Functionalist View of the Family

Functionalist view of the Functions of the Family: Murdock Functions of the Family: Parsons
family is that the family is
one of the corner stones of
Ensures that adult sexual relationships are Agrees with Murdock that the family is essential in the

Socialisation
society. It performs essential primary socialisation process and ensuring the that
controlled and socially acceptable. This meant

Sexual
functions which support each generation are
social stability and social stable monogamous heterosexual
cohesion. relationships.

The stabilisation of adult personalities refers to the

The biological reproduction of the next

Socialisation Reproduction
Universal nuclear family is a emotional security which is achieved within a marital

Stabilisation of adult
family that consists of 2 generation – without which society cannot relationship between two adults. According to
generations, parents and continue.

personalities
Parsons working life in Industrial society is stressful and
children and Murdock the family is a place where the working man can
believes that this family return and be ‘de-stressed’ by his wife, which reduces
type exists all over the conflict in society. This is also known as the ‘warm
world and is the best family Socialisation of the young – teaching basic bath theory’
type. norms and values so that the next generation Stabilization is achieved the through the biologically
are fully integrated into society and maintain determined roles- Expressive and instrumental.
the social
Social institutions are the Evaluation
structures in society which
influence behaviour such Meeting its members economic needs –
Economic

as the family, education, producing food and shelter for example. Down plays the role of conflict in the family. In
particular the oppression of women and domestic
media and religion.
1 violence. The family is not always the safe and warm
place suggested by Parsons.

Parsons: Internal Criticisms Out of Date – Women now go out to work and the
2 biological roles as set out by Parsons no longer apply
as clearly.
Nuclear family is not universal, the structure of the family changes as the needs of
Best Fit Theory

the society changes. Pre industrial families were extended families with multiple
generations living together, where as post industrial families needed to be
Deterministic – Assumes that the members of society
geographically mobile and therefore became isolated nuclear families.
3 automatically take on the norms and values.

Some functions of the family as identified by Murdock have moved to other

Differentiation
Structural

institutions for example the economic function has be taken on by the welfare state Ignores family diversity – Assumes that all families are
and the NHS. best when nuclear however many family structures
4 are apparent in todays society and still fulfil the same
functions.
 Marxist Views Of the Family
Marxist view of the family is… Functions of the family: Marxism Other Functions of the family

Marxists believe that the family is a tool Key Thinker: Fredrick Engels Creating the next generation of
of capitalism and its main function is to workers.

Inheritance of
maintain capitalism and reinforce The isolated nuclear family means that men are able to

Wealth
social inequalities. confirm when a child is theirs and can ensure that wealth Reserve labour force – Women.
stays within the family through private inheritance. This
helps to maintain capitalism by keep wealth within the
private family rather than being distributed amongst the
community. Evaluation
Key Thinker: Zaretsky
Economic Base means The base Ignores family diversity –

Cushioning Effect
comprises the forces and relations of
-
The cushioning effect is similar to Parson’s Warm Bath Marxists only discuss the role of
production into which people enter to theory in that the family acts as a comfort from the stresses the nuclear family, by passing
produce the necessities and amenities and strains of society. However Zaretsky believes that the
of life. all other family types.
family allows a man to feel in control and powerful which
they don’t feel in the workplace due to bourgeoisie Deterministic –
oppression. This also maintains capitalism as it prevents the Overemphasises the role of
Superstructure means its culture, proletariat from recognising their oppression and starting a the family in maintaining
institution, political power structures,
roles, rituals, and state.
revolution.
Key Thinker: Zaretsky
- capitalism and ignores other
inequalities such as the role of
Unit of Consumption

the family in maintaining

Cushioning effect is similar to Parson’s Families play a vital role in the generation of profits for the patriarchy.
Warm Bath Theory, in that is suggests bourgeoisie. Firstly the workers are paid less than the
amount charged for the products they create. The family Negative View –
the family provides a Haven form the
harsh oppression and exploitation of
the capitalist world.
is then targeted by advertisers to buy the products they
have created by urging families to ‘keep up with the - Ignores the positive effects
that the family can have for its
Jones’ and targeting children ho use “Pester Power” to members.
ensure that they have latest things to prevent bullying.
Discusses the idea that the
Key Thinker: Althusser nuclear family is a social
Ideological state apparatus means the + construction and not
social institutions such as education, Marxists agree with Functionalists that the family is a key
Socialisation

the churches, family, media, trade

unions, and law, which were formally
outside state control but which served
to transmit the values of the state.
necessarily good for society.
part of the socialisation process. However Marxists believe
that the family socialises the next generation into the ruling Explains the existence of the
class ideology and the unequal social hierarchy. This
maintains capitalism by ensuring the next generation
+ “dark side of the family”

accepts the ruling ideology as normal.

