experimental setup. They came to the conclusion that under normal circumstances COP of
0.37 and cooling power of 9kW were reached using hot water at 800°C, cold water at 300°C,
and chilled water at 140°C. SCP The system's power density was 72W/kg. They got CO of
0.403 and SCP of 7.79 kW in the field test. They discovered that sun heating has a 28.4
percent efficiency, adsorption cooling has a 45.2 percent efficiency, and solar cooling has a
45.2 percent efficiency 12.8 percent of the population. The temperature fluctuation of chilled

10
water outlet could be decreased by placing a small buffer tank after the adsorption chiller's
chilled water outlet.

Miyazaki et al. [9] reported a study of a new cycle time allocation to improve the
performance of silica gel-water based adsorption chillers. The new cycle time helped to
reduce the variations in delivered chilled water. The adsorption isotherm of RD-type silica
get-water pair was described using Freundlich mathematical modeling. The improved cycle
time allocation offered allowed for continuous cooling throughout the cycle without
sacrificing the pre-heating/pre-cooling effect. The new cycle time was effective for both
RDtype silica gel-water and CaCl2-in-silica gel water pairings, according to their simulation
results, and the cooling capacity was raised by up to 6%. In addition, their improved cycle
allocation time enhances the system's COP.

S. Li and J.Y. Wu [10] designed a two-bed silica gel–water adsorption chiller for an unique
micro CCHP system. A transient model of an adsorption chiller was built to illustrate the
chiller characteristic in their system. The presented model, when compared to simulated and
experimental data, performs well in forecasting chiller performance with both steady and
fluctuating heat source temperatures. The average value and variable rate of electric load had
a substantial impact on capacity and the chiller's coefficient of performance (COP). The
performance of the chiller is also influenced by the water tank. In order to gain greater
performance and a faster start-up time, a 500-liter water tank was recommended. A cold
accumulator should be used to improve performance while also increasing security.

Chen et al. [11] designed an adsorption chiller with two adsorption chambers, a desorption
chamber, and a cooled water tank. Because the thermal conductivity of silica gel is low, heat
transfer occurs at a slow rate, and they discovered hygroscopic salt in the pores of silica gel to
improve the COP of the adsorption system. Finned tube heat exchangers, condensers, and
evaporators are employed in this finned tube heat exchanger. After this study, they can
establish the ideal cycle time using the observational table. For 720s cycle timing, the average
hot water temperature, cooling water temperature, and chilled water temperature are 78.5,
31.5, and 10.5 degrees Celsius, respectively. The COP is 0.45 as a result of this. A solar water
heating unit, a silica gel water adsorption chiller, a cooling tower, and a fan coil unit were
created by Luo et al. [12]. Glass evacuated tube collectors are used in the solar water heating
system. The temperature of the supplied hot water is the most crucial factor. The adsorption
chiller used in this study consists of two identical adsorption units and a second evaporator

11
that uses methanol as a working fluid. Two absorber units are employed for continuous
output. The vaporized methanol rises and is condensed by the second evaporator, creating a
cascade effect. As a result, the second unit uses adsorption technology to evaporate the water
utilized in the evaporator and provide cooling. Scientists conducted a series of tests and
discovered that the efficiency of the adsorption chiller is influenced by the water heating unit
and the adsorber bed capacity, both of which have various influencing elements.

The following conclusion is drawn from the experimental inquiry.

1. The cooling water flow rate determines the optimum heat and mass recovery time.

2. For this solar-powered adsorption chiller experiment, the appropriate mass recovery time is
60-180 seconds, the heat recovery time is 720-900 seconds, the hot water temperature is 65-
85 degrees Celsius, and the evaporator temperature is 10-15 degrees Celsius.

3. As the temperature of the chilled water input rises, the COP rises as well.

4. They discovered that the system's optimum COP is 0.1-0.3 under these conditions.

Zhang et al. [13] employed a lumped parameter model to build a solar-driven and Silica gel-
water adsorption chiller.

They found that an open circulation of hot water for a short time is better than a closed
circulation of hot water for a long duration in this study. Scientists discovered that when the
generating temperature is less than or equal to 65°C, the cycle timing is long for best
production and highest COP. For the purpose of obtaining the outcome, they made several
assumptions. The system's cop fluctuates from 0.30-0.45 for the 10-15 'C of the evaporator
and 1100s cycle timing. The greatest COP is reached when a stable heat source is present and
the hot water is circulated in a closed loop. If the stable source is absent, the beginning
temperature has a greater impact on the COP.

According to Wang et al. [14], adsorption degradation must have a significant impact on the
performance of the silica gel–water adsorption refrigeration system. Many various silica gel
samples were created according to the application circumstances of silica gel in adsorption
refrigeration systems to investigate the adsorption deterioration of silica gel. Following that,
the primary elements that contribute to such degradation were investigated. They examined
the samples' specific surface area, silanol concentration, adsorption capacity, and pore size
distribution. The matching adsorption isotherms were determined based on the test results.

12
When comparing experimental results, it was discovered that a variety of factors influenced
the silica gel's adsorption performance, with pollution being the most important. Furthermore,
after being treated with an acid solution, the adsorption performance of the damaged samples
was restored.

