Material Science and

Metallurgy
(3131904)

B. E. Semester – 3rd
Mechanical Engineering

Lab Manual
Academic Year: 2019 – 2020

Mechanical Engineering Department,

L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad – 380015.
 List of Practicals

Mapped
Sr. No. Title of Experiment
CO
1 Crystal Systems & Bravais Lattice CO1

2 Crystal Planes & Directions CO1

3 Metallurgical Microscope CO3

4 Microexamination of Standard Specimens CO3

Metallographic Preparation of Specimen for
5 CO3
Microexamination
6 Effect of Quenching Media on Hardness of Steel CO2

7 Jominy Hardenabilty Test CO2

8 Magnetic Particle Inspection Test CO4

9 Liquid Penetrant Test CO4

10 Identification of Materials Through Spark Test CO5

11 Ultrasonic Test CO4

12 Assignment 1 CO1

13 Assignment 2 CO2

14 Assignment 3 CO3

15 Assignment 4 CO4

16 Assignment 5 CO5
 1. CRYSTAL SYSTEMS & BRAVAIS LATTICE

Date:___________

Objective:

To understand and appreciate the concept of space lattice and crystal systems

Relevance:

Most engineering materials have atomic arrangements in three dimensions. They crystallize in
one of the seven crystal systems. Space lattice is very useful as a reference in correlating the
symmetry of actual crystals. The properties of materials are very much associated with the
crystal structure. The plastic behavior of metals is attributed to the atomic structure.

Theory:

A space lattice is a mathematical concept and is defined as an array of points in space so

arranged that each point has identical surroundings and the pattern is repeated in space infinitely
in all directions. A crystal may be defined as a solid composed of atoms arranged in a pattern
periodic in three dimensions. It turns out that only seven different kinds of systems are necessary
to include all the possible lattices. These correspond to the seven crystal systems into which
space lattice can be classified. Bravais showed that by different arrangements of the atoms inside
these crystal systems, we could get fourteen different structures known as BRAVAIS
LATTICES. The seven crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattices are shown in figure.

Procedure:

1. Study the concept of space lattice and unit cells.

2. Analyze the seven crystal systems and fourteen Bravais lattices.
3. Study the models of BCC, FCC and HCP structures.
4. Find out the coordination number (CN), Atomic Packing Factor (APF) and Effective
number of atoms per unit cell for SC, BCC, FCC, and HCP structures.

Report:
1. Draw Crystal Systems and Bravias Lattices
2. Write the characteristics of cubic and hexagonal crystal geometries
 2. CRYSTAL PLANES & DIRECTIONS

Date:_________

Objective:

To appreciate the concept of crystal planes and directions which have a direct influence on the
properties and behavior of materials

Relevance:

The properties and behavior of crystals and hence that of material are directly related to the
arrangement of atoms in specific planes and directions. So a thorough understanding of these
concepts is warranted for the processing of different engineering materials.

Theory:

A crystal or a unit cell contains planes of atoms and these planes influence the properties and
behavior of crystals. With reference to the axis of a unit cell, each set of planes has a particular
orientation. In order to specify the orientation, one employs the so called MILLER INDICES.

Procedure:

Study the modes of representation of crystal planes and direction using Miller Indices. Work out
the relation between normal to these planes, hence establish equations of the normal to these
planes, and hence establish equation for inter-planer distance. Study the models of various planes
for various crystals.

Analysis and conclusion:

Analyze the procedure steps and comment on the contribution of each procedure steps towards
the objective. Comment on the utility of identifying different planes, direction and Miller indices.