 Feminist Views of the Family

General Feminist view of the family is… Liberal Feminism
Feminists are critical of the family as a social Families are slowly becoming
institutions. They believe that the family is a more equal through changes
tool of female oppression and in particular in law and social attitudes.
They do not believe that full
the nuclear family serves the needs of men equality has been achieved
rather than women. This is through issues but the process is well
such as unequal division of domestic labour underway.
and domestic violence.
For example they show how
parents are now socialising
They believe that gender inequality is a their children in more gender
social construction and not a natural neutral ways, with similar
phenomena. aspirations for both sons and
daughters and chores not
being determined by
Triple Shift refers to the three roles that gender.
women are expected to perform for the
family:
1. Emotional Support
2. Domestic Labour
3. Paid work
Duel Burden Refers to the two traditional
roles that women are expected to play in
the family:
1. Emotional Support Overstates the amount of
2. Domestic Labour progress that has been
made. Women still have the
triple shift.
Patriarchy refers to the way that men
Marxist and Radical feminists
dominate women in most areas of society. also argue that liberal
feminists fail to challenge the
underlying causes of
Malesteam Sociology refers to the way that
women's oppression and
sociologists will apply research data changing the law is not
collected about men to the lives of women enough to bring about
despite their different experiences. equality, there needs to be a
fundamental change in
social structures.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminists believe that
men are the enemy and
marriage and family are the
key institutions which allow
patriarchy to exist.
For radical feminists in order
for equality to be achieved
patriarchy needs to be
overturned. They argue that
the family needs to be
abolished and a system of
separatism needs to be
instituted for this to happen.
They also argue for Political
Lesbianism because
heterosexual relationships are
inevitably oppressive.
Greer – Matrilocal households
– all female households with
shared parental responsibility.
Sommerville argues that
radical feminists fail to see
the improvements that have
been made to women's
experiences of the family.
With better access to divorce
and control over their fertility
women are not longer
trapped by family. She also
argues that separatism us
unobtainable due to
heterosexual attraction.
Marxist Feminism
Marxist feminists see the
family as a tool of capitalism
and that it is capitalism not
men who oppress women.
They see the family as
oppressing women whilst
support capitalism in three
ways:
1. Women reproduce
the workforce and
socialise them into
social hierarchy.
2. Women absorb the
anger of men who
are frustrated by their
alienation and
exploitation. Ansley –
Women are takers of
shit.
3. Women are a reserve
army of cheap labour
that can be activated
when they are
needed and let go
when no longer
needed – e.g. WWII.
Women are no longer a
reserve labour force as they
have equal rights at work
and are as likely as men to
be the main breadwinner in
the family.
Intersectional
Feminism
States that other feminist
beliefs focus on the
experience of women in a
nuclear family however not
all families are nuclear. Just
as not all women will have
the same experience of
family life.
For example a Black women
may find her family provide a
refuge from societal racism
rather then it being a place
of oppression or negativity.
Neglects the fact that many
women do share the same
experiences of family
regardless of ethnicity or
social class. For example they
all face a risk of domestic
violence and low pay.
 Postmodernism and Sociology of Personal Life

Sociology of Personal Life Postmodernist view of the family

Key Thinker: Carol Smart & Petra Nordqvist Giddens & Beck view of the family
AKA Individualisation Thesis
Definition of the family: Other significant relationships Traditional social structures have lost a lot of the influence they had over peoples
Developed along side the interactionist actions and decisions. In the past peoples were defined by ascribed roles based
• Friendships – feelings of closeness
approaches to the family. The personal on class, gender and religion, which prevented them from choosing their own life
“like a sister/brother”
life perspective takes the definition of • Fictive Kin – Close friends who are course or family type. However we have been freed or disembedded from these
the family beyond the ties of blood and treated as relatives. traditional roles and structures which means we are able to choose the family
marriage. • Chosen Families (LGBTQ) – that meets our needs and wants at that point in our lives.
For example a person may not feel Supportive networks of friends, ex- Gidden argues that this transformation has been caused advancements such as
close to their sibling so would not help partners & Others the availability of contraception and female independence. Which ahs also
in a crisis but may do this for a friend. • Relationships With Dead Relatives – changed the basis of couples relationships – Pure Relationships.
Live on in peoples memories and
shape their identities and actions.
Without knowing the meaning behind
• Relationships With Pets – Tripper
the relationship we are unable to know “Children often see pets as part of
Stacey’s view of the family
how someone would behave. the family” Greater freedom and choice has benefitted women enabling them to free
themselves from patriarchal oppression and shape their family arrangements
Personal Life Perspective on the family: around what works for them and their needs.
By focusing on the meanings behind the relationships PLP suggests that we Stacey used life history interviews in silicon valley to show that it is women who
choose the families that we want and need, but these are based on past have led the change in family structures, roles and responsibilities rather than
experiences rather than an open choice. Smart & Nordqvist looked into donor men.
conceived children to explain the importance of the social relationship over the Stacy noted a new type of family which she called the Divorce-Extended family
genetic relationship. Mothers noted that their definition of being a mother was whose key member s may include Ex-In Las, Ex Partner and their new partner.
more linked to the time taken to raise their child than the cell that started the These members although no longer connected by blood or marriage will still help
process. each other financially and domestically.