The key equations for constructing a novel empirical lumped analytical simulation model for
commercial 450 kW two-bed silica gel-water adsorption chillers integrating mass and heat
recovery techniques were presented by Ahmed R.M. Rezk and Raya K. Al-Dadah [15]. The
goal of their article is to investigate the impact of operating temperatures on chiller
performance as well as the potential of using regeneration temperature lift as a control tool.
The impact of cycle time on chiller performance for various operating modes, as well as the
usage of a Genetic Algorithm to calculate the best cycle time based on cooling capacity. The
adsorbent bed heat exchanger in their research setup was made of plain copper tubes with
aluminum rectangular fins, with silica gel grains packed between the fins. Shell and tube heat
exchangers were used for the evaporator and condenser, with the refrigerant flowing on the
shell side and the secondary fluid (water) flowing inside the tubes. Plain copper tubes were
used for the condenser heat exchanger, whereas externally enhanced high efficiency finned
copper tubes were used for the evaporator. They discovered that using generating temperature
lift as a load control tool is encouraged by Chiller COP and efficiency behaviours. At a
cooling water temperature of 35 °C, for example, the chiller cooling capacity grew practically
linearly (from 180 to 342 kW) as the generating temperature lift was increased (from 40 to 65
K). The COP (from 0.63 to 0.60) and efficiency (from 0.68 to 0.52) of the chiller were both
reduced only slightly. The optimum ads/des, mass recovery, and heat recovery time periods
were determined to be 345, 12 and 14 seconds, respectively. The optimum cycle time
corresponding to maximum cooling capacity was determined using a Genetic Algorithm
optimization tool, and the revised cycle time boosted chiller cooling capacity by 8.3%.

A two-stage Si-Water adsorption desalination (AD) and chiller system was presented by
Mitra et al. [16]. They developed a mathematical relationship for the RD-type silica gel +
water pair based on mass and energy conservation, as well as isotherms and kinetics. With
the use of the LDF model, they were able to anticipate the dynamic characteristics of the
adsorber bed. They used the LMTD approach to model the heat exchanger's dynamics. They
added interstate pressure as a new parameter for enhancing the AD chiller system's two-stage
functioning. Because of its increased thermal inertia, the high-pressure stage-2 adsorber's
transient response is slower than the low-pressure stage-1 adsorber, according to their

13
findings. A similar trend was observed in the fluctuation of Specific Cooling Capacity and
Specific Daily Water Production with cycle time. In their experiment, the COP grew as the
cycle time increased.

El-Sharkawy et al. [17] examined the performance of a Si-H2O based Adsorption cooling
system under Middle Eastern climate conditions. They chose Cairo and Aswan in Egypt's
north and south, respectively, as well as Jeddah in Saudi Arabia. They demonstrated the
dynamic behaviour of a two-bed adsorption chiller with a compound parabolic solar
collector. They employed two different configurations for their systems:

(1) The Solar Collector was directly connected to the Adsorption chiller.

(2) Between the Chiller and the Collector, a hot water buffer storage system was constructed.

They created a mathematical model and programmed it in MATLAB. A total cycle time of
900 seconds and a switching time of 45 seconds were used in the simulation. The temperature
of the solar collector was 35-87°C, the temperature of the adsorber reactors was 35-87°C, and
the temperature of the evaporator was roughly 10°C. About 2.5 hours before sunset, the cycle
COP and solar COP achieved their maximum values of 0.50 and 0.3, respectively. Under the
climate conditions of Cairo and Jeddah, the chiller's average cooling capacity was around
14.8 kW, while the value for Aswan was around 15.8 kW. The temperature of a solar
collector for a chiller without buffer storage rose quicker than the temperature of a chiller
with buffer storage, reaching a peak at noon was 90 c. Similarly, between 14:00 and 15:00,
the temperature of a chiller with hot water buffer storage reached its maximum of 82°C. At
noon, the chiller's cooling capacity without hot water buffer storage reached a maximum of
14.6 kW. Similarly, this figure was 13 kW for another system, which was obtained between
14:00 and 15:00. The chiller without hot water buffer storage has no cooling impact in the
morning, but the chiller with hot water buffer storage produces a 5 kW cooling effect at 8:00.
In comparison to the chiller without hot water buffer storage, the chiller with hot water buffer
storage produced less variable cooling energy. Cooling capacity was increased by using a
chiller with a hot water buffer storage system. Based on the findings, the chiller with hot
water buffer storage increased daily average cooling capacity by up to 12% and daily COP
by up to 9% on average.

According to Mitra et al. [18], if air cooled heat rejection is used under tropical conditions, a
single-stage adsorption based cooling cum-desalination system cannot be used, but this can
be achieved by operating a silica gel + water adsorption chiller first in a single-stage mode

14
and then in a 2-stage mode with 2 beds/stage in each case. They constructed a two-stage,
four-bed Si-H2O adsorption cooling and desalination system. The condenser pressure in their
adsorption chiller was 10 kPa, and the evaporator pressure was 1-1.7 kPa. They concluded
that pressure rises were bigger and temperature swings were smaller in the two-stage system.
They found that the simulated bed pressure differed from the experimentally determined bed
pressure acquired by numerical modelling. They stated that the COP was at its highest during
the half-cycle period of 1800s. They discovered that as evaporator pressure rises, COP rises
as well.