Report:

1. Sketch the following directions in cubic unit cells.

[ 111 ] [ 110 ] [ 121 ]

[ 112 ] [ 221 ] [ 123 ]

2. Sketch the following planes in cubic unit cells.

( 100 ) ( 110 ) ( 111 )

( 110 ) ( 010 ) ( 120 )

(123) (221) (124)

3. Sketch the following planes in HCP unit cells.

(1120) (1121) (1100)

(1101) (0001) (1102)

 3. METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE

Date:__________
Objective:

To get acquainted with the operation, construction, use and capabilities of a metallographic
microscope

Relevance:

The metallurgical microscope is composed of two distinct and separate optical systems – the
objective and the eyepiece, whose primary purpose, when appropriately used together, is to
reveal details in an object that are too small in size to be normally seen with the unaided eye. The
extent top which such details are revealed and the clarity with which the image can be observed
will depend largely upon the degree to which the objective and eyepiece are corrected for
aberrational and other optical errors.
It is important that the metallographer possess a rational understanding of simple optical systems
and the principles involved with the skillful handling of a microscope unit. Only under such
conditions it will be possible for the instrument to perform to the degree of perfection of which it
is capable.

Theory:

A metallurgical microscope differs from a biological type in a manner by which the specimen is
illuminated owing to the inability of visible radiation to propagate through a metallurgical
specimen. The metallographic microscope works on reflected light whereas the biological one
works light transmitted from specimen.

Principle: (Fig.-1)

A beam of light from an appropriate source is incident on to the surface of specimen through the
objective. A certain amount of this incident light, reflected from the specimen surface and
magnified while passing through the objective and the eyepiece, will form enlarged image of the
illuminated area.

Ray Diagram:

Before a horizontal beam of light from some appropriate source is diverted by means of a plane
glass reflector, it passes through a condensing lens. This reflected light beam now passes through
the objectives and incident on the specimen surface. As the surface of the specimen is polished
and it is opaque in nature it reflects most of the light rays. This reflected light once again passes
through objective lens system and forms an enlarged primary real image. The size of that image
depends on the relative distance at which object and image are existing from the objective. The
position of that image beyond the objective depends upon focal length of the objective and
distance between the plane of object and the front focal point of objective. The primary image,
formed by the objective in conjunction with the field lens of the eye piece is placed by focusing
the microscope such that it is located at the focal point or within focal distance of the eye lens of
the eye piece. If now entrance pupil of eye is made to coincide with the exit pupil of eye piece,
the eye lens in conjunction with the cornea lens of eye will form a non-reversed and erected
second real image on the eye retina. Due to response of human brain to excitation of the retina it
will appear to be existing in space at approximately 250 mm from the observer. Since this third
image has no existence it is known as virtual image and it will appear to be inverted and reverse.
When a particular combination of objective and eye piece is used with proper tube length the
total magnification is equal to the product of the magnification of the objective and the eye piece.

Fig.-1 Ray Diagram of Metallurgical Microscope

Objectives:
Objectives can be divided into four general groups namely, achromates, semiapochromates,
apochromates and monochromates which are special class of objectives to be used with
ultraviolet light. The distinction between the first three classes is based on the design of
objectives and the degree to which optical errors are corrected.
 Achromates: They are relatively free from aberrational and other optical errors and of
relatively low cost. They are unable to render an image that posses true colour.

 Apochromates: They are finest objectives corrected for high degree of perfection and have
higher numerical aperture and higher magnification.

 Semiapochromates: for aberrational errors, it is compromise between achromatic and

apochromatic objectives.

Chromatic aberration: (Draw Fig.)

It is the failure of different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation to come to the same focus
after refraction. The index of refraction of a medium, such as optical glass, is greater for shorter
wavelengths of visible radiation passing through it. When white light is passed through a simple
positive lens from some source outside of its principle focus point, the light will be dispersed and
a series of color images of source will be focused at different points along the principle axis of
lens. This type of error is known as longitudinal chromatic aberration. This gives rise to the
formation of colored images of unequal sizes. If this type of error exists in objectives then the
image will be surrounded by color hallo and will lack in definition and clarity.

Spherical aberration: (Draw Fig.)

It is the loss of the definition in the image arising from the surface geometry of a spherical lens
or mirror.

When the light of definite wavelength is passed through a simple positive lens from source
outside of its principal focus point a series of images of the sources will be formed along the
principal axis of the lens. The light in passing through outermost margins of the lens, will be
refracted to a greater degree and image formed thereby will be appoint closer to the emergent
side of lens than the same wavelength of light passing through the lens near the principal axis.
But when white light, instead of monochromatic radiation, is passed this error becomes more
complex when combined with other aberrational errors the attending image will appear fuzzy
and indistinct.
Properties of Objectives:

 Magnifying power: It is the ability of the objective to magnify the real object a definite
number of times without the aid of the eyepiece.