Evaluation
Can be accused of taking too broad a view. By including a wide range of family
types and personal relationships it is possible to overlook what is special about
relationships which are based on blood and marriage ties.
This approach helps us to understand how people themselves construct and
define “family” relationships
Evaluation
Personal Life Perspective – Exaggerates how much choice people have about
family. They argue that the although traditional social structures have weakened
they do still exists and will influence peoples choices. They also argue that people
are not completely disembedded as social context such as personal experiences
and the media will impact decision and choices that people make.
Vanessa May: “Beck and Giddens view of the individual is simply an idealised
version of white middle class man.”

Carol Smart: Connectedness Thesis – People are social beings who live in a web
of connectedness, networks of relationships and personal histories which strongly
influence and shape our range of options and choices.

SOCIAL POLICIES refer to laws made
by the government which aim to
improve society or deal with a
social policy.
Views on Social Polices
Ronald Fletcher – Health
education and housing policies
have led to the welfare stat
which supports the family in
completing its functions.
New Right are strong
believers that the
Aim
conventual heterosexual
nuclear family which is self
sufficient. Therefore believe
that social policies have
been a negative influence
Examples
on society promoting family
diversity and the
disintegration of society.
Feminism see policies as
assuming what a ‘normal
family’ is patriarchal nuclear
family with a male
breadwinner and a female
homemaker. And therefore
social policies ensure the
Aim
maintenance of this family
type. E.G. Childcare policies
and Caring for the elderly.
Marxists see family policy as a
Examples
way for the ruling class to
maintain their capitalist control
of society and ensure that the
family continues to support
capitalism.
Social Policy and the Family
Types of social Policy 2010 Onwards – Coalition Policies
Inconsistent policies on the family due to conflict
Providing Material Support for the family. Such
between two camps of MP’s
1 as cash benefits through tax credits and child
Hayton:
Aim
benefits. • Modernists who accept diversity
Helping parents to balance working life and • Traditionalists who favour a New Right
view.
family life. Policies such as maternity pay,
2
early years childcare and child protection • Removed Couples penalty.
Example
laws. • Shared Parental Leave
s
• Equal Marriage Act
Timeline of social policies and the family
1980 – 1990’s – Conservative Policies Other important Policies
The New Right had a lot of influence during this time
so the main aim of policies were to strengthen the Outline Impact on family
traditional Nuclear family, emphasizing the self help
and reliance. Reduced welfare payments Introduced the This led to the removal
Welfare state of some of the
Beverage Report
• Established Child Support Agency 1993
• Made illegitimate children have the same rights as including housing functions of the family
1942
those born to wedded parents. benefit and the NHS. to the welfare state.
• Children's Act 1989
• Married Men’s Tax Allowance
• Section 28
• Back to Basic
Made Divorce easier to Increase in family
Divorce Reform Act
1997 – 2010 – New Labour Policies obtain. Allowed Women diversity, especially
to file for divorce from single parent families
Silva & Smart – Favoured Duel earning families but her husband without and reconstituted
1969
also emphases the heterosexual nuclear family and having to prove, families.
for parents to take responsibility for their children. adultery, abuse or Increased women’s
Some support for alternative family types. abandonment. independence.
• Parenting Orders
Made it legal for women Women had control
Contraceptive Pill 1967
• Longer Maternity Leave
who were unmarried to over their bodies and
Working families tax credit
Legalisation of
•
obtain the how many children they
• The New Deal
contraceptive pill had, this led to a decline
• Civil Partnerships
in the birth rate.
• Unmarried Couples adoption
• Sexuality Discrimination Laws
 Family Diversity
Family Diversity refers to the The Rappaports 5 types of family diversity Causes of Family Diversity
differences between families, in
terms of the organisations, Type Explanation Cause Explanation
structure and roles within the Laws such as the Divorce Reform Act, legalisation of
family. There are cultural differences in both family Changes in contraception and civil partnership act have increased
Cultural structures and organization. Asian families Law
C Diversity tend to be extended and Afro-Caribbean
family diversity.

What do each of these theorist
believe is the dominate family
type in today’s society and why?
Murdock doesn’t
believe in family
diversity and that the
nuclear family is
natural and universal.
Murdock
Wilmott believes that
family diversity has been
exaggerated but family
structure has changed to
a dispersed extended
family.
Peter Wilmott
Life Course
L Analysis
Organisational
O Diversity
Generational
G Diversity
Social Class
S Diversity
tend to be matrifocal in nature.
Hareven 1978 – Family structures and
organisation change as we go through our
lives matching the time of life we are at and
our needs at that time.
This refers to how the family is structured in
terms of its members and power structures. For
example who has the most power. For
example lone parent, empty-nest or nuclear.
This refers to the shared historical experiences
that a group has which will shape their family
structure and organisation. For example the
introduction of the contraceptive pill or WWII.
Inequalities in lifestyle possibilities have
increased since the 1980s. Wealth and
income have an obvious impact in terms of
the type of housing, room size/number,
financial problems and holidays, for example.
Society has moved forward and family structures such
Changes in
Social as lone parent, same sex and say at home fathers are
much more acceptable now.
Attitudes
The rise in feminism and growing equality has given
Changing women more freedom and independence from men
which has changed the structure and roles within the
Role of
family- leading to more symmetrical families.
Women
The decline in the power of the church has lessened it
influence on the family. Changes in church teachings
Secularisation have also had an impact, e.g. use f contraception and
same sex relationships.
As technology has advanced we have seen the rise of
Globalisation the dispersed extended family – a family which is close
/ Immigration emotionally but not geographically. Immigration has
also seen new types of family arise in the UK
Greater affluence, greater geographical and social
Material mobility. The greater economic independence of
Factors women increased lifespan.