The performance of a fin-tube type adsorption chiller was numerically investigated by Hong
et al. [19]. They created a two-dimensional axisymmetric transient model and tested the
effects of ten various factors, including fin thickness, fin height, fin pitch, diffusion
coefficient, particle size, cycle time, cycle ratio, hot water temperature, fluid velocity, and
porosity. Using analysis of variance, they discovered the ideal chiller condition (ANOVA).
The most important factors determining COP were fin thickness and fin pitch, with
contributions of 48.67 percent and 26.94 percent, respectively. Lowering the fin thickness
resulted in a higher COP since the thermal mass was reduced and the amount of adsorbent
increased, which enhanced Cooling energy. The COP is increased by increasing the fin pitch.
Because higher porosity lowered intra-particle resistance, increased intra-mass transfer
capacity, and hence increased adsorption in bed, COP increased with increasing porosity.
When the temperature of the incoming water rises, the chiller's COP drops. However, up to
an optimal temperature of 80°C, COP increased because the increase in heat supply to the
adsorber bed is minor compared to the cooling effect gained from the evaporator as the hot
water temperature climbed. After 80°C, the coefficient of performance (COP) declined. The
hot water temperature had the greatest impact on the chiller's SCP (74.02 percent) out of all
ten variables. The chiller's SCP grew as the hot water temperature rose. This occurred
because when the temperature of the hot water rose, the heat transfer capacity increased,
which boosted the desorption ability. As the cycle time grew, the heat and mass transfer
capacity rose, as did the time for adsorption and desorption, resulting in a greater chiller
COP. However, as the cycle time grew, the chiller's SCP decreased. The COP of the chiller
increased as the particle size fell because smaller particles had less intra-particle resistance.
SCP dropped as fin height grew due to the larger volume of the adsorption bed created by the
increasing fin height, reducing heat and mass transfer capacity. The fin height had no effect
on COP. SCP increased when the Diffusion Coefficient increased due to improved

15
intraparticle mass transfer capacity, resulting in a higher adsorption quantity. The
confirmation studies yielded COP 0.6782 and 217.68 W/kg SCP when all of the optimum
levels were combined.

Adsorption technology was employed by Youssef, an et al. [20], which required two adsorber
beds, an evaporator, and a condenser. Seawater can vaporise at low temperatures and low
pressures in the evaporator, and that vapour is transferred to the adsorber bed, where it can
adsorb in silica gel, and at desorption time from the hot water circulation, the pressure rises,
The temperature of the condenser and evaporator in this work ranges from 10 to 30 degrees
Celsius, and the hot and cold temperatures are 85 and 30 degrees Celsius, respectively. The
system has a COP of 0.45 and a cycle time of 425s. Scientists discovered that as the
condenser temperature dropped or the evaporator temperature rose, the COP reached its peak.
changing the vapour to a liquid, which then passes through the condenser and is cooled. So
that's how the desalination cycle works.

Four distinct types of adsorber beds were tested by Zhua et al [21]. They discovered that the
size of the vehicle radiator utilised as the adsorber bed had an impact on performance. As a
result, they worked on all four types of adsorber beds at the same time in this project. As seen
in tables 2 and 3, as the vehicle radiator is increased, the system's dead volume decreases, and
dead volume indicates that vapour is trapped in the adsorber bed, requiring more energy. By
boosting heat and mass transferability and lowering the proportion of dead volume, the COP
of the adsorption refrigeration system has significantly improved. The system's maximum
COP is 0.30 for evaporator temperature of 10-15 ºC.

Najeh et al. [22] devised an experimental setup that included an internal combustion gas
engine (co-generator), a refrigerating adsorption machine, thermal solar collectors, and a
timber structure divided into two compartments, one cold and one hot, with chilling ceilings
and heating floors. They devised a model for simulation. It was put to the test in terms of
experimental measurements Their research focuses on the numerical analysis of refrigeration.
systems with silica gelwater pair with SIMULINK. They discovered the COP and
refrigeration power of the refrigerator through experimentation. The ENERBAT technology
platform supplied experimental measurements that allowed a simulation model to be fine-
tuned. The model was global, allowing the modification of physical factors such as
temperature and pressure in each machine component to be tracked during the cold

16
manufacturing, as the mass of water vapour adsorbed Their model's numerical results were
associated in line with experimental findings.

In Bangalore, India, Jaiswal et al. [23] investigated the dynamic performance of a single-
stage, two-bed SI-Water adsorption chiller. Evacuated Tube Collector was used. They used
daily averages of the solar coefficient of performance (DACOPsol) and cooling capacity to
assess system performance (DACC). Using the right solar collector area and cycle time, both
of these parameters would be maximised. They discovered that the CACC rises as the solar
collector area grows as the hot water inlet temperature rises. When the cycle period for a
fixed collection area was doubled, a similar impact was seen. The CACC is practically
constant throughout mid-day when the hot water inlet temperature hits its maximum
permissible limit of 950C, as well as a very large collector area or long cycle duration. For a
fixed cycle time, the DACC grew as the solar collector area increased. However, for a given
solar collector area, it reached an optimum at a particular cycle time, after which it began to
decline due to a hot water inlet temperature limit. Because hot water hits 950C depends on
the collector area and irradiance, the ideal cycle time varied with changes in the collector area
and the month of operation. Regardless of cycle duration, the maximum DACOPsol reduced
as collector area increased. For successful operation of a solar-driven adsorption chiller
directly linked to the collector field without thermal storage, the collector area size and cycle
time were critical parameters.

17
CHAPTER -2 Present Work

18
 Present Work

A novel two-bed system adsorption system is designed with solar energy and designed with
solar energy and adsorbent bed design is modified description of purposed model is given
below: -

System description

The performance of a single bed adsorption cooling system is worse since it is intermittent.
To alleviate the intermittency of a single bed system, a two-bed solar adsorption cooling
system is presented. Figure 1 depicts a schematic of the proposed SAC system. A common
condenser, evaporator, expansion valve, two adsorbent beds, and a parabolic solar
concentrator make up the SAC system. The hot water from the solar concentrator initially
raises the temperature of adsorbent bed 1 (B1), causing the vapour pressure of the adsorbed
refrigerant in B1 to rise to the condensing pressure (Pcon). When B1 reaches Pcon, valve V1
opens, allowing desorbed vapour to enter into the condenser and be liquefied by cooling
water. The expansion device is then used to expand the high-pressure liquid refrigerant. The
low-pressure refrigerant travels from the expansion device to the evaporator, where it collects
latent heat from the chilled water and is transformed to vapour. Through valve V4, low-
pressure vapour refrigerant enters adsorbent bed 2 (B2). The valves V2 and V3 are closed
during this procedure. By opening valves V3 and V2 during the next cycle, B2 undergoes
desorption and B1 undergoes adsorption, the system creates a continual cooling effect.
Valves H1 and C1 control the flow of hot and cold water to the adsorption bed, respectively.
During the cycle, the status of the valve and the flow of water through the bed are described.