 Numerical Aperture (NA): (Draw Fig.) It is light gathering ability of the objective. It is
because of Numerical Aperture, which for any objective is the function of the design, that fine
details in an object may, within limits, be completely and clearly resolved.
Resolving power of objective is proportional to NA, wavelength of illumination, microscope
adjustments etc. The amount of light received by objective is also influenced by index of
refraction of objective and surface of object. In case of dry objectives the medium is air and
because of that NA is less for them. If we use wet objectives then in that case the medium
used is Cedar Oil, hence the NA will be more.

NA= n Sin (µ)

Where, µ is half angle of light aperture &

n is index of refraction.
(n=1 for Air and 1.5 for Cedar Oil)

 Resolving Power: It is described as ability of an objective to produce sharply defined

separate images of closely spaced details in an object. It is also called fineness of detail.

Fineness of Detail α NA
&
Fineness of Detail α 1/λ

Where, λ is wavelength of light used.

 Vertical Resolution: It is depth of focus or penetration. It is also called ability to produce

sharply focused image when the surface of object is not truly plane.

Vertical Resolution α 1/NA

&
Vertical Resolution α 1/ Initial Magnification

 Curvature of image field: It is a condition wherein sharpness of centrally focused image

declines towards the outer edge of field of view. For the objectives of higher NA effect of
curvature is more but, by using specific type of eyepiece image can be reduced to flat
field.

Eyepieces [Ocular]: (Draw Fig.)

 Eyepieces are used to enlarge the primary image formed by the objective and to render it
visible as a virtual image, or to produce the primary image as real image, such as I
photomicrography.

Types of Eyepieces:

 Negative types [Huygenian]: They are the most representative and simplest. When two
non-achromatic, Plano-convex lens elements are mounted in the eyepiece tube with
convex sides of both elements towards the objective will form negative type of eyepiece.
Their focus point will lie between two lenses hence we can’t use them as magnifiers.
Image obtained in this case is not completely free from distortion due to lack of optical
correction applied. They are used with low and intermediate powered achromates.

 Positive Types [Ramsden]: When two Plano-convex lens elements are mounted with
convex side towards one another they will form positive type of eyepiece. They are
consisting of two or more lens elements. They combined together will behave as a
positive lens. Focus point in this case lies in front of field lens hence they can be used as
ordinary magnifiers. They have more chromatic aberration error than that of Huygenian
type but are better with respect to spherical errors.

 Compensating Types: They are chromatically overcorrected and can be designed either
as positive type or as negative type. They normally have higher magnification power.
They are not suitable with achromatic objectives of lower power due to the adverse
chromatic effects.

 Amplifying types: They are used for photomicrography or for image projection over a
short distance. They are consisting of a number of lens elements which as a group works
as true negative lens system. They are corrected for aberrational errors. They do not form
secondary image but combining together with the objectives they form final image.

Bright- field illumination (Draw Fig.)

It is a condition of lighting that renders a dark image on a bright, well-lit background field. It is a
conventional form of illumination by which micro-examination is done. The objective in this
case first serves as condensing system to incident light beam and then forms image.

Dark- field illumination (Draw Fig.)

It is a condition of lighting that renders a bright image on a dark background field. The objective
in this case is used for forming image only. None of the reflected light will enter the objective
due to high obliquity of reflected radiation. Specimen in this case should be highly secular. In
this case contrast established is of excellent quality. This form of illumination renders light
incident on the specimen surface of greater angularity and of higher numerical aperture than that
secured through bright field illumination.

If the reflector used is plane glass reflector then the image quality obtained is best at high
magnification. If the reflector used prism then the resolution power is less and magnification is
low, but it reflects all the light and only because of that enhanced contrast is obtained in the
image.