Theories of Family Diversity

Brannon believes
that family structures Functionalism: New Right: Murray Postmodernism Feminism: Stacey Chester: Neo
have changed and Parsons Conventional Family.
the new family type
is the beanpole Functional fit theory – It Diversity is the cause of Diversity is increasing Growing diversity is a Statistics are misleading
Diversity
View of

family. is not diversity but the
changing of structures
Julia Brannan to meet the needs of
society.
Anderson argues
Functional fit theory where
that family diversity
the family structure is
Explanation
society breakdown. and a result of growing positive move for regarding the extent of
choice and women. family diversity.
globalisation in the
modern world.
Only one correct family Society has become for Family diversity has The neo-conventional
type – the patriarchal, individualised due to allowed women not break family is becoming more

has always been constantly changing and nuclear family with a clear- development of medicine, away from traditional roles common, which is a
present, not just in adapting to meet the cut division of labour technology and female and create family nuclear family but with far
structure but in terms needs of society at the between the husband and equality. arrangements which meet more equality and
present time. wife (instrumental and their needs. symmetry in the division of
of power, roles and expressive).
Relationships are now
labour.
relationships. based on confluent love or
‘pure relationships’
Michael Anderson
 Cohabitation, Marriage and Divorce
Causes of the trends in cohabitation, marriage and Impact of the trends
Trends in Cohabitation
Cohabitation refers to divorce.
two people living Negative Impacts:
together in the same Impact on the trend
residence whilst also Wilson and Stuchbury 2010
As women have become more independent and gained

Changing role
• Cohabitation is less
being part of a

of women
more equal rights they no longer need to have the stable than marriage
intimate romantic financial security of marriage so are putting off till later Murphy
relationship. preferring to cohabit first to check compatibility. Women • Children of cohabiting
also no longer feel trapped in a marriage that is not parents are
working. disadvantaged
New Right
The reduction in religious influence in society has led to

Secularisation
• Divorce is eroding the
divorce and cohabitation becoming more acceptable. very fabric of society.
Cohabiting couples are rising particularly
Additionally people no longer feel the need to have a
in the 25-34 age range.
Marriage refers to the religious ceremony for their wedding. Feminists
legally or formally • Divorce Laws have
recognized union of Trends in Marriage helped women to
Changing expectations of marriage have meant that gain freedom,
two people as independence and
people are more likely to leave a marriage which doesn’t

Changes
partners in a personal

Social
fit their expectations. They are also more likely to cohabit social equality.
relationship in order to “try before you buy” with a partner.

The Divorce reform act has made divorce much easier for
both partners in the marriage to dissolve it. Same Sex Positive Impacts:

Changes
Legal
marriage in 2015 are now included in the statistics which
Divorce refers to the could explain the slight rise. Feminists
legal dissolution of a • Cohabitation has led
marriage by a court to more negotiation
Marriage is generally in decline although
or other competent there are blips during baby boom eras. Women are more economically independent so do not and equality in roles.
body.
Economic

Number of remarriages is rising. Age of need to marry for security.

Reasons

Rising house prices mean that people will cohabit in order Beaujouan and Ni Bhrolchain
first marriage is also rising.
to buy a house before marriage. Weddings are expensive: • Cohabitation is the
Trends in Divorce £30k average in 2018. new normal

• Cohabitation as a pre-
LAT (Living Apart The Pure Relationship: Giddens. The quest for the perfect marriage test.
Postmodern

relationships could put people off marriage. People stay in

Reasons

Together) couples relationships that fulfil them and when they don’t they • Cohabitation causes
are couples who are move on. decrease in divorce
in a committed by 5th anniversary.
intimate relationship
Jon Bernardes (1997)
or marriage but live The roles within the family are becoming more equal as
Divorce is less damaging on
Changes in

•
the family

at separate people have a higher expectation of what marriage

children then a negative
should be and when that expectation is not met then
addresses. The divorce rate in recent years has been people sperate.
marriage.
in decline overall but there has been an
increase in divorce in the over 60’s
 Childbearing

Total fertility rate means The
number of children who would
be born per woman (or per
1,000 women) if she/they were
to pass through the
childbearing years bearing
children according to a current
schedule of age-specific fertility
rates.
General fertility rate means Birth rate means the number of Average family size is defined in terms of
the total number of live births live births per thousand of the number of children in the household.
per 1,000 women of population per year.
reproductive age (ages 15 to
49 years) in a population per Average household size is defined by the
year. number of people residing in a single
residence.
Many women now want to have a career of their Impact of changing fertility rates

Role of women
own rather than care for a large family, compared
to before when women’s role was to do so. Also by With less people being born gaps are starting to

Reduction in
labour force
putting her career first a woman will leave having show in the labour force, meaning that there are
Trends and Changes (Stats) children till later in life, the average age of first not the people to fill the gaps left by those retiring.
child is currently 30 years old, meaning they have
1900 2012 less time to have more children.
TFR 4.3 1.83 Fewer people die in their childhood than ever The dependency ratio is an age-population

