ABSTRACT

This paper presents the development of a non-board bi-directional battery charger for
Electric Vehicles (EVs) targeting Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V), and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G). During
the G2Voperation mode the batteries are charged from the power grid with sinusoidal current
and unitary power factor. During theV2G operation mode the energy stored in the batteries
can be delivered back to the power grid contributing to the power system stability. Along the
paper the hardware topology of the bi-directional battery charger is presented and the control
algorithms are explained.

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1.1 Introduction:

Electric vehicle is an automobile propelled by one or more electric motors, drawing

power from an onboard source of electricity. Electric cars are mechanically simpler and more
durable than gasoline-powered cars. They produce less pollution than do gasoline-powered
cars. An electric car stores its energy on board-typically in batteries, but alternatively with
capacitors or flywheel storage devices. A more recent development is the hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV), which uses both an electric motor or motors and a gasoline or diesel engine,
which charges the batteries in order to extend the car's range and often to provide additional
power. Regardless of the energy source, an electric car needs a controller, which is connected
to the accelerator pedal, for directing the flow of electricity from the energy source to the
motor. Most electric cars use lead-acid batteries, but new types of batteries, including zinc-
chlorine, nickel metal hydride and sodium-sulphur, are becoming more common. The motor
of an electric car harnesses the battery's electrical energy by converting it to kinetic energy.
The driver simply switches on the power. Selects "Forward" or "Reverse" with another
switch. and steps on the accelerator pedal While the internal-combustion engine of a
conventional car has many moving parts and must convert the linear motion of pistons and
rods into rotary motion at the wheels, an electric motor has only a single rotating element.
Like a gasoline-powered car, an electric car has a system (called a power train) of gears,
shafts. and joints that transmit motion from the motor to the car wheels. Most electric cars do
not have clutches or multi speed transmissions. In order to go backward, the flow of
electricity through the motor is reversed, changing the rotation of the motor and causing the
power train to make the wheels rotate in the other direction. Most electric cars have a
regenerative braking system-the braking system acts as a battery charger. When a driver ease
up on the accelerator or step on a brake pedal, the drive motor acts as a generator and
converts the vehicle's momentum back into electricity and stores it in the battery. Converting
the kinetic energy into electric energy slows the car. Electric cars also have a brake pedal and
a traditional braking system, which uses friction to slow the vehicle for quick and emergency
stopping. These friction brakes convert kinetic energy to heat. In gasoline-powered cars this
energy 1s wasted, the heat being dissipated into the surrounding air. Energy conservation in
electric cars, however, is so important that engineers found a way to recover the heat and use
it-for example, by heating the passenger compartment Electric Car, automobile propelled by

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one or more electric motors, drawing power from an onboard source of electricity. Electric
cars are mechanically simpler and more durable than gasoline-powered cars. They produce
less pollut1on than do gasolien-powered cars.

1.2 Working Principle of Electric Vehicle:

An electric car stores its energy on board-typically in batteries, but alternatively with
capacitors or flywheel storage devices. Or it may generate energy using a fuel cell or
generator. A fuel cell is a specialized form of battery that combines hydrogen with oxygen in
a chemical reaction that produces electricity and water vapor.
Unlike an electric cell or battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging;
it operates as long as the fuel and an oxidizer are supplied continuously from outside the cell.
Most current versions of electric cars use some combination of these energy sources. "Pure"
electric cars, however, run only on batteries and need a charger to replenish the battery's
power from an electrical outlet. A more recent development is the hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV), which uses both an electric motor or motors and a gasoline or diesel engine that
charges the batteries in order to extend the car's range and often to provide additional power.
Regardless of the energy source, an electric car needs a controller, which is connected to the
accelerator pedal, for directing the flow of electricity from the energy source to the motor.
Most electric cars use lead-acid batteries, but new types of batteries, including zinc-
chlorine. Nickel metal hydrides, and sodium-sulphur, are becom1ng more common The
motor of an electric car harnesses the battery's electrical energy by converting it to kinetic
energy. The driver s1mply switches on the power. Selects "Forward" or "Reverse" with
another sw1tch and steps on the accelerator pedal.
While the internal-combustion engine of a conventional car has many moving parts
and must convert the linear motion of pistons and rods into rotary motion at the wheels, an
electric motor has only a single rotating element. Like a gasoline-powered car, an electric car
has a system (called a power train) of gears, shafts, and joints that transmit motion from the
motor to the car wheels.
Most electric cars do not have clutches or multispeed transmissions. In order to go
backward, the flow of electricity through the motor is reversed, changing the rotation of the
motor and causing the power train to make the wheels rotate in the other direction. Most
electric cars have a regenerative braking system-the braking system acts as a battery charger.
When drivers ease up on the accelerator or step on a brake pedal, the drive motor acts as a

