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    10 views26 pages

    History of Physics

    Uploaded by

    inesh100

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 26
    mee neutral polythene stip sa cloth wanster of negative fuid (before aboing) (otter rubbing) + When a body is rubbed there is a transfer of one of the fluids from one body to the next * Like fluids repel and unlike fluids attract + Equal amounts of electric fluid rendered the body neutral This explained all the observations at the time but some doubt remained since a fluid should have mass and no change of mass could be detected experimentally, Real problems surfaced when experiments were cartied out in which the results could not be rationalised by fluid flow explanations. Around 1730, Stephen Gray found that the electric fluid (a current) could be transferred over fairly long distances by some materials but not by others. Thus, out of experimentation was born the distinction, “conductors and nonconductors’. The words “electric fluid “ are used here, not because it was the accepted theory but because the true nature of the electric phenomenon was not yet understood. The motion of the electric fluid or current was termed electricity. ‘ALLESANDRO VOLTA (1745-1827) Allesandro Volta discovered and invented the "voltaic pile”. This permitted the production of a steady flow of current for an extended period of time. ‘The full potential of this discovery could not be tapped because a real understanding was lacking. This, however, stimulated further work in this area. The Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, while performing a demonstration experiment before a small group of students, noticed that a compass needle was deflected when it was in the vicinity of a wire carrying an electric current. curcent cana A asteton Since the compass is a freely rotating magnet, it could only mean that the current was producing a magnetic effect. The intermixing of both electricity and magnetism clearly could not be explained by fluid flow theories alone. MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867) | Michael Faraday was born in 1791, the son of a London blacksmith. His first job, at the age of 13, was as an errand boy for a bookbinder. When he was 14 he became the bookbinder’s apprentice. A few years later he began to attend lectures at the Royal Institution where, in 1812, he heard the lectures of Sir Henry Davy. At the age of 22, Faraday became Davy's apprentice and eventually he became Director of the Institution. Although his early work was in chemistry, it was electrical research that occupied most of his life. From his experimentation, and an attempt to explain his observations, he developed the concept of field lines. i i ‘ { i motion Faraday used the field concept to explain and develop other systems, which would result in an induced current. His discovery of electromagnetic induction was the result of a 10-year search for the appropriate apparatus and technique. Faraday’s field concept helped greatly in the understanding of electromagnetism and later led to the revolutionary inventions of the transformer, the generator and the electric motor. After the discovery of the electron there was no longer the need to speculate about charged particles. The now apparent structure of the atom. consisting of an arrangement of protons, electrons and neutrons made way for the mechanism of electricity and magnetism to be explained. ELECTRICITY EXPLAINED + A body can have one of two types of charge — positive or negative, * A body is positively charged when it contains more protons than electrons. A body is negatively charged when it contains more electrons than protons. A body is neutral when it contains the same number of protons and electrons. * All bodies that are charged exhibit an electric field in which other charges experience a force. + When charges are in motion or there is a flow of charge, then a current flows, MAGNETISM EXPLAINED * Electrons while rotating about the nucleus can have two types of spin. Spin up ( |) and spin down (|). A region in which all the electrons are spinning in the same direction sets up magnetic dipoles and is called a domain. Only in certain materials called magnetic materials is it possible to have domains. When the domains are aligned, a magnetic field is set up and any ‘magnet or magnetic material experiences a force in the field. Normally in magnetic materials such as iron, there are domains but these are not aligned. magnetic dipoles domains In magnetic materials the domains are not aligned ‘+ Ina magnet the domains are aligned. In magnets the domains are aligned + When iron is brought close to a magnet the domains of the iron. become aligned and thus magnetism is induced, + When a current flows, the spin of the electrons are in the same Gicection and thus a magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor results xno =: ScIENTIFIC| METHOD INACTION: Theory 4 No theory apparent to ‘explain electroniagnetism: Innovation and Intuition: Faraday cteates the field concept to help in understanding electromagnetism ‘Experimental Research Faraday discovers electromagneticinduction ‘Tie field concept explains