Infant mortality

Dependency
before, this means that fewer families are ratio of those typically not in the labour force and
GFR compensating by having more children in the those typically in the labour force. With fewer

Ratio
115:1000 64:1000
Rate
hope that 1 or 2 will survive infancy. In 1900 22.5% children being born the ratio becomes
of live births would die before their 5th birthday unbalanced due to aging populations.
Birth Rate 28:1000 12:1000 where as in 2015 it was 0.5%
Immigration becomes more important with
Family Size

Immigration
6 1.7 The modern labour force needs to be very mobile. declining birth rates as this will fill gaps in the labour
Geographic

This is an incentive for smaller families because it market.

Mobility

Household Size 4.6 2.4 makes it easier to just pack up and move
elsewhere

Reasons for the trends Julia Brannon – the growth of the Beanpole family

Bean pole
Growth of
Parenthood is a lifelong, stressful commitment, into one of the more dominate family types as

family
Changing Values

Since the advent of safer, legal and effective many couples are now deciding that they do not generations are living longer but have fewer
Contraception

methods of contraception become available members in each generation.

want children, whereas before this would have
it has allowed women and couples to control been a bad thing, it is now accepted in society.
the number of children they have and when Family Policy Studies Centre found that in 2000 1 in 5

Childlessness
women aged 40 had chosen not to have children
they decide to have them.

Voluntary
compared to 1 in 10 in 1980. Hakim suggest that this has a
direct link to the availability of contraception. Gillespie
Since the introduction of compulsory also suggest the push/pull idea where women feel the pull
The cost of raising a child is rising every year with
Economic Factors

factor as greater freedom and better relationships where

education children have gone from being an the current estimate at around £235,000 form birth as the push factor of seeing parenthood as conflicting
economic asset to an economic burden. to 18 and rising to £271,000 if going to 21 and with careers and leisure activities.
Education

Where as in the 1900’s children would be including university education. This can influence Less and less women are choosing to be a full time
working from a young age, children today are couples who choose to only have 1 child as they

Decrease in
stay at home mothers (meaning not working till the

in compulsory education until they are 18 and
parents today can be supporting their children
well in to their 20’s.
Full time
mothers
cannot afford to have a second. child has left home) as there are many childcare
options available including nurseries, grandparents
and breakfast and after-school clubs. These are
more affordable with only one child to pay for.
 Domestic Division of labour
Domestic Division of Labour means the Traditional Views of Domestic Division of labour Why are Roles Changing?
chores that are completed around the
house such as cleaning, laundry, cooking,
Instrumental Role – The rational male role Factor Explanation
DIY and gardening.
that is the breadwinner of the family and the Economically Active With women going out to work more, men need to h around
Decision Making in the family refers to the disciplinarian of the family. Women /Mothers the house more in order for chores to get done.
ways that families determine how
decisions are made in the family.
Expressive Role – the emotional and caring Decline in the With fewer family members around to help with things like
This can include financial decisions as well
role that is usual carried out by the female in extended family child care the couple need to be more equal.
as day to day decisions and life changing
the family. It includes child care and most of
ones. Weakening Gender With the rise of gender neutrality in terms of roles and jobs
the domestic labour.
Identities there is less pressure to conform to traditional roles.
March of Progress View: Wilmott and Young
Technology and living New technology such as washing machines and
standards dishwashers as well as smart homes means that some of the
Families are becoming more equal and democratic. There is a move away from the separate jobs that used to be done no longer need to be.
conjugal roles of Talcott Parsons and move towards more joint conjugal roles. With women going out
to work, men need to take more of an active role in the family and couples are more likely to spend Commercialisation of As the family has become duel earning, there has been a
their leisure time together, domestic labour. growth in the domestic labour industry as more families pay
for certain tasks to be completed or hire in Au pairs and
Decision Making in the family: Money nannies.

Thinkers Explanation To what extent has the level of change in domestic division of labour been exaggerated?

McIntosh & Men gain more from women’s unpaid domestic labour and in allowance
Explanation Evidence
Barrett situations men do not give adequate financial recompense and it often
comes with strings attached. Men often make the majority of the big Wilmott and Acceptance of the interchangeability of roles. 7 out of 10
decisions. Young – Rise of women of working age now have jobs. Half of mothers with