The suggested SAC system's thermodynamic working cycle is depicted in an ideal

Clapeyron diagram as seen in its operating process in Fig. 2. Isosteric heating (process 12),
isobaric desorption (process 23), isosteric cooling (process 34), and isothermal adsorption
(process 41) are the four processes that make up the proposed system's complete cycle. The
pressure of B1 varies from the evaporator pressure (Peva) to the condenser pressure (12)
during the procedure (Pcon). B1 reaches a desorption temperature of Tgen at state point 2.
The vapour refrigerant is desorbed from the bed and heated until the maximum cycle
19
temperature (Tmax) is attained in process 23. B1 is now subjected to isosteric cooling and
takes path 34. (Fig. 2). B1 achieves temperature equilibrium with the ambient (T 4=Tam) at
the end of the process, and the system reaches its minimum cycle pressure (Pmin). As shown
in Fig. 2, B2 now adsorbs the vapour refrigerant at a constant temperature (isothermal
adsorption process 41). The process is reversed in the next cycle, with B2 following the path
1234 and B1 following the isothermal adsorption process 41. The cycle 1234-1 is followed
by a conventional intermittent system with constant pressure desorption/adsorption, whereas
the suggested system uses isobaric desorption and isothermal adsorption.

Fig. 2.1. A two bed adsorption cooling system

20
 Fig. 2.2 Clapeyron diagram of the proposed two-bed solar adsorption cooling cycle.

Baseline Parameters
Table.1. The baseline parameters considered in the present work.

Parameter Numerical value Parameter Numerical value

Tmax 950C Cac 0.711 J.kg.K-1
Tcon 450C Cmc 0.480 J.kg.K-1
Tev 50C Cref 2.4 J.kg.K-1
Tam 330C Ccwai 4.2 J.kg.K-1
Tcwai 330C ε 0.74
D 1.176*10-6 K-2 mac 16 kg
X0 0.797*10-3 m3 mmc 16 kg
n 2 ρ 7000 kg.m-3
R 180.48 J.kg.K-1 ρ 2200 kg.m-3

21
CHAPTER-3 Mathematical Modelling

22
 MODELLING FOR TWO BED SYSTEM

The most widely accepted adsorption equilibrium model is the Dubinin-Astakhov (D-A)
model, which is primarily utilised in activated carbon microporous adsorbents. In activated
carbon, adsorption mass is mainly determined by adsorption temperature and pressure
(Dubinin et al., 1971; Dubinin and Astakhov, 1971) and is given by

X (T, P) = ρl (T) X0 exp [ -D (Tln ((P sa (T )/ P) )n] (1)

where D is the structural constant that is most affected by adsorbent-refrigerant pairings, X0

is the maximum adsorption capacity, P is the adsorbent-refrigerant pair's equilibrium
pressure, and Psa (T) and l (T) are the adsorbate saturation pressure and density, respectively.

The volume fragment of the refrigerant phase at equilibrium was obtained via

ρac
ψ∗ = X (T, P) (1 − ε) (2)
ρl (T )
where ε and ρac are the total adsorption bed porosity and material density of solid adsorbent,
respectively.

In the adsorbent bed, the maximum or initial adsorbate concentration is provided by

Xmax = X (Tam, Peva) = X (Tgen, Pcon) (3)

The following equation determines the minimum or final adsorbate concentration in the
adsorbent bed.

Xmin = X (Tmax, Pcon) = X (Tad, Pmin) (4)

where Tgen and Tad are temperatures at the starting point of desorption and adsorption of
refrigerant from the bed, respectively.

The adsorbate concentration (ethanol) is determined throughout the desorption or adsorption

process.

Xmax−min= Xmax − Xmin (5)

23
During adsorption process, the evaporator pressure is Peva = Psa(Teva), and in desorption
process, the condensing pressure is given by Pcon = Psa(Tcon). By rearranging Eq. (1) the
pressure P of the system is obtained by an explicit formula.

[ ( )]
1
1 X (T )ρl
lnP = lnPsa (T) - T * 1 ln 0
n
(6)
D X

Differentiating Eq. (1) (by keeping temperature constant and at varying pressure) gives

( )[ ( )]
n−1
∂X T T∗P sa
∂P
= nXD ¿ Tln (7)
P T

Then differentiating Eq. (1) (by keeping the pressure constant and at varying temperature)
gives

( )[ ( )] [( ) ]
n−1
∂X dln∗T∗ρl T∗P sa T∗Psa dln∗T∗P sa
∂T
=X - nXD T ¿ Tln * ln +T (8)
dT P T P dT

Desorption is an endothermic process, whereas adsorption is an exothermic one. The amount

of heat required to desorb/adsorb a unit mass of ethanol is known as the isosteric
desorption/adsorption heat (H). To determine the heat per unit mass of ethanol, use the
Clausis-Clapeyron equation:

∆ H =Re∗T
2
( ∂lnP
∂T ) X =C
(9)

Differentiating Eq. (6) gives

( [ ])
−n
∂lnP ∂ P sa P sa 1 1 ∂ ln ⁡(T ) ρl Psa
∂T
= + ln − Tln (10)
∂T P T nD ∂T P

Substituting Eq. (10) in (9), the change in isosteric heat of adsorption/desorption is obtained
as a function of temperature and is given by

[ ]
1−n
∆ H =Re∗T 2
( ∂lnP
∂T )
+ Re Tln
Psa ( T ) Re T ∂ ln ρl (T )
P
−
nD ∂T
Tln
P sa (T )
T
(11)

24
Thermodynamic analysis of SAC system

The following assumptions are used in the thermodynamics analysis of the SAC system:

(i) Adsorption occurs at a constant temperature (ambient) and a variable adsorbent bed
pressure.