the observations and can.predict when an induced current is produced Se + The importance of innovation’ anid ieglinsh ¢ cannot be disiegaraea. ‘The good scientist not only uses the scientific:m: accent: eect idens bur ‘tmiust also be both creative and. eee ‘as meaning continual experimental illustrated in Faraday's work, ding solutions to problems. ‘iagnetic fields and an understanding of their ‘Ouz entire electrical and electronic 1 ig, homie appliances, industries, etc. _ Technological samc Bete Bon ont understand the. The ancient Greeks first suggested that matter consists of indivisible sles which the alle dat Although the the [The ancentGrecte | Patticles which they called atoms. Although they were correct, their views aoe e fsa’ | were ignored for more than 2000 years due to lack of evidence. It was not suggest an until the English chemist Dalton put forward his atomic theory in 1803 atomic theory that the concept of an atom was generally accepted. ‘The discovery of the electron and of radioactivity seemed to indicate that atoms contained negatively charged particles and were not indivisible as ‘was previously thought. The questions then were, “how are the particles arranged in the atom?" and “how many are there in the atom of each element?” ine In 1897 J. J. Thomson showed that different materials when heated give off ‘the same particles. These particles were negatively charged — later called ‘electrons. He also showed that the mass of these particles was much less than the mass of an atom, hence it must be 2 component. Since the overall atom was neutral, it meant that there was an equal amount of positive charge also. An early theory, proposed by Thomson, called the “plum-pudding” ‘model, regarded the atom as a positively charged sphere (pudding) in which the negative electrons were embedded (plums). Coming from the Caribbean and not being too familiar with the English plum-pudding, I prefer to think of a sweetbread with the positively charged sphere as the dough and the negatively charged electrons as the raisins ‘Thomson's atomic model postive sphere negative electrons 4 1 s T oO R Y The Geiger-Marsden ‘experiment bombards gold foil with o. particles. Rutherford deduces that the atom has a tiny dense nucleus containing all the positive charges. Eamon Ga7iE | Baron Rutherford of Nelson was a British physicist born in New Zealand, While investigating radioactivity Rutherford observed a peculiar phenomenon when particles were allowed to hit a gold foil in a vacuum. With the help of Geiger and Marsden, Rutherford investigated this in detail at Manchester University using the arrangement in the diagram. gold fo rotating microscope ine sulphide sereen ‘The fate of the o: particles after striking the foil was detected by the scintillation they produced on a glass screen coated with zinc sulphide and fixed to a rotating microscope. Observations: * Most of the o particles passed straight through the foil which was known to have layer upon layer of atoms. + A few particles were deflected through large angles. Some even bounced back off the foil. Deductions: ‘+ If most of the o. particles passed straight through, it meant that they had not come into contact with any of the sub-atomic particles, thus most of the atom had to be empty space. * To deflect a strong positive charge such as an o particle, the particle must come close fo a very strong positive charge. In addition, the positive charge must occupy a small space since collisions are rare. This ‘means that all of the positive charge must be concentrated in a small space (ie. the nucleus). The electrons already known to be part of the atomic structure must also be orbiting around the nucleus, Rutherford's atomic model tiny mucus conining| postive charge sound nucleus According to circular motion theory at the time, there were some contradictions with the atomic model proposed by Rutherford. If electrons are rotating around the nucleus they must be accelerating because they are continually changing direction. The electron would be losing ‘energy and would spiral into the nucleus. This does not happen. Niels Bohr tried to produce a theory without contradiction. From experiments, he observed that substances absorbed and emitted radiation of only certain frequencies. Bohr deduced that the electrons must be trapped in energy levels or shells around the nucleus. Bach shell had a specific energy value and only frequencies with the correct amount of energy would therefore be absorbed. He also went on to say that each shell could hold only a certain number of electrons and atoms were only stable when their outermost shell was filled. Rutherford-Bohr atomic model J in shels around the uses ‘ny nucleus containing pistons CoAMES CHADWIEK ] Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, This was a subatomic particle that had the mass of a proton but no charge. In order to be incorporated with the already existing model, these neutrons had to be located in the nucleus with the protons. The atomic model was therefore modified. ‘The structure of the atom electrons in shes neutrons thy nue oan pets fron and neon ‘magnified view of nucleus

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