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generator and convert the vehicle’s momentum back into electricity and store it in the battery.
Converting the kinetic energy into electric energy slows the car. Electric cars also have a
brake pedal and a traditional braking system, which uses friction to slow the vehicle for quick
and emergency stopping. These friction brakes convert kinetic energy to heat. In gasoline-
powered cars this energy is wasted. the heat being dissipated into the surrounding air. Energy
conservation in electric cars. However, is so important that engineers found a way to recover
the heat and use it-for example, by heating the passenger compartment.

1.3 Need of Electric Vehicle:

Electric Vehicle (EV) technology is gaining ground and popularity rapidly. With
depletion of oil reserves and a world characterized by smog, noise and all kinds of pollutants,
governments and communities are awakening to the several benefits of EV technology. Zero
emission vehicles are almost noiseless and can be charged at home or work, saving
commuters endless queues at petrol stations. Charging at night when consumption is low,
allows for efficient use of electricity. EVs are easier to service and maintain due to the
absence of spark plugs, clutch and gears. Ideal for "stop - start" city driving conditions, EVs
are extremely reliable and easy to drive. With the innumerable advantages of EVs, companies
in developed countries have spent huge amounts to develop electric cars that can travel longer
distances, providing high levels of comfort. In spite of this technology being available now,
the cost of electric vehicles to suit driving requirements in these developed countries is
prohibitively high.

1.4 History of Electric Vehicles:

Few people realize that successful electric automobiles were being produced as early
as the 1880's. For over 20 years, electric cars were commercially produced. And were for
some years in heady competition with Internal combustion and steam-powered carriages. Not
until internal combust1on technology and promotion, along with cheap fuel, had 144
outstripped all competition, did electric cars drop out of the automotive picture. The
technology required for the electric car was being developed long before the automobile was
conceived. The primary cell invented by Volta in 1800, generated electricity by chemical
action.
Only replacing the active elements could recharge this primitive battery. Not until
1860, when Gaston Faure invented the secondary cell, could simply passing a current through
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it recharge a battery providing portable, renewable electric power. In spite of earlier
experimental work, a working electric motor was not built until 1833. Thomas Davenport, an
uneducated Vermont blacksmith, conceived it after observing a demonstration of an
electromagnet. Davenport patented his motor in 1837. Davenport had in fact built a model
electric locomotive as early as 1834, powered by primary cells. In 1847, Moses Farmer, from
Massachusetts designed a locomotive that, powered by 48 one-pint cells, could carry two
people along an 18-inch-wide track. About the same time, Professor Charles Page of
Washington, D.C., built a locomotive which, using 100 cells and a 16-horsepower motor,
carried twelve people on the Washington and Bladensburg Railroad at up to 19 mph in 1847.
Lilly and Colton of Pittsburgh built a locomotive, which rece1ved 1ts power.
Produced from a central station, through an electrified rail. In 1888, electric cars suddenly
began appearing on the scene both in the U.S. and in other countries. The first really
successful electric automobile was the carriage built by William Morrison of Des Moines,
Iowa, in 1890. Morrison's car used high, spoked wagon wheels to negotiate the rutted roads
of America, and an innovative guidance system, which included patented rack-and-pinion
steering. Morrison's car was capable of running for 13 consecutive hours at 14 mph. Much of
the car's success, however, was attributable to the promotional efforts of Harold Sturges,
secretary of the American Battery Company.

