SURVEYING

& LEVELLING

Lecture # 2
Methods of linear
measurements &
record of
measurements
.
METHODS OF LINEAR MEASUREMENT

1. PACING

For rough and speedy work

Distances are measured by pacing, i.e., by counting the
number of walking steps of a man/woman

The walking step of a man/woman on average is considered

as 2.5 ft or 80 cm

This method is generally employed in the reconnaissance

survey of any project
2. PASSOMETER
Counts the number of steps
automatically by some mechanical
device

It offers improvement over the

normal pacing method when a very
long distance is to be measured

3. SPEEDOMETER
These are used in automobiles for
recording the distances
4. PERAMBULATOR
It is wheel fitted with a fork
and handle

The wheel is graduated and

shows a distance per revolution

There is dial which records the

number of revolutions

The total distance can be

ascertained by the number of
revolutions and distance per
revolution
5. CHAINING
It is relatively accurate and common method of measuring
distance

In this method, the distances are directly measured in the

field by chain or tape
 ACCESSORIES FOR LINEAR MEASUREMENT

1. RANGING ROD
Ranging is the process of making 20 cm
a straight line

These rods are made up of 25 mm

seasoned timber/bamboo and
2m
sometimes G.I. pipes

The lower end of the rod is

normally pointed or provided X-section

with an iron shoe

2. CHAIN
A chain is prepared of galvanized mild steel of 4mm
diameter

Different types of chains and their characteristics are

given in the table below,

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF LENGTH OF TALLIES

CHAIN TYPE
LENGTH LINKS EACH LINK INTERVAL

20 m 100 0.2 m 10 links

Metric Chain
30 m 150 0.2 m 25 links

Engineers’ Chain 100 ft 100 1 ft 10 links

Gunters’ Chain 66 ft 100 0.66 ft ---------

Revenue chain 33 ft 16 2.06 ft ---------

 COMPONENTS OF A CHAIN

TALLIES

EYE BOLT BRASS RING

BRASS
HANDLE

ONE LINK ONE LINK

Advantages of using Chain
They can be read easily and quickly

They can withstand wear and tear

They can be easily repaired or rectified in field

Disdvantages of using Chain

They are quite heavy

They take too much time to open or fold

They become longer or shorter due to continuous use

When the measurement is taken in suspension, the chain
sags excessively
3. ARROWS
Arrows are made up of tempered steel
wire of diameter 4 mm
50 mm
One end of the arrow is bent into a ring
of 50 mm diameter

Over all length is 400 mm

Arrows are used for counting the
number of chains while measuring a
chain line
4. WOODEN PEGS
These are of square cross-section
of 1.5 in2
These are used to mark temporary
station points on ground for little
time

5. WOODEN MALLET
It is simply a wooden hammer used to
install wooden pegs
6. TAPES
CLOTH OR LINEN TAPE
 Such a tape is made of closely woven linen and is
varnished to resist moisture

 It is 15 mm wide and available in lengths of 10 to 15 m

METALLIC TAPE
 When linen tape is reinforced with brass or copper
wires to make it durable, then it is called metallic tape

 This type is available in lengths of 15, 20 and 30m

STEEL TAPE
 It is made of steel ribbon of width varying from 6 mm
to 16 mm

 It is commonly available in lengths of 10, 15, 20, 30

and 50 m

INVAR TAPE

 It is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%)

 Its thermal coefficient is very low, so, it is not
affected by change of temperature

 It is made in the form of ribbon of 6 mm width

 It is available in lengths of 30, 50 and 100 m

RANGING
The process of establishing intermediate points on a
straight line between two end points is known as ranging

Ranging must be done before a survey line is chained

Ranging may be done by observation by the naked eye or by
theodolite

Generally ranging is done by the naked eye with the help of

three ranging rods

Ranging may be of two kinds:

1. Direct ranging

2. Indirect/ reciprocal ranging

1. DIRECT RANGING

When intermediate ranging rods are fixed on a straight

line by direct observation from end stations, the
process is known as direct ranging

Direct ranging is possible when the end stations are

intervisible
2. INDIRECT RANGING

Indirect ranging is done when the end stations are not

intervisible

Such conditions usually exist when there is a high

ground between the end stations

Intermediate ranging rods, in such cases, are fixed on

the line in an indirect way
INDIRECT RANGING

Indirect ranging can be of two types

Reciprocal Ranging

Random Line Method

RECIPROCAL RANGING
Let A and B are the two end points whose distance is
required to be found and are not inter visible.
RECIPROCAL RANGING
To fix the intermediate points in a straight line between
these points, two more points say C and D are chosen in such
a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from D.
RECIPROCAL RANGING
Then, direct ranging is being carried out alternatively along
DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB lie in a
straight line.
RECIPROCAL RANGING
RECIPROCAL RANGING
RECIPROCAL RANGING
RANDOM LINE METHOD
A random line such as BQ is to be laid such that R is visible
from Q. A perpendicular QR is being erected at Q and
measure its distance.
RANDOM LINE METHOD
RANDOM LINE METHOD
Then the desired distance BR is being calculated using
distance formula.

In laying the line BR, intermediate points are established

first. These are laid by taking offset from the random line
at distances calculated by using the method of similar
triangle such as
CONCLUDED