No
the Symmetrical children aged under five are in work. 36% of couples say that
Kempson Women in low income families will often go without in favour of making
Family. the man is the main carer
sure ends meet as they see money as family money. Men do not think this
way. Duel burden and Brayfield (1992), Ferri & Smith (1996), Man-yee Kan (2001),
Triple Shift Hochschild (1990) All found even in dual career families women
Pahl and Volger Allowance System – Men give wives a certain amount of money each
had major responsibility for domestic tasks.
week/month for family expenses, all excess belongs to them.
McKee & Bell (1986) – Unemployed men resist pleas from
Pooling – All money goes into a central pot and take joint responsibility for
partners to do more housework.
expenditure however men tend to earn more than women.
British Social Attitudes Survey (1992) – certain household tasks
have become more equal than others.
Decision Making in the family
Views on Rapoport and Rapoport (1970) - career women were still viewed
Thinkers Explanation Housework as “wives and mothers”.
Yes
Ann Oakley Jointly, this does not mean equally’, Men
Edgell (1980) Very important decision are taken by men, important decisions taken participating in domestic tasks are doing so to "help their wives“.
jointly, day to day decisions taken by women. Backed up by Hardill in David Morley (1992) - ‘women see the home as a place of work,
1997 men a place of leisure’.
Craig (2007) – Women do 1/3 more housework than men due to
Laurie and 70% of couples said they had equal say in family decisions by 1995 but the partnership penalty and marriage penalty.
Gurshunny (2000) women who had high earning positions were more likely to say they
have equal say. Same Sex couples Dunne (1999) – Gay and lesbian couples are more equal and
symmetrical than heterosexual ones. But if unequal earning then
Feminists Decision making isn’t linked to money but cultural expectations of a there was unequal division of domestic labour.
patriarchal society and gender role socialisation.
 Consequences of Inequality

Domestic abuse is any incident or series of incidents of physical, Theoretical perspectives on the causes of Domestic
psychological or sexual abuse by a current or previous partner. Violence

The Triple Shift refers to the feminist idea that women have to Explanation Evaluation
take on not only paid work outside the home but also the
Dobash and Dobash – Domestic Elliot – not all men
majority of the domestic labour and emotional support of the violence is evidence of patriarchy and are violent.

Radical Feminist
family. caused by challenges to male
authority. In recent years this can be Men can be victims
The Statistics linked to a crisis of masculinity where too.
men are unsure of their place in society
and strike out. Some groups of
• 1 incident of domestic violence is reported to the police every
women are more
minute likely than others to
• On average, 2 women a week are killed by a current or former male Issues with Statistics on be a victim.
partner. Domestic Violence
• In 2015 8.8% of men (equivalent to 1.4 million men) and 20.1% of Murray - Domestic violence only occurs DV is not limited to
women (3.3 million women) said they have experienced non sexual • Cheal found that state in Dysfunctional Families. These families working class.

New Right
abuse since the age of 16. agencies (like police) are include those with teen parents,
• For every 3 victims of Domestic violence 2 will be women and 1 will reluctant to get involved cohabitation and divorce over a stable Too much focus on
be male. in the family because marriage. There are higher rates of DV violence compares
• Nearly 1 in 4 women have been assaulted by a partner at some they assume that the in lower classes due to a low moral to other forms of
time in their life, and 1 in 8 repeatedly so family is private, good standard. abuse.
• Yearshire found that on average a woman suffers 35 assaults before and individuals are free to
making a report. leave if they wish. Giddens - Domestic Violence is caused Not all families are

Impact of family life on
career and job prospects:
• Fear that a women might
become pregnant can
limit promotion prospects.
• Women are seen as
unreliable workers as they
Postmodernist
by the emotional intensity and family abusive.
• Victims don’t report the life. The nature of family life makes
Impact of Triple shift on women: domestic violence quite common as We choose our
abuse to the police
family life is characterized by emotional family structures so
• Fear of reprisal
• Green (1996) – Women tend to intensity and personal intimacy. can have people to
• Don’t think they will Increasing isolation of nuclear family vent to who are not
see their free/Leisure time as time be believed
when they are away from both
increases intensity and escalations to extended family.
• Believe they are to violence – lack of people to vent to.
paid work and family blame.
commitments. Where as men Wilkinson & Pickett - Domestic violence Doesn’t explain
consider any time away from is the result of stress on family members male victims
• Some abuse is difficult to
paid work as free time. caused by social inequality. Having less
prove:

are more likely to take
time off if a child is unwell.
• Bernard (1982) found that men
were more satisfied with their
• Women are seen as less marriage than their wives, who
committed to their
expressed feelings of emotional
careers after they have loneliness.
children compared to
men, due to their roles at
• Oakley (1974) found that women
home.
felt similar feelings of boredom
and depression as those felt by
line workers in factories.
Marxist Feminist
resources then others can lead to stress DV is not limited to
• Emotional or and violence out of frustration. Lack of working class.
psychological abuse time and money can reduce the social
circule and people for support. Not all men are
• Dar: Can be difficult to violent to their
separate out incidents as Ansley – Women are takers of shit, men partners.
are frustrated by the oppression they
it can be continuous or so
feel at work and take this out on their
often the victim can’t
wives.
accurately recall.
 Childhood as a Social Construction
A Social Construction
means that a social No Is childhood a social construction? Yes
phenomena is not
naturally occurring but
instead is created by Separateness: Pilcher Sensible Analytical Approach Cultural Relativity
society and varies from
Different stages of development are BENEDICT - Childhood varies from

Explanation
culture to culture.