(ii) The coefficient of heat transport and the specific heat are constant.

(iii) There is no heat loss to the environment from the outside (bed is well insulated).

(iv) The refrigerant vapour is a perfect gas.

(a) Isosteric heating (process 1→2)

During this process, adsorbent bed is preheated at a constant concentration of adsorbate in
the bed. The total sensible heat Q1 →2 added to the system is given by

Q
1 →2
= Q1ac→2+ Q1mc→2+ Q1ref→2 (12)

where Q 1ac→2 , Q 1mc→2 and Q 1ref→2 are sensible heats of adsorbent medium, metal cover, and
adsorbate, respectively.

(b) Isobaric heating - desorption (process 2→3)

During this phase, the adsorption reactor goes through a desorption process at condenser
pressure, which lowers the adsorbate (Xmax) in the activated carbon decreases to a
T gen

Q 1 →2
ac = ∫ mac C ac dT = macCac [Tgen − Tad] (13)
T ad

T gen

Q
1 →2
mc = ∫ mmc C mc dT = mmcCmc [Tgen − Tad] (14)
T ad

T gen

= ∫ mac X max Cref dT = [Tgen − Tad] (15)

T ad

minimum value (Xmin). Total heat input (Q2→3) during this process is given as the sum of
heat given to the adsorbent medium ( Q2ac→3 ), metal cover (Q2mc→3 ), adsorbate ( Q2ref→3 ) and
heat of desorption (Q2des→3 ). It is an endothermic process.

25
 Then,

2 →3 2 →3 2 →3
Q2 →3 = Q ac + Qmc + Qref (16)
T max

Q 2 →3
ac = ∫ mac Cac dT = macCac [Tmax – Tgen] (17)
T gen

T max

Q
2 →3
mc = ∫ mmc Cmc dT = mmcCmc [Tmax – Tgen] (18)
T gen

T max T max

Q
2 →3
ref = ∫ mac X Cref dT =mac C ref ∫ XdT (19)
T gen T gen

[ ]
T max
∂X
= -mac ∫ ∆ H dT (20)
T gen
∂T P=C

where Q 2des→3 is the heat required to desorb the differential amount of ethanol from the
activated carbon.

During the process 1→2→3, heat input to the system is given by

Q1¿ →2 → 3= Q1→2 + Q2→3 (21)

(c) Isosteric cooling (process 3→4)

The adsorbent bed is cooled at a constant concentration (Xmin). During this process, total
heat liberated (Q3→4) from the system is given by

Q
3→4
= Q3ac→ 4+ Q3mc→ 4+ Q3ref→ 4 (22)
3→ 4 3→4 3→4
where Q ac , Q mc and Qref are sensible heats of adsorbent medium, metal cover and
adsorbate, respectively.

T max

Q
3→4
ac = ∫ mac Cac dT = macCac [Tmax – Tad] (23)
T ad

T max

Q
3→4
mc = ∫ mmc Cmc dT = mmcCmc [Tmax – Tad] (24)
T ad
T max

Q 3ref→ 4= ∫ mac X Cref dT =mac X min Cref [ T max−T ad ] (25)

T ad

26
(d) Isothermal adsorption (process 4→1)
In this process, B2 adsorbs the vapour refrigerant, which leaves the evaporator at a steady
temperature, increasing the mass of ethanol in B2. from X min to Xmax. Total heat rejected
(Q4→1) is given by

Q4→1 = Qad (26)

[ ]
Pev
∂X
Q
4→1
ad = m ac ∫ ∆ H dP (27)
Pmin
∂P T ad

where Q 4ad→ 1is the heat required to accumulate the varying quantity of ethanol in the
activated carbon.

Temperature at the beginning of desorption process (Tgen) of

thermodynamic cycle can be obtained from

T am T con
Tgen = T eva
(28)

(e) Condenser
The desorbed refrigerant enters the condenser and is condensed by rejecting its
latent heat of condensation. In the condenser, the refrigerant is first de-
superheated, and then the latent heat of condensation is removed. As a result, the
total heat rejected in the condensation process is

[ ]
T max
∂X
Qcon=mac(Xmax−Xmin)+Lref+macCre ∫ ( T con −T ) ∂ T dT (29)
T con
Pcon

(f) Expansion process

In the expansion process, total energy is persevered by the adsorbate. Thus, after
the expansion process, wetness fraction y of adsorbate is represented as
(T ¿¿ am)−hfl (T eva )
y=1- h fl Lref ¿ ¿
¿ (30)

where hfl(Teva) and hfl(Tam) are specific enthalpies of saturated liquid adsorbate at
evaporator and atmospheric temperatures, respectively. L ref(Teva) the latent heat of

27
 vapourization of adsorbate at the evaporator temperature. 1 − y represents the
fraction of liquid adsorbate evaporated.
(g) Evaporator
The cooling load is given by
Qeva = mac (Xmax − Xmin) yLref(Teva) (31)

(h) Energy balance of the SAC system

Total heat energy added (Qadd) and rejected (Qreje) from the entire system is given
by

Qadd = Q1→2 + Q2→3 + Qeva (32)

Qreje = Q3→4 + Q4→1 + Qcon (33)

Performance indices of SAC system

Performance of SAC system is defined in terms of (a) coefficient of performance

(COPsy), (b) cooling power (CPsy), (c) specific cooling power (SCPsy), (d) effective
refrigerant mass (mef), (f) refrigerant mass consumption efficiency (ηrm) and (g)
total amount of chilled water.
(a) Coefficient of performance (COPsy): It describes how effectively the input
energy is converted into useful cooling effect (Qeva).