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages:

Electric cars represent a cleaner way to convert fossil fuels-oil (Petroleum), coal, and
natural gas (Gases, Fuel) produced from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals-to
automotive power. The fossil fuels are burned at a power plant, or onboard in hybrid electric
vehicles, to make electricity to recharge the battery. Substances that pollute the air can be
controlled more easily at a power plant than at the tailpipes of millions of gasoline-burning
cars, and in hybrid electric vehicles, electronic controls can be used to make the engines run
only as needed and to do so more efficiently. The result is that air quality, especially in large
cities, can be 1mproved with electric cars or hybrid electric vehicles. Today's electric cars are
more efficient than gasoline-powered cars. They are cons1dered an easy and effective way to
harness existing energy sources because any energy source can be converted into electricity.
Pure electric cars do not require new ways of delivering fuel because electricity is already
distributed to virtually every home and business. However, pure electric cars require charging
stations, special equipment that can recharge an electric car battery quickly and efficiently.

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This special equipment can be installed in a home garage or in the trunk of the car. To extend
the range of an electric car, charging stations would need to be placed strategically
throughout a city. Despite the advantages of more efficient energy use, pure electric cars have
not been widely adopted. Pure electric cars are impractical because current battery
technology limits the distance an electric car can travel before its battery must be recharged.
This distance is currently less than 160 km (1 00 mi) in most cases, and the batteries take at
least three hours to recharge using charging stations. Electric cars are not yet able to
accelerate, cruise, and climb fast enough to compete with gasoline powered cars. And
accessories, such as air conditioning or radios, drain the battery even more quickly.
Moreover, because electric cars have not been widely adopted, few public charging stations
are in existence. Electric cars represent a cleaner way to convert fossil fuels-oil, coal, and
natural gas produced from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals to automotive power
The fossil fuels are burned at a power plant, or onboard 1n HEVs. to make electricity to
recharge the battery.
Substances that pollute the air can be controlled more easily at a power plant than at
the ta1lp1pes of millions of gasoline-burning cars, and in HEVs. Electronic 1~7 controls can
be used to make the engines run only as needed and to do so more efficiently. The result IS
that a1r quality, especially in large Cities, can be improved with electric cars or hybrid
electric vehicle. Today's electric cars are more efficient than gasoline-powered cars. They are
considered an easy and effective way to harness existing energy sources because any energy
source can be converted into electricity. Pure electric cars do not require new ways of
delivering fuel because electricity is already distributed to virtually every home and business.
However, pure electric cars require charging stations, special equipment that can recharge an
electric car battery quickly and efficiently. This special equipment can be installed in a home
garage or in the trunk of the car. To extend the range of an electric car, charging stations
would need to be placed strategically throughout a city.
Despite the advantages of more efficient energy use, pure electric cars have not been
widely adopted. Pure electric cars are impractical because current battery technology limits
the distance an electric car can travel before its battery must be recharged. This distance is
currently less than 160 km (100 miles) in most cases, and the batteries take at least three
hours to recharge using charging stations. Electric cars are not yet able to accelerate. cruise.
And climb fast enough to compete with gasoline powered cars. And accessories, such as air

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conditioning or radios, drain the battery even more qu1ckly. Critics of electric vehicle point
out that in add1t1on to the contrast 1n range. The large batteries needed to store energy in the
vehicles are a serious environmental hazard. Environmentalists often refute these claims
because the batteries can be recycled with minimal environmental impact and more advanced
batteries such as lithium ion and nickel metal hydride batteries might give the cars the range
of conventional gas cars. Due to lack of production volume, these batteries are currently 3-4
times more expensive than conventional Lead Acid or Nickel Cadmium batteries. Firefighters
and rescue personnel require special training to deal with the higher voltages encountered in
electric vehicle accidents. 5.6 Indian Electric Vehicles India is ready and well suited for the
introduction of EVs today with the existing technologies available, making EVs cost
effective.