Observations:

Observe the optic path for bright and dark field illumination.
Observe the ray diagram of a metallurgical microscope.
 4. MICROEXAMINATION OF STANDARD SPECIMENS

Date:____________
Objective:

1. To understand what is micro-examination, importance of micro-examination and to study

various ferrous, non-ferrous microstructures
2. To develop ability to identify micro-constituents and phase fields in a specimen

Relevance:

Microscopic studies reveal an abundance of constitutional information concerning metals and

alloys under investigation. These structural characteristics profoundly influence the mechanical
properties and behavior characteristics of the metal. When these and other constitutional features
are determined by microscopic examination and the extend to which they exist I in the
microstructure is known, it is then possible to predict with considerable accuracy the expected
behavior of the metal when used for specific purpose. It will also reflect an almost complete
history of the mechanical and thermal treatment a metal has received. It has been only through
diligent study of metals microscopically that many perplexing problems of physical metallurgy
have been solved, and it may be safely predicted that the contributions that will be made to the
field of physical metallurgy in the future will depend, in part or solely upon the structural
evidence revealed by the microscope.

Theory:

Micro-examination is study of internal structure of a material i.e. microstructure, which can be

carried out by light microscopy or electron microscopy. An observation of a microstructure in
microscope will show size and shape of grains and size, shape and distribution of various phases
and inclusions and segregations. These structural characteristics have great effect on mechanical
properties of a material. The microstructure will reveal the mechanical and thermal treatment of
the material and it may be possible to predict the expected behavior under a given set of
conditions.

Procedure:

1. Examine whether the specimen to be examined is prepared and suitably etched for the
purpose.
2. Set the microscope with suitable selection of eye piece and objective for the desired
magnification.
3. Microscopically examine and identify the phases, their size and distribution.

Observation:
1. Record the microstructure observed with magnification with the aid of neat schematic
diagram.
2. Read the conditions of examination material, enchants used & the reason thereof with the
magnification.
3. Identify the expected micro-constituents that could be resolved and appearance of any
constituent that could be identified.

Report:

1. Draw microstructure of Pure Iron, Low Carbon Steel, Eutectoid Steel and Hypereutectoid
Steel.
2. Draw graphically the effect of carbon on mechanical properties of plain carbon steel.

Analysis and Conclusion:

1. Analyze the microstructure observed in terms of quality of clarity, resolution, size &
distribution. Draw conclusion regarding capability of microscope used, knowledge and skill
of analyst.
2. Evaluate the material in terms of structure- property-perfomance relationship with suitable
example.
 5. METALLOGRAPHIC PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR
MICROEXAMINATION

Date:__________

Objective:

To study procedure of specimen preparation for micro-examination and to carry out a specimen
preparation

Apparatus and Material:

Metallurgical microscope, 1/,2/0,3/0 and 4/0 emery papers, paper mounting boards, dry and wet
polishing mills, alumina powder, fine polishing clothes, suitable enchant.

Relevance:

A little can be learned regarding the structural characteristics of a metal by microscopic

examination examination unless the surface that is to be examined is first prepared according to
more to less rigid and precise procedures. With the use of modern metallurgical microscopic and
precision optical parts where the obtainable resolution may be as great as a fraction of the
wavelength of the light used to illuminate the specimen, it is evident that perfect specimen
preparation is of the greatest importance. Metals and alloys being opaque, the preparation of
specimen is a must to micro examine them. A perfectly reflective surface has to be prepared for
the same to reveal internal details like grain, grain boundaries and segregation of impurities.
Improper preparation is likely to remove all important inclusions, errode grain boundaries or
temper hardened steel specimens, ultimately producing a structure superficially atleast, which
upon micro examination will appear entirely different from that which is truly representative and
characteristic of metal. Obviously an examination of such a prepared specimen will lead only to
erroneous interpretations and unreliable conclusions.

Theory:

In general, the procedure of specimen preparation consists of first obtaining a flat semi polished
surface by means of polishing the specimen on series of emery paper of decreasing grit size, or
by grinding on suitable abrasive laps followed by fine and final polishing on one or more growth
covered lap wheels. These operations ultimately produces a flat, scratch free mirror like surface,
the required condition of the specimen surface before it can be etched and the metallography
appropriately revealed.