Qeva
COPsy = (34)
Q¿
(b) Cooling power (CPsy): Performance of the system is assessed by its cooling
power. It can be written as:

Qeva
CPsy= (35)
Operatingtime ofan adsorption bed∗3600
(c) Specific cooling power (SCPsy): Depending on the system capacity, the
cooling capacity varies from one to the other system. In order to measure
the efficiency of adsorption cooling system under different sizes, specific
cooling power (SCPsy) is used. It is defined as the ratio of cooling
capacity of the system to unit mass of adsorbent in adsorbent bed.

28
 CP sy
SCPsy = m (36)
ac

(d) Effective refrigerant mass (mef): This is the mass of adsorbate that
contributes to the evaporator's refrigerating effect. The entire mass of
adsorbate cycled through the condenser and evaporator is defined as mef.
This is provided by
mef = mac (Xmax − Xmin) (37)

(e) Mass consumption efficiency of refrigerants (rm): It can be stated as the

ratio of effective adsorbate mass to the gross adsorbate mass (mac)
necessary to charge the system.
mef X min
ηrm= m X =1- X (38)
ac max max

(f) Mass of chilled water (Teva ≥ 00C): It can be expressed as

Qeva
mcwa= C (T −T ) (39)
cwai cwai eva

29
CHAPTER-4 Results and Discussions

30
 Results and discussions

This paper presents a first-law analysis of a SAC system with an isothermal adsorption
mechanism. Energy equilibrium The SAC system is modelled using equations (12) through
(33) Thermodynamic and transport parameters of ethanol are based on REFPROP-NIST
reference fluid properties (Johnson, 2013). The proposed SAC system is mathematically
modelled in the Engineering equation solver code (EES) environment using the baseline
values listed in Table 1. The goal of this research is to determine how much energy is created
in each component of the system when adsorption occurs isothermally. The total heat energy
added (Qadd) to the entire system has been determined to be 11057 kJ, while 10985 kJ of
heat is rejected (Qreje) during the cycle. As a result, the relative error is 0.65%, which is
quite low and confirms the accuracy of the study.

The input heat distribution within the adsorbent bed components is depicted in Figure 4
Desorption of the refrigerant consumes the majority of the heat input, 66.01 percent. During
the process 1223, 14.21 percent of the total heat added to the system is used for sensible
heating of the refrigerant, 12.58 percent for heating of the adsorbent bed, and the remaining
7.2 percent is utilised for sensible heating of the metal cover of the bed. For a four-hour
cycle, the maximum COP obtained was 0.68. At 5°C, an adsorption chiller generates 35.41
kg of chilled water with a cooling impact of 4164 kJ, or 2.21 kg of chilled water per
kilogramme of activated carbon. The cooling power and specific cooling power of the system
are 289.16 W and 9.04 W.kg-1, respectively.

31
 HEAT INPUT=6882.96 KJ

D; 495.57; 7%
C; 865.88; 13%

B; 978.07; 14%

A; 4543.44; 66%

A- Isosteric heating or desorption C- Sensible heating of activated carbon

B- Sensible heating of refrigerant D-Sensible heating of metal cover
Fig.4 Input heat distribution within the adsorbent bed components.

4.1. Adsorbent bed pressure-temperature correlation

Figure 4.1 depicts the relationship between adsorbent bed pressure and cycle temperature.
The pressure of the adsorbent bed rises from 2.01 kPa in the evaporator to 23.1 kPa in the
condenser during isosteric heating (12). When the bed hits 78°C, the refrigerant begins to
desorb, and the process continues until the maximum cycle temperature is reached (Tmax).
The pressure pattern on curve 34 (isosteric cooling) is dropping. At the end of this operation,
the lowest cycle pressure obtained was 0.361 kPa. The isothermal adsorption curve 41 depicts
the system's adsorption behaviour at constant temperature.

32
 25
Variation of adsorbent bed pressure with cycle
Isoteric heating temperature
Isobaric heating
20
Isothermal cooling
Isosteric cooling

15
Pressure P [kpa]

10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature, T[ ºC ]

Fig. 4.1 - Variation of adsorbent bed pressure with cycle temperature.

4.2. Influence of adsorption bed temperature on the adsorbate concentration ratio and volume
fraction
The effect of the adsorbate concentration ratio with cycle temperature at equilibrium is
shown in Fig 4.2. The adsorbate concentration ratio ranges from a maximum of 0.3874
kg.kg1 to a minimum of 0.0978 kg.kg1, and the corresponding quantity of refrigerant
adsorbed is calculated to be 6.20 kg and 1.56 kg, respectively, during this cycle. As a result,
the effective refrigerant mass cycling through this system is 4.63 kg, and the refrigerant mass
consumption efficiency (using Eq. (38) is 74.85%.

Figure 4.2 depicts the adsorbate phase volume fraction in relation to cycle temperature. The
fraction of adsorbed volume varies continually during the adsorption process, as illustrated in
Fig.4.2. A slight variation in the fraction of adsorbate refrigerant volume is observed in both
isosteric heating and cooling operations. Due to the decrease in adsorbed refrigerant density
in the adsorbent bed, the refrigerant volume fraction increases with increasing temperature in
the isosteric preheating process. Similarly, when the volume percentage of the refrigerant
falls and the adsorbent bed temperature decreases, the density of the adsorbed refrigerant

33
increases. The maximum and minimum volume fractions obtained in the foregoing operations
are 0.304 and 0.072, respectively, according to Eq. (2).