Definition
Separated
Childhood is a clear and distinct more likely to be a social culture to culture and within cultures

Socially
life stage, reflected in: construction than others. itself.
Laws, Dress, Products and services,
Biological Determination Age of innocence, Activity
means that something Infancy/Toddlers – Not a social Intra Cultural Differences- In particular
including social construction due to the complete class differences.
Children have not yet reach dependency of the infants on
phenomena is regulated
Immaturity
physical maturity. They have not others for survival. This is universal Inter Cultural Differences –

Evidence
Physical

by biology yet reached puberty or sexual

Explanation / Evidence
not cultural. Responsibilities and freedoms
maturity, however full • Firth Tikopia Tribe
development doesn’t end until 5 – 12 age group – Could be • Punch – Bolivia
A Child is a difficult term mid 20’s considered a social construction as • Milinowski – Trobriand Island
to define, legally it is at this stage we start to see
someone below the age differences appear both intra
Psychological
Immaturity

of majority, biologically it culturally and inter culturally.

Psychological development
Historical Relativity
is someone before they
hit puberty. Different continues into the mid 20’s. 13+ age group – This stage is more ARIES – Childhood has changed over

Explanation
than likely a social construction time and what we now consider to be
cultures will also have
because the differences both childhood is a modern construction.
different ideas on what a culturally and historically are much
child is. Dominate Framework: more apparent.
James and Prout Pre industrial Era – Studied using paintings,
found that children were considered mini
Childhood is the period Simple and Amoral adults with little variation in games, toys,
of time that a person is clothing and culture. Children would work
Children

as soon as they were able.

considered to be a child. See the world in black and
white, only really concerned Industrial Era - The start of the modern
with themselves and don’t look concept of childhood, but children still

Evidence
at the impact on others. worked in the factories, were treated the
same as adults in the CJS. We start to see
the development of child protection laws
Complex and Moral at this time.

Adults are able to see the world in Modern era – Childhood is protected time
Adults

shades of grey looking at multiple of innocence and dependency which can

view points and have developed last until late teens or early 20’s. Children
a moral compass for decision have a distinct separate culture to adults
including toys game s and clothing.
making.
 Changes to the status of Children

March of Progress View Conflict View Adult and Child conflict and inequality

The ‘march of progress’ view argues Children still experience conflict in society. Child Liberationists believe that childhood has

liberationist view
Overview

Overview
that, over the past few centuries, the Different children will have different become oppressive with adults using the
position of children in western societies experiences of childhood so some will be excuse of protection to limit children's activities

Child
better for others, and create a culture of dependency.
has been steadily improving and today
Firestone and Holt see what March of progress
is better than it has ever been. see as care and protect as just new forms of
oppression and control. They see the need to
free children from adult control.
Evidence Intra-child conflict and inequality
Ways children are controlled by adults
• Work Restrictions Mayer Hillman (1993),
Legal

• Compulsory Education
• Safeguarding in schools Boys and girls will have different experiences of Industrial societies have limited children's access
to earning money so remain dependent on

Resources
Juvenile V Adult legal systems

Gender
•
childhood due to gender role socialisation.
Boys are generally given more freedom at an adults. This is achieved through:
United Nations Rights of the child which states
every child has basic fundamental rights. These earlier age than girls who are often socialised • Compulsory education and labour laws.
include the right to: into the bedroom culture of more sedate and • Child Benefit is given to the parent not the
child
Rights of the Child

Life, survival and development, quite activities such as reading and talking with
Protection from violence, abuse or neglect, friends. • Pocket Money.
An education that enables children to fulfil their
potential, Be raised by, or have a relationship Children's movements particularly in western
Julia Brannen (1994) societies is highly regulated. For example
with, their parents

Express their opinions and be listened to.
It also asks states to ensure under 18’s are not
forcibly recruited in to the armed forces,
Ethnicity
Space
children have specific areas where they are
Ethnic groups will have different expectations allowed to play and where they are not
on their children and at what age they would allowed to go, shops may restrict the number of

prohibition of child prostitution, pornography
and slavery and allows children whose wright
have been violated to complain directly to the
UN
UK has a minister for Children and Families
and Welfare
take on responsibilities.
Brannen found that in Asian families for
example parents were much stricter had held
tighter on their daughters where as Bhatti
(1999) found that the idea of Izzat (family
school children or ban them entirely, Higher
CCTV coverage in children's areas.
Children have rather strict daily routines,
especially during term time, but even in the

honour) can have an impact on children's holidays parents will control when children eat,
Protections

Social Services purpose is to protect children

Time
services

and support families. experiences. sleep, watch TV etc. Parents also try to control
how quickly children grow up by limiting
Woodroffe responsibility or behaviour.
Poor mothers are more likely to give birth to
children of lower birth weight which can be
linked to both delayed physical and mental Adults exercise great control over children's
Class

Quality over Quantity. development. bodies including how they sit, walk, dress and
Centeredness

Bodies
Families have less children to ensure they can Children from poor families are more likely to are touched etc however they also control how
give the children they have the best possible die in infancy or suffer long standing illness, be children may touch their own bodies e.g. not
Child

start in life. Decisions are made with the best

shorter in height and fall behind in school. They picking their noses, or plying with their genitals.
interests of the child in mind, from what to eat,
to where to holiday and if to move house. are also more likely to be on a child protection
list for neglect.