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2.1 Literature Review:
With the increasingly severe environmental problems around the world, exploitation
of clean and renewable energy has been a crucial topic [1], [2]. As indispensable
transportation in modern society, vehicles are ubiquitous but also one of the main sources of
pollutants. Because of their status, it is almost impossible to decrease the volume of vehicles.
One solution to lowering emissions is the electric vehicle, [3]. Overall, the electric vehicle is
more energy efficient, environmentally friendly, and cleaner than the vehicle that relies on
fossil fuels [4], especially when smart grids have become omnipresent [5]-[7]. By
popularizing the electric vehicle, the environmental and economic costs of vehicles can be
significantly reduced. Hence, the electric vehicle has attracted the attention of academia as
well as industry in the recent decades [9]. With the development of the electric vehicle, the
techniques of charging piles- which are an essential component in the electric transportation
system- have rapidly progressed as well. Most of the automobile manufacturers around the
world have paid a large amount of financial resource to the research of charging piles, since
the charging technique is, to some extent, key to the success of the electric vehicle [10].

At present, there exist three methods to charge an electric vehicle: centralized pile
charging, distributed pile charging, and battery replacement, respectively [4]. As for the
charging currents there are DC, and AC charging piles. The former employs power
electronics to process the current from the power grid, including transformation, rectification,
inversion and filtering etc., eventually outputting DC current to charge an electric vehicle
[11]. The latter is simpler because the AC-to-DC conversion process can be omitted;
however, the efficiency is generally lower than the former [12].

From the global trend of the development of electric vehicle, it is obvious that their
industrialization has become an important indicator on the human development index, and a
guarantee of the sustainable development of a country [13]. The progress of charging piles is

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vital for the electric vehicle to flourish, since it is the outdated charging techniques that are
impeding its development [14].

In Europe; Germany and France are the proponents of the electric vehicle. In
Germany the techniques of charging pile and battery replacement are being investigated and
used equally [10]. Their principle for popularising the electric vehicle has been to start with
big cities and then extend to the entire country [18]. On the other hand, France develops
charging pile technology only; indeed, the charging piles produced by Schneider Electric
S.A. are everywhere in France [19]. There are four kinds of charging piles manufactured by
Schneider Electric S.A [20]. The residential charging pile is designed specifically for use at
home and can withstand prolonged periods of daily use; car park charging piles enable the
charging of electric vehicles easily and quickly; whilst the fleet charging pile incorporates
energy management. As fleet management services are based on a smart grid, they thus form
a complete solution to the electric vehicle. Finally, there is the fast-charging pile which can
charge 80% of the battery of a normal electric vehicle in less than 30 minutes [20].

2.2 Types of Charging Models:

From these three corollaries have arisen four charging models.
2.2.1 Charging by constant current and constrained voltage:
This charging model is used for the battery system consisting of batteries in series.
However, the charging process is non-linear so that the lifetime of the battery charged in this
way would be shortened. Another disadvantage is the low overall charging rate in comparison
with other models [28].

2.2.2 Charging by constant voltage and constrained current:

The most evident advantage of this model is that the charging time would be much
shorter than the first model. However, by employing this model, the initial current would be
much larger; and potentially damaging to the electric apparatus inside the battery system [29].
2.2.3 Fast charging:
This charging model uses periodic current pulse and a large negative current pulse to
depolarize the battery. This model may increase the charging rate, but has a detrimental effect
on the battery lifetime [12].

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2.2.4 Three-stage charging:
In this model the charging process is divided into stages. At the first stage, constant
current is employed to charge the battery system until the terminal voltage reaches its rated
value. Secondly constant voltage is applied and the current keeps decreasing [30]. This model
can be regarded as a compromise between the first and second models.