Adsorbate concentration ratio with cyclr temperature

0.4
Adsorbate concentration ratio at equilibrium X [KgKg-

0.35 Isosteric heating

Isobaric heating
0.3
Isosteric cooling

0.25 Isothermal adsorption

0.2
1]

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Temprature, T[ºC]

Fig 4.2 Adsorbate concentration ratio with cycle temperature.

4.3. Evolution of the effective mass of refrigerant desorbed/adsorbed during the isobaric
heating /isothermal adsorption process
Figure 4.3 shows the influence of desorption temperature on the effective mass of refrigerant
desorbed during the isobaric desorption process (23) The rate of refrigerant desorbed from
the adsorbent bed reaches its highest valve during isobaric heating, as is clear. Desorption
rate increases continually as bed temperature rises, eventually reaching a minimum value that
is maintained at minimum concentration and maximum cycle temperature. During the
isothermal adsorption process (41) the influence of adsorbent bed pressure on the effective
mass of refrigerant adsorbed is shown in Fig.4.3. The rate of adsorption in isothermal
adsorption is increasing, and the reason for this is explained using the Langmuir adsorption
isotherm. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm, which is given by, describes the fluctuation of
adsorption with pressure.
where φ is the fraction of total available adsorption area that is occupied by the adsorbent, P
the pressure and K the adsorption equilibrium constant. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm
approaches KP at low pressure, and the fraction of refrigerant adsorbed varies linearly with

34
pressure in the first–order zone. When the partial pressure of the bed rises, adsorption
increases. However, when pressure increases, the available adsorption surface reduces,
slowing the adsorption process. At high pressure, the Langmuir adsorption isotherm
approaches 1, suggesting that the adsorption surface area is limited, and the area occupied by
adsorbate is referred to as the zero-order zone. As a result, increasing the pressure does not
cause the adsorption process to speed up.

Adsorbate phase volume fraction with cycle tem-

perature
0.35
Isosteric heating
Isobaric heating
0.3 Isosteric cooling
Isothermal adsorption
AAdsorbate phase volume ψ*

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Temprature,T[ºC]

Fig.4.3 Adsorbate phase volume fraction with cycle temperature

4.4. Accumulated amount of specific energy added/removed during heating/cooling process

of adsorbent bed
Figure 4.5 shows the total amount of specific energy applied to the adsorbent bed during the
heating process. A total specific energy of 430.81 kJ.kg1 has triggered the adsorbent bed. A
part of total heat, 22.57 percent, is needed to elevate the bed temperature from ambient to
desorption during the preheating phase. The constant pressure desorption procedure took up
the remaining 77.43 percent. Figure 4.5 shows the rate of temperature increase during
isosteric heating, which is faster than that of isobaric heating in terms of time. The full input

35
energy was used for sensible heating of the bed during the isosteric heating process. During
the isobaric heating process, a large fraction of the total heat input was utilised for refrigerant
desorption. Figure 4.6 shows the total quantity of specific energy ejected from the adsorbent
bed during the cooling process, with a total heat energy rejection of 422.5 kJ.kg1. Only a
fraction of this energy, about 26.11 percent, is lost to the atmosphere during isosteric cooling
and is used by the bed to maintain its original ambient temperature.
The remainder of this energy was discharged from the bed to the environment during
isothermal adsorption.

5 3
Effective mass of refrigent desorbed, mddes

4 Isobaric heating (2-3)

3
[Kg]

2
0
70 80 90 100 110 120
Desorbtion temperature, T [0C]

Fig.4.4. Effect of desorption temperature on effective mass of refrigerant desorbed during

isobaric desorption process (2→3)

36
 Isothermal adsorption (4-- 1)
5 1

Effective mass of refrigerant adsorbed, mad [kg]

Isothermal adsorption

4
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25

Adsorbent pressure, P[kpa]

Fig.4.5. Effect of adsorbent bed pressure on effective mass of refrigerant adsorbed during
isothermal adsorption process (4→1).

500
Isosteric heating (1→2) Isobaric heating (2→3)
Specific driving energy [KJKg-1]

400

300

200

100

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temprature, T[0C]

Fig. 4.6. Accumulated amount of specific energy applied to the adsorbent bed during
the heating processes (1→2→3)

37
 500

Isostreic cooling (3-4)

400
Specific enegrgy removed, [KJkg-1]

Isothermal adsorbtion (4-1)

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Bed pressure, P [kPa]

Fig. 4.7. Accumulated amount of specific energy expelled from the adsorbent bed
during cooling processes (3→4→1)

4.5. Effect of maximum desorption temperature on the performance of the system

The influence of maximal desorption temperature on the cycle COPsy and SCPsy is
shown in Figure 4.8. When the system is operating at constant air temperature, the
COPsy of the system increases as the desorption temperature increases, reaches a
maximum value, and then progressively decreases. The internal desorption of the
refrigerant mass increases as the desorption temperature (Tmax) rises, enhancing the
refrigerating effect. As a result, before falling below the optimal desorption
temperature, the system's COPsy climbs to an optimal level. Throughout this process,
the energy required by the adsorber is used to improve the sensible heat of the system
components. As a result, raising COPsy above an optimal level is a lengthy and steady
process. The average COPsy calculated from the simulation for a maximum
desorption temperature of 95 °C is 0.68, as shown in Fig. 4.8. The influence of
maximum desorption temperature on chilled water outlet temperature and specific
cooling power is shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Figure 4.10 demonstrates that the
cooling impact increases dramatically from 889.4 kJ to 3231 kJ for desorption
temperatures of 80 to 95 °C, lowering the chilled water output temperature. The
refrigeration effect increases gradually as the driving heat source temperature climbs