Toxic Childhood means
that rapid technological
change and cultural
changes have damaged
Overview
children's health,
emotional and
psychological
development.
Child Centeredness
means that children
become the centre of
decision making in the
Evidence
family. Decisions are
made with the best
interests of the child in
mind/ Children maybe
consulted on family
decisions and parents
invest much more time
and money in their
children.
Information hierarchy
Evaluation
means a division between
those who can access
information and those that
can’t. Prior to the
invention of the internet
this was much more
pronounced.
Disappearing Childhood Thesis
Thinker: Neil Postman
Childhood as we know it is
disappearing at a rapid rate due
to the collapse of the
information hierarchy.
How
• Growth of technology gives
children much more access
to information and ways to
participate in the adults
world.
• Children given the same
rights as adults.
• The blurring of adult and child
culture with adults taking up
elements of children's culture
Why
and children participating in
adult culture.
• Criminality of children – the
committing of ”adult” crimes
such as murder and rape.
Opie – childhood is not
disappearing but changing.
There is still evidence of a
separate children's’ culture of
Evaluation
unsupervised games, rhymes
and songs.
Postman’s theory is reductionist
as it places the cause of the
disappearance of childhood on
the rise of television.
The Future of Childhood
Toxic Childhood Thesis Universal Childhood
West:
Overview
Thinker: Sue Palmer
Western notion of
childhood is spreading
Childhood has become damaging to the
physical, psychological and emotional health of around the world.
young people. This is evidenced by the:
• Campaigns for universal
• Increase in ADHD, education
• Increase in substance abuse and self-
• Charities focused on
Evidence
harm
helping street children
• Increase in mental health problems and preventing child
labour.
A UNICEF survey in 2013 ranked the UK 16th out of
29 for children’s well being. • Globalised TV and media
According to Palmer the trend to ‘toxic
childhood’ is the result of:
i) Unhealthy food New Sociology of Childhood
ii) A lack of play in natural surroundings
Current studies of childhood
iii) Poor sleep patterns have been outside looing in and
rarely include children in their
iv) Little time to interact within the family
data collect.
v) Decline in emotional security Mayall: Children as socialisation
projects
“Every year children become more distractible,
impulsive and self-obsessed. They are less able to
BUT
learn, to enjoy life and to thrive socially.” – Sue
Palmer
Smart - Need to include the
Ethnocentric – Only looks at western ideas of children in the study of
childhood and cannot be applied to many childhood.
developing nations. Mayall – focus on the present
tense of childhood from a child’s
This is not a new phenomena but we now have perspective.
better understanding of mental health and
wellbeing so it appears to be more toxic. Children are active agents
playing a major part in creating
More information availability has made the their own childhoods By Using
dangers more well known which has led to more unstructured interviews to allow
paranoid parenting. children to express their views.
This approach is favoured by
child liberationists.
 Demographics 1

Definition Trend Reasons for the trend Impact of the trends The dependency ratio is an age-
population ratio of those typically not in
The number of live births • Availability of Contraception • Smaller families the labour force (Children and Elderly)
Birth Rate

per year per 1000 of the • Changing roles of women

General
and those typically in the labour force.

Decline
population • Decreasing in infant mortality Rate • Unequal dependency
• Growth of Child Centeredness ratio
• Economic Factors Ageism means prejudice or
• Few schools needed discrimination on the grounds of a
person's age.
The average number of • Availability of Contraception Few Health and Maternity
Total fertility

•
children a women will have • Women leaving pregnancy to later in life

Decline
services needed.
Rate

during her childbearing • Changing attitudes to child bearing. Structural dependency means the
years (15 – 45) • Vanishing Children – process by which some people in society
Lonelier childhood due to receive an unequal share in the results of
less friends. social production
The number of deaths per • Improved Nutrition
Death Rate

• Children become more

1000 of the population per • Medical Care Net Migration means the difference in the
Decline

year. • Public health Measures precious

number of people leaving a country
• Decline in dangerous occupations compared to the number of people
• Life style changes • Aging Population
coming in
• Bigger strain on public
The number of deaths of • Improved housing and sanitation services such as health
Immigration means moving into a
mortality

children before their first • Better nutrition care and housing.

Decline

country that is not your country of origin.

Infant

Rate

birthday per 1000 live births • Improved pre and post natal understanding
per year. • Improved health of the mother • Increasing in single person
• Improved knowledge of Hygiene. households

• Policy implications such Emigration means leaving your country

The average number of • Decreased infant mortality
expectancy

ass social housing and origin to go to another country.

Increasing

years a person can expect • Less dangerous working conditions

Pensions
to live within a specific • Better health care and nutrition
Life

culture and gender. • Social Care facilities Globalisation means the growing
interconnectedness of cultures and
societies around the world, due to
The extent to which a • Increased life expectancy technological advances.
population

Increasing

population is living longer • Declining infant mortality

Aging

but are not matched by • Declining fertility

the number of new births.

the movement of peoples • Push Factors • Cultural Diversity

from one place to another, • War, Poverty, Lack of job opportunities or • Duel Heritage and hybrid
Increasing
Migration

it can be in the same oppressive government. Identities

county or to another • Pull Factors
country. • Welfare state, Education systems, Standard
of living, Weather, job Opportunities.
• Legislation and Boarder Controls
• Globalisation