2.3 RESEARCH PROGRESSES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE:

Having introduced the technical fundamentals of the electric vehicle and its charging
techniques, it is necessary to review the research progresses.

2.3.1 Solution to Disorderly Charging Based on Smart Grid: Smart

Charging Techniques:
Disorderly charging refers to the scenario that an electric vehicle, once plugged in,
will be charged according to its rated power until the battery system is full [31]. In this
scenario, an electric vehicle is no more than a load and will not feed any power back into the
power grid. Due to the randomness of plugging in, the power demand becomes more
complicated, and thus difficult to predict if using the normal demand forecasting models [32],
[33]. Moreover, it may be difficult for the generating side to produce enough electrical power
to meet the short-term load demand. In this scenario the power equilibrium cannot be
effectively satisfied [34].
The impact of this phenomenon is that during peak demand time the voltage at the
load terminal may decrease significantly, compromise the reliability of the entire power
network [35], [36]. In [37], [38], the impacts of the disorderly charging behaviour
aforementioned have been simulated and proved to be nontrivial. In order to mitigate these
negative impacts, a novel charging technique termed smart charging has been proposed [39].
In this technique the charging rate of a vehicle depends on the real-time global power demand
feedback and varies dynamically. As such the problem of overlarge peak demand can be
alleviated. However, this technique requires a very mature communication network covering
the existing power network [40]. A control centre connecting all charging piles is necessary

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[41]. Moreover, the battery system is required to accept different charging power levels; a
challenge for battery system design [42]. These three preconditions make the implementation
of smart charging financially and technically difficult [39].

2.3.2 Advanced Charging Control Strategies:

The charging process of the battery system may be affected by a large number of
nonlinear factors, especially when it is a part of a dynamical system [43]. These nonlinear
factors are produced by electronic devices, high-frequency transformers, and pulse
modulators etc... [44]. However, the control theory of the charging process is based on a
small-signal model, which is linear and cannot satisfy the requirements of system reliability
[45]. As mentioned in the previous section, system reliability in terms of charging voltage
and current is crucial for charging an electric vehicle. Therefore, nonlinear control strategy is
most suited to be used in this scenario. With the development of microprocessors in recent
years, it is possible to apply complex control strategies in high frequency switching
converters, e.g., chaos control, neural network control, and fuzzy control strategies. It may be
possible to extend these advanced control theories, combined with conventional PID control,
to the designs of battery systems and charging piles in order to meet the charging
requirements of reliability, precision, and battery aging.

2.3.3 Wireless Charging Techniques:

In order to provide a more convenient charging service for electric vehicles, a wireless
charging technique is proposed [49]. This technique employs the coupled magnetic field to
transmit power without physical connecting.
Nowadays, three wireless charging methods are frequently used to charge an electric
vehicle. First, electromagnetic induction can be used to convert electrical power to magnetic
power and then back to electric power [50]. The fundamental theory of wireless charging
using electromagnetic induction is quite similar to that of the transformer. The advantage of
this charging method is its simplicity and maturity [51]. Its disadvantage is the small
maximum charging distance between the charging pile and the electric vehicle. Moreover, the
reliability of this method is still questionable. The second wireless charging method utilizes
the theory of electromagnetic resonance and the charging distance of this method is generally
larger than the first methods. However, the practicability of the second method is still
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negligible, since it can only transmit 100watts [52]. The last wireless charging method
utilises high frequency radio waves (from 300MHz to 300GHz) to transmit power [53]. The
most evident advantage of this method is that long distance charging is possible. However,
due to the omnidirectional radiation pattern of radio wave, the charging efficiency is pretty
low [54].
U.S., Japan, and Korea have been using wireless techniques to provide charging
services on a small scale with success [55], [56]. However, the implementation cost of
wireless charging is much higher than the wired charging [57].

Fig. 2.3.1 Circuit of 3-pulse rectifier; (b) circuit of 6-pulse rectifier.

Fig. 2.3.2 Circuit of phase-shift controlled full bridge DC-DC

converter.