38
over 95 °C due to an increase in desorbed refrigerant. The chilled water output
temperature lowers as the hot water inlet temperature rises, as seen in Fig. 4.10.
Because ethanol vapour desorbs faster at higher desorption temperatures, more
ethanol is adsorbed during the subsequent adsorption phase, lowering the chilled
water output temperature.
The effect of the maximum desorption temperature on the cycle's specific cooling
power is seen in Figure 3.11. The maximum desorption cycle temperature is one of
the decisive factors on the SCPsy. The increasing association between specific
coolingpower (SCPsy) and desorption temperature is due to a rise in desorption
temperature, which results in better desorption and hence greater adsorption
refrigeration efficacy.

Fig. 4.8. Effect of maximum desorption temperature on COPsy and refrigeration

effect.

39
 10

Activated carbon ethanol

Silica gel & water

Chilled water outlet temperature, Tcwao [0C]

8
Zeolite water

0
70 80 90 100 110
Maximum desorption temperature, Tmax [0C]

Fig 4.9. Effect of maximum desorption temperature on chilled water outlet temperature with
different adsorbate-adsorbent pair

10
Activated carbon ethanol
Silica gel & water
Specific cooling power,SCPsy [Wkg-1]

8 Zeolite water

0
70 80 90 100 110 120
Maximum desorption temperature, Tmax [0C]

Fig. 4.10. Effect of maximum desorption temperature on specific cooling power of the cycle
with different adsorbate-adsorbent pair.

40
 0.6
Activated carbon/ethanol Silica-gel/water Zeolite 13X-CaCl2/water

0.5
Cofficient of performance , COP

0.4

0.3

0.2
70 80 90 100 110 120

Max desorption temperature, Tmax (C)

Fig 4.11 Effect of maximum desorption temperature on coefficient of performance on

the cycle with different adsorbate-adsorbent pair

Comparison of COP’s and SCP of different adsorbent/adsorbate pair

It displays a comparison between the current work and previous research. The COPsy of the
system achieved in this study is approximately 13.23% greater than that reported by Saha et
al (2007). The rate of refrigerant adsorption rises in the isothermal adsorption process,
resulting in faster refrigerant desorption and improved system refrigeration. In Fig 4.12 and
4.13, comparisons with Tso et al. (2012), Ghilen Najeh et al. (2017), and Sadeghlu et al.
(2014) are also shown in

41
 0.8

0.7
0.68
0.6
0.59
0.5
0.5
0.4
COP

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
Activated carbon ethanol Silica gel & Water Zeolite water

COP

Fig 4.12 – It shows the different COP of adsorbent/adsorbate pair

10
9
8
7
6
5
SCP

4
3
2
1
0
Activated carbon ethanol Silica gel & Water Zeolite water

Series1 SCP(in W/Kg)

Fig 4.13 – It shows the SCP of adsorbent / adsorbate pair

42
CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION

43
 Conclusion

This research looks at the performance of a two-bed solar adsorption system with isothermal
adsorption processes. The following conclusions are drawn from the current research.
a. The refrigeration effect, COPsy, and specific cooling power are all dependent on the
maximum desorption temperature. The system's greatest COPsy attained is 0.68. For an
isothermal adsorption process, the SCPsy of the system at the optimum desorption
temperature is 7.231 W.kg1.
b. Isothermal adsorption enhances COPsy and SCPsy by reducing the cycle time of the
adsorption cooling system. As a result, isothermal adsorption surpasses isobaric adsorption.
C The temperature of the bed determines the change in refrigerant volume fraction in the
isosteric heating/cooling process.
d. The desorption of adsorbate from the adsorbent bed consumes the majority of the heat
input to the system. It is projected to be 66.01 percent in this study.
e. The system's adsorbate concentration ratio ranges from 0.3874 kg.kg1 (highest) to 0.0978
kg.kg1 (lowest), equivalent to 6.20 kg and 1.56 kg of adsorbed refrigerant phase mass,
respectively. As a result, the system's refrigerant mass consumption efficiency is assessed to
be 74.85%.
f. The system's cooling impact grows as the maximum adsorption temperature rises.
g. The system's chilled water output temperature drops as the maximum adsorption
temperature rises.
h. The above adsorption cooling system studies are extremely useful in the design of
practical systems and provide a better understanding of heat energy distribution inside the
adsorbent bed.

44
CHAPTER-6 FUTURE SCOPE

45
 FUTURE SCOPE

 In places where air-conditioning with conventional techniques accounts for a

significant portion of peak electricity demand from the grid, SAC systems can help
reduce electricity infrastructure costs (and thus lower electricity tariffs). In locations
where energy infrastructure is insufficient to fulfil demand, it may also help to
maintain grid stability.
 The use of SAC systems may result in (primary) energy savings, reducing reliance on
scarce energy fuels, which must be imported in many countries.
 SAC systems may result in (primary) energy savings, reducing reliance on scarce
energy fuels, which in many countries must be imported.
 SAC systems with thermally driven cooling cycles have additional environmental
advantages because they typically use refrigerants that have no or very low ozone
depletion potential and no or very low global warming potential.
 SAC systems can also be utilised for any type of heating in a building or industry. The
vast solar collector field also produces heat for other reasons other than cooling,
reducing the need for fuel (or electricity) for heating.

46
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