The whole procedure involves following steps:

1. Cutting the specimen or sampling
2. Mounting the specimen (if required)
3. Polishing the specimen
4. Etching

Procedure:

 Determine the appropriate location and orientation of the specimen to be cut.

 Determine the method of cutting.
 If the specimen is difficult ti handle, select suitable amount and mounting conditions.
 If the surface to be observed is too uneven or burrs etc. achieve plane surface by either filing
or grinding on coarse grade emery paper.
 Take emery papers from coarse to abrasive grit (i.e. 1/0, 2/0, 3/0 and 4/0).The first grinding
paper used after the roughing operation is usually No. O French-Hubert paper (1/0) or its
equivalent. The emery paper is placing on any clean, hard, level surface. The specimen is
rubbed back and forth across the entire length of paper under moderately applied pressure.
While being ground, the specimen is held so that the new finer scratches being introduced on
the surface are approximately at right angles to the old scratches resulting from previous
flattening operation. Switch over to the next finer grade and repeat the same procedure. This
is dry polishing.
 Select the suitable polishing cloth (generally Selvyt cloth) and polishing abrasive powder
(e.g. alumina slurry) for the given specimen during wet polishing.
 The polishing wheel mounted with polishing cloth is rotated at appropriate speed and the
specimen is moved continuously from the center to the periphery of the polishing wheel with
moderate pressure.
The suspended abrasive may be applied to the polishing cloth by means of a shaker bottle or the
other means. This completes wet polishing.
Note: At frequent intervals during the procedure the specimen undergoing preparation, as well as
hands of the technician should be thoroughly washed with soap or water.
 Select suitable etchant (e.g.: NITAL) for the specimen and carry out etching.
 Immediately after etching, wash the specimen under running water and dry it with alcohol.
 Observe the specimen under microscope.

Observation:

1. Microstructure of Gray Cast Iron.

 6. EFFECT OF QUENCHING MEDIA ON HARDNESS OF STEEL

Date:___________

Objective:

To show the effects of different quenching media (oil, water, brine) on the hardness of
medium/high carbon steel specimens of same composition

Apparatus:

Three quenching tanks (oil, water and brine), heating furnace (0-1000° C range), Rockwell
Hardness tester

Relevance:

According to the functional requirements of the component, different engineering components

need different hardness for their long service life. Different quenching media generate different
final micro structures ( like coarse pearlite, bainite, martensite, etc.) and thus give different
hardness values. So the type of quenching media and the cooling rate both decide the final
microstructure. To derive the suitable hardness, material technologies must know the effect of
the quenching medium and cooling rate, on the hardness of steel. Knowledge of generating
different hardness is of great help in industries for the manufacture of components like gears
cams, shafts, axles, pins, etc. to increase their service life.

Theory:

Quenching, which means drastic (rapid) cooling, always gives high hardness in ‘ferrous systems’
(metals involving iron) because of mechanism of allotropic transformation suppression.
Mechanism of heat removal during quenching is grouped into three stages:

1. Vapor blanket stage: Here the quenching medium vaporizes at the metal surface due to high
temperature and a thin film of vapor, called vapor blanket, surrounds the hot metal. Presence of
vapor retards the heat transfer process and hence rate of cooling is relatively low.

2. Vapor transport cooling stage: Here metal has cooled to a temperature where vapor blanket is
no longer stable. Because of absence of vapor between metal and liquid, heat transfer process
and hence rate of cooling is relatively low.
3. Liquid cooling stage: Here the metal reaches the temperature of boiling point of quenching
medium. Heat given by the hot metal is utilized in boiling the liquid. In this stage, cooling rate is
lowest.

To avoid cracks, distortion, and warpage, quenching medium should show initial cooling rate to
avoid transformation in the nose region of the TTT curve, followed by slow cooling rate
throughout the low temperature range. Rise in temperature of quenching medium due to
immersion of the component, should be controlled by selecting the proper volume of quenching
medium along with necessary cooling arrangement so that heat transfer rate gets maintained to
the level desired.