2.4 Progresses on Converters:

2.4.1 AC-DC Converter:
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 As we mentioned above, the charging rate of DC current is much higher than the
charging rate produced by AC current. However, the DC charging system’s structure will
also be complicated compared to AC charging systems. When charging by DC current, we
need to convert the AC current provided from the power grid to DC current. There are two
commonly used AC-DC converters called a 3-pulse rectifier and a 6-pulse rectifier. Their
circuits are given above. The former is a half-wave rectifier, and the
latter can be constructed by connecting two 3-pulse rectifier circuits.

2.4.2 DC-DC Converter:

Moreover, merely converting the AC current from the power grid to DC current is not
enough. We need to further process it to obtain an appropriate current level to charge electric
vehicles. This requires a DC-DC converter. The most popular DC-DC converter is the phase
shift controlled full bridge DC-DC converter. Its circuit is illustrated above.

2.5 POTENTIAL RESEARCH DIRECTIONS:

2.5.1 Comprehensive Tests of Smart Charging for a Variety of Battery

Systems:
As analysed in the previous section, smart charging is a promising technique which
could mitigate the negative impacts of electric vehicle charging on power grids. However, the
essential barrier challenging its implementation is the problem of battery aging. Some
researchers have worked out the relation between battery ageing rate and temperature. This
can be used as an indicator of how the charging power should be adjusted in order to protect
the battery system. With further research, an optimal smart charging strategy could be
obtained from this relation. Different charging models have different effects on the ageing of
the battery system, and this has been investigated in. The results can be used to evaluate
different charging models and select the most appropriate one for a given battery system.
Meanwhile, a positive charging technique is also given in. The robustness of the positive
charging technique is still worth checking, since it uses a unique charging strategy. Although
all of these theories are useful, they have not been systematically tested in practice. As there
are a number of different battery systems for different kinds of electric vehicles, their

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applicability’s may vary somewhat. To the best of our knowledge, there is no a
comprehensive report to generalize these theories for all kinds of commonly used battery
systems. Hence, producing a comprehensive testing report of all these state-of-the-art
charging theories, for a wide range of battery systems, is necessary.

2.5.2 Construction of a Reliable Communication Network Model:

The construction of a reliable communication network over the existing power
network is key to the success of smart charging. The up-to-date progresses on 3G/4G
communication technologies could be utilised to provide a reliable data flow from isolated
charging piles, whilst the power line communication technology could be utilised to gather
data from charging piles located densely in residential areas and parking lots. The
combination of these two communication networks, and the compatibility of such a combined
network, are worth investigating further. Although this technique would reduce the charging
system’s complexity, through combining the data feedback with wireless charging power in
the same wireless signal flow, it is unknown whether it is possible. Hence this aspect is
required to be further studied.

2.5.3 Research in Advanced Control Theories:

Another important way to enhance system reliability is to apply the advanced
nonlinear control theories in order to control the charging process, and so provide a better
charging performance. This is relatively new in academia and there is little literature
regarding the application of these advanced nonlinear control theories in electric vehicle
charging. A comprehensive study is necessary to fill this research gap.

2.5.4 Involvement of Renewable Energy:

Considering the development of a variety of renewable energies, it may be feasible to
design a charging pile or charging system which involves distributed generators, especially
the household photovoltaic power generators. The optimization of such a cooperative system
is required to be studied in order to include these various kinds of generators and improve the
global performance.

2.5.5 Optimization of Converters:

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 Although there exist a number of AC-DC converters and DC-DC converters which
can be used to charge electric vehicles, their efficiencies are still undesirable. Whether we can
further optimize their efficiency, and obtain a high-performance converter, is still an open
issue in academia and requires investigation.

3.1 Proposed Work:

3.1.1 Bi-directional charging of e-vehicle:
Electric Vehicles (EVs), represents a new concept in the transports sector around the
world. Consequently, the interest in technologies for EVs has significantly increased in the
last years, resulting in several scientific publications concerning this subject. It is expected
that the market share of EVs will exponentially grow comprising 24% of the U.S. light
vehicle fleet in 2030, representing 64% light vehicle sales in this year. In this context, the
EVs battery charging process (Grid-to-Vehicle, G2V) must be regulated to preserve the
power quality in the power grids. Nevertheless, with the proliferation of EVs a considerable
amount of energy will be stored in their batteries, arising the opportunity of the energy flow
in opposite sense (Vehicle-to-Grid, V2G). In the future smart grids, the interactivity with the
EVs will be one of the key technologies, contributing to the power grid autonomous
operation. Nowadays, several projects related with smart grids are under development around
the world. Regarding this new approach, especially in homes equipped with charging points
for EVs, besides the G2V and V2G operation modes the EVs can also operates as voltage
source capable to feed the home loads.
In this sequence of ideas, the EVs can bring benefits to the home energy management,
especially to feed priority loads during power outages and other emergencies. From the point
of view of the power grid, EVs can bring benefits to ancillary services, compensation of the
renewable energy sources intermittency (providing backup, storage and load-shift). These
new approaches are more relevant when looking that private vehicles are parked on average
93-96% of their lifetime, and most of the vehicles are at home between 8 pm and 7 am. The
concept of the on-board bidirectional charger with V2G. When the EV is connected to the
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power grid the energy can flow to or from the EV batteries (G2V and V2G). In the absence of
power grid or power outages, the EV can operate as voltages source to feed the desired loads.
The system is not intended for a real-time energy backup, but has an auxiliary energy storage
system. Thus, the transitions between the modes can be seamless.

Fig. 3.1.1 Block diagram of Proposed Scheme

Fig. 3.1.2 Bi-directional power flow diagram

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 Fig. 3.1.3 Electrical circuit of Bi-directional charger

Electric vehicle (EV) has become more competitive compared to the conventional
internal combustion engine vehicle due to lower carbon dioxide emissions and rising fossil
fuel price. However, EV is not widely adopted into the market due to some limitations, such
as high vehicle cost, limited charging infrastructure and limited all-electric drive range. In
addition, the integration of EV on the power grid will lead to many challenging issues. For
instance, large penetration level of EV charging will increase the power grid loading. Instead
of being an additional electrical load, EV battery can be utilized as an energy storage. This
potential has led to the new vehicle to grid (V2G) concept. Apart from charging EV battery,
V2G allows interaction between the EV owners and the power utility to enable power
injection into the power grid according to the predefined schedule and power rates.
Interaction of EV and power grid can introduce various benefits to both the power utility and
EV owners. From the perspective of power utility, V2G concept can achieve load levelling,
peak load shaving, reactive power support, active power regulation, stability improvement
and harmonic filtering. On the other hand, EV owners can earn extra revenues by selling
power to the grid. Presently, the available EV battery chargers in the market are solely for
charging operation. The conventional EV battery charger has unidirectional characteristic,
which allows either slow charging or fast charging. The implementation of V2G technology
requires dedicated Charger that allows bidirectional power flow between power grid and EV
battery. In this paper, a bidirectional EV battery charger with new control strategy is

17
proposed. The proposed control strategy allows four modes, which are fast charge mode, fast
discharge mode, slow charge mode and slow discharge mode.

4.1 Electrical Grid:

 Electrical grid or power grid is defined as the network which interconnects the
generation, transmission and distribution unit. It supplies the electrical power from generating
unit to the distribution unit. A large amount of power is transmitted from the generating
station to load centre at 220kV or higher. The network form by these high voltage lines is
called the super grid. The super grid feeds the sub-transmission network operating at 132kV
or less.

4.1.1 Types of Electrical Grid:

The power station of the grid is located near the fuel source which reduces the
transportation cost of the system. But it is located far away from the populated areas. The
power which is generated at high voltage is stepped down by the help of step down
transformer in the substation and then supply to the consumers. The electrical grid is mainly
classified into two types. They are

1. Regional Grid – The Regional grid is formed by interconnecting the different

transmission system of a particular area through the transmission line.
2. National Grid – It is formed by interconnecting the different regional grid.