Questions:

1. What is soaking time? State its importance?

2. What is the reason for the formation of cracks, distortion or warpage after quenching?
 7. JOMINY HARDENABILTY TEST

Date:___________

Objective:

To understand the concept of hardenability and its relevance to heat treatment procedure to be
adopted in practice

Apparatus:

Jominy test apparatus, a round bar of standard size, heating furnace, Rockwell Hardness Tester,
Vernier caliper

Relevance:

Hardenability is an important parameter for engineers dealing with the material selection. The
Jominy test, together with the appropriate data, is ideally suited for predicting the hardness at a
particular location within a section is made. It establishes a co relation between the cooling rate
and corresponding distance from the quenched end for each of the test bars. This relationship is
the fundamental one and remains substantially unaltered so long as the Jominy procedure is
strictly adhered to. It is possible through this correlation within any given shaped object once the
cooling rate is known at the location of interest. Such cooling rates within the object may be
obtained by reference to appropriate published data if the size, shape, and heat treatment of the
object correspond to the condition under which the data were obtained.

Theory:

Hardenability is a function of composition, austenitic grain size, quenching temperature and

quenching rate. It is important to distinguish between hardness and hardenability. Hardness is a
measure of resistance to indentation where as hardenability is the ease with which hardness can
be achieved in a material. Hardness of steel increases with increases with the increase in carbon
percentage and maximum hardness can be achieved only when 100% martensite is formed. Steel
that transforms rapidly from austenite to ferrite + carbide has low hardenability. Conversely,
steel that transforms slowly from austenite to ferrite + carbide has greater hardenability.
Hardness close to maximum can be achieved with less severe quenching in a steel of high
hardenability and a greater hardness can be developed at the centre of a piece of steel through the
cooling rate is lower there.

In Jominy and quench test a round bar of standard size is heated to form austenite and then
quenched from one end by exposing that to a jet of water with a specific flow rate and pressure.
Hardness values along the cooling rate gradient are determined on Rockwell Hardness Tester and
a hardenability curve is plotted.

Since the quenched end is cooled at higher rate, it has the maximum possible hardness for a
particular carbon content of a specimen. Because the steel behind the quenched end is cooled at a
relatively slower rate, its hardness is less than the maximum possible for the particular steel
being treated.

Procedure:

Heat the specimen (25 mm Diameter x 100 mm length) to the austenitizing temperature and soak
it at this temperature for 30 to 40 minutes. Keep the heated specimen on its fixture and quench its
bottom face with a stream of water flowing at a definite velocity. The velocity of water is
expressed in terms of a column of water from a 12mm diameter nozzle, which rises to a free
height of 62.5mm above the opening.

Once the test bar has been end-quenched from the significant temperature according to the
specifications of the test procedure, two flat surfaces 180° C apart are ground to a depth of
0.4mm along the entire length of the specimen. During grinding it is necessary to keep the
specimen sufficiently cool to prevent temperature rise. Rockwell hardness measurements are
made at an interval of 1.6mm along the longitudinal centre line of the flat surface.
Observation:

1. Draw a neat diagram of the experimental set up mentioning the conditions of the test and
their significance.
2. Tabulate the hardness values obtained at the intervals of 1.6mm along the length from the
quenched end. Find out the average of hardness values at equal distance from the quenched
end. Plot the Distance vs. Hardness curve.

Analysis and Conclusions:

1. Analyze the pattern of variation of hardness in the context of test conditions and comment
on the hardenability as indicated by the test result.
2. Comment on the variations, if any, observed between the observed hardenability and
anticipated hardenability based on chemistry and structure of the material.
3. Comment on the significance of the conditions as test to practice.
 8. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TEST

Date: __________

Objective:

To understand the principle, procedure of testing, nature of indication, skill and understanding
required to interpret the indication and hence capability and the sensitivity of the test.

Relevance:

The magnetic particle inspection is one of the powerful surface and/ or subsurface crack
detection methods for ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic particle inspection can be well
exploited if the knowledge of the different methods, flaw detection capabilities and factors
affecting sensitivity of the methods are learnt.

Theory:

The principle of operation is that, when a component under test is magnetized, discontinuities
which lie in the direction generally transverse to the direction of magnetic field will cause a
leakage field to be formed. If leakage field is strong enough, its presence and therefore the
discontinuity is detected by use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the
surface. Some of the ferromagnetic particles are influenced leakage field and form an outline of
the discontinuity called as an indication. The indication may give an idea about size, shape and
location of the flaw.

Procedure:

1. Determine the setting up procedure, parameters to be selected and set as a make ready
step before performing the test.
2. Set up the equipment for the nature of the defect to be detected (cracks, surface,
subsurface, porosity etc).
3. Perform the test in different orientations of magnetic field application and record the
nature and extent of indication with and without fluorescent powder.
4. Demagnetize the work piece and check for results.

Questions:

1. Bring out the relevance to each step to meet the objective.

2. What are the basic elements of MPT?
 9. LIQUID PENETRANT TEST

Date:___________

Objective:

To understand the procedure of testing nature of indication and the skill and understanding
required for the interpretation of test results and hence the capability and sensitivity of the test.

Relevance:

The study of liquid penetrant test will enhance the knowledge of the method, application of this
method specifically and limitations of the method.

Theory:

Dye penetrant test is essentially useful in detecting minute discontinuities such as cracks,
shrinkage and porosity that are open to the surface. Parts to be tested are treated penetrant are
usually light, Oil like liquids which are applied by dipping spraying or brushing or in some other
convenient manner. The liquid penetrant is drawn into cracks and other discontinuities that are
open to surface by strong capillary action. After the penetrant has had time to seep in, the portion
remaining on the surface is removed by wiping or washing. This leaves the penetrant in all
surface connected discontinuities. The tested part is now treated with a dry powder or a
suspension of powder in a liquid. This powder or developer acts like a sponge drawing the
penetrant from the defect and enlarging the size of the area of the penetrant indication.

This method may be applied to both magnetic and non magnetic materials, its primary
application is for non magnetic materials. Penetrant techniques can be used for inspecting any
homogeneous material that is not porous such as metals, glass, plastics, and some ceramic
materials.

Apparatus:

Dye penetrant kit containing cleaner, penetrant, developer, wiping cloth and wire brushes.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the surface to be investigated and make it free from dirt and grease.
2. Apply cleaner, allow some time so that surface gets dried.
3. Spray dye penetrant on the surface and allow some time (3-5 minutes).
4. Wipe out excess penetrant.
5. Apply developer and observe indications.
6. If needed, apply the developer once again.
7. Clean the surface.

Observations:

1. Observe the component to be inspected usually to check for any large defects.
2. Surface condition of the test piece to be observed.
3. Number of trails required for clear and sharp indication to be noted.
4. Nature and extent of indication to be noted.
 10. IDENTIFICATION OF MATERIALS THROUGH SPARK TEST

Date: __________

Objective:

1. To identify the different types of material through spark test.

2. To know the use of materials and related applications.

Theory:

In manufacturing, processing, design and construction of components or structures, engineers are

involved with materials. They have to select materials depending on the required properties,
whether the required properties can be achieved and maintained during the service life, whether
the material can be given required shape and dimensional accuracy, can it be used economically
to produce the product, whether it would cause the environmental problems or not and so on.

Once the right kind of material is selected depending upon the application they have to monitor
its usage and analyze the failures when they occur.

Spark testing is a method of determining general classification of ferrous materials. Its normally
entails taking a piece of metal, usually scrap, & applying it to a grinding wheel in order to
observe the sparks emitted. The sparks can be compared to a chart or to sparks from a known test
sample to determine the classification. Spark testing also can be used to sort ferrous materials,
establishing the difference from one another by noting whether the spark is the same or different.
The spark test is made by holding a sample of the material against an abrasive wheel. By visually
inspecting the spark stream, an experienced metalworker can identify the metals with
considerable accuracy. This test is fast, economical, convenient, and easily accomplished, and
there is no requirement for special equipment. We can use this test for identifying metal salvaged
from scrap.

Procedure:

1. Turn the grinder on and bring the metal into light contact with the grinding wheel, such
that the sparks fly clear of the grinder and wheel.
2. Carefully observe the color, pattern and length of the sparks produced.
3. The spark patterns may have combinations of bright lines, bursts and zigzags.
4. Compare the sparks you see against a printed reference. You may need to go back and
forth between the reference and the sparks, performing several tests until you’ve
identified the metal.

Observations:
1. Draw the types of sparks observed for different materials.
 11. ULTRASONIC TEST

Date:___________

Objective:

To understand the principle procedure and testing, nature of identification and the skill and
understanding required to interpret the indication and hence the capability and sensitivity of the
test.

Relevance:

The ultrasonic flaw detection technique is one of the most widely used and preferred
nondestructive method. It will be very much useful to know about the method, the instrument
(indicator or ultrasonic flaw detector), parameter of ultrasonic testing, factors affecting ultrasonic
testing and hence application of the method.

Theory:

The basic principle of the method is detecting the change in attenuation of sound energy
(ultrasonic) –the change being caused by a flaw or the material. In this test the ultrasonic sound
waves capable of penetrating the medium of appreciable thickness at speeds of several thousands
m/s are used. Frequency ranges from 1 to 15 MHz. There will be changes in probing medium
when there is a flaw which will be detected and indicated by the equipment -the ultrasonic flaw
detector.

The pulse echo technique is widely preferred. This employs a single probe as transmitter and
receiver of ultrasonic waves. The ultrasonic waves with high frequency are generated by
piezoelectric effect. When these high frequency waves, enter the material being tested, part of it
is reflected and converted back to electrical impulse. This electrical impulse is amplified and
rendered visible as an indicator or pip on the screen of the oscilloscope. When the sound waves
reach the other side of the material, it is reflected back and shows as another pip on the screen
further to the right of the material (i.e. the thickness) it will show a third pip on the screen
between the two indications or pulses.

Since the indications on the oscilloscope screen measure the elapsed time between reflection of
the pulse from the front and back surface, the distance between indications is a measure of the
material and the location of the defect can be accurately determined from the location on the
screen. Angle probes may be used to detect flaws which are not oriented perpendicular to the
direction of the propagation of ultrasonic waves.
Procedure:

1. By using the manual of the equipment get the operating details of the ultrasonic flaw
detector.
2. Calibrate the ultrasonic flaw detector for the given thickness and material.
3. With the help of standard calibration pieces and simple /angle probes learn the operation.
Observe the indications traversing the probe on the surface to be tested.
4. Record your observations.

Observations:

1. Note the important specifications of the equipment in the given format.

2. Record the important steps of calibration.
3. Record the actual procedure adopted for the test, no. of observations made, variation of
the job orientation made. Record the indication on the CRT.

Analysis and Conclusions:

1. Analyze the testing and calibration procedure and bring out the relevance of each step to
meet the objective.
2. Analyze and comment on the result of observation made with different job orientation
and choice of probes.
3. Evaluate the result as indicated on the CRT and the printout obtained.
4. On the basis of the observations made comment on the capability and the sensitivity of
the test and hence on the specific applications of the test in practice.
 12. ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

Date:___________

Questions:

1. Calculate the APF of SC, BCC and FCC crystal structures.

2. Classify defects in crystal.

3. Differentiate between edge and screw dislocation.

 13. ASSIGNMENT NO. 2

Date:___________

Questions:

1. Explain the factors affecting the selection of materials for engineering purposes.

2. Explain the classification of Engineering materials.

3. Draw stress-strain diagram and explain all terms involved with the same.
 14. ASSIGNMENT NO. 3

Date:___________

Questions:

1. Write a note on Gibbs Phase Rule.

2. Draw phase diagrams depicting the following invariant reactions: a) Eutectic, b)

Peritectic, c) Monotectic

3. Draw phase diagrams depicting the following invariant reactions: a) Eutectoid, b)

Peritectoid
 15. ASSIGNMENT NO. 4

Date:___________

Questions:

1. State the advantages of Non – destructive testing.

2. Explain with a neat sketch, X – Ray Radiography.

3. Enlist the steps involved in Dye Penetration test.

 16. ASSIGNMENT NO. 5

Date:___________

Questions:

1. What do you mean by Ferrous materials? State the classification of ferrous materials.

2. Classify the types of cast irons.

3. Write a brief note on Alloy steels.