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4.1.2 Reason for an Interconnection:

The interconnection of the grid provides the best use of power resource and ensures
great security to supply. It makes the system economical and reliable. The generating stations
are interconnected for reducing the reserve generation capacity in each area.

Fig. 4.1.1 Schematic diagram of a grid

If there is a sudden increase in load or loss of generation in a zone, then it borrows from the
adjacent interconnected area. But for the interconnections of the network certain amount of
generating capacity known as the spinning reserve is required. The spinning reserve consists
generator running at normal speed and ready to supply power instantaneously.

4.1.3 The Smart Grid:

Maybe you have heard of the Smart Grid on the news or from your energy provider.
But not everyone knows what the grid is, let alone the Smart Grid. "The grid," refers to the
electric grid, a network of transmission lines, substations, transformers and more that deliver
electricity from the power plant to your home or business. It’s what you plug into when you
flip on your light switch or power up your computer. Our current electric grid was built in the
1890s and improved upon as technology advanced through each decade. Today, it consists of
more than 9,200 electric generating units with more than 1 million megawatts of generating
capacity connected to more than 300,000 miles of transmission lines. Although the electric
grid is considered an engineering marvel, we are stretching its patchwork nature to its
capacity. To move forward, we need a new kind of electric grid, one that is built from the
19
bottom up to handle the groundswell of digital and computerized equipment and technology
dependent on it—and one that can automate and manage the increasing complexity and needs
of electricity in the 21st Century.

4.1.4 What Makes a Grid “Smart?”

In short, the digital technology that allows for two-way communication between the
utility and its customers, and the sensing along the transmission lines is what makes the grid
smart. Like the Internet, the Smart Grid will consist of controls, computers, automation, and
new technologies and equipment working together, but in this case, these technologies will
work with the electrical grid to respond digitally to our quickly changing electric demand.

Fig. 4.1.2 Schematic diagram of smart grid

4.1.5 What does a Smart Grid do?

The Smart Grid represents an unprecedented opportunity to move the energy industry into
a new era of reliability, availability, and efficiency that will contribute to our economic and
environmental health. During the transition period, it will be critical to carry out testing,
technology improvements, consumer education, development of standards and regulations,

20
and information sharing between projects to ensure that the benefits we envision from the
Smart Grid become a reality. The benefits associated with the Smart Grid include:

 More efficient transmission of electricity

 Quicker restoration of electricity after power disturbances
 Reduced operations and management costs for utilities, and ultimately lower power
costs for consumers
 Reduced peak demand, which will also help lower electricity rates
 Increased integration of large-scale renewable energy systems
 Better integration of customer-owner power generation systems, including renewable
energy systems
 Improved security

Today, an electricity disruption such as a blackout can have a domino effect—a series of
failures that can affect banking, communications, traffic, and security. This is a particular
threat in the winter, when homeowners can be left without heat. A smarter grid will add
resiliency to our electric power System and make it better prepared to address emergencies
such as severe storms, earthquakes, large solar flares, and terrorist attacks. Because of its
two-way interactive capacity, the Smart Grid will allow for automatic rerouting when
equipment fails or outages occur. This will minimize outages and minimize the effects when
they do happen. When a power outage occurs, Smart Grid technologies will detect and isolate
the outages, containing them before they become large-scale blackouts. The new technologies
will also help ensure that electricity recovery resumes quickly and strategically after an
emergency—routing electricity to emergency services first, for example. In addition, the
Smart Grid will take greater advantage of customer-owned power generators to produce
power when it is not available from utilities. By combining these "distributed generation"
resources, a community could keep its health centre, police department, traffic lights, phone
System, and grocery store operating during emergencies. In addition, the Smart Grid is a way
to address an aging energy infrastructure that needs to be upgraded or replaced. It’s a way to
address energy efficiency, to bring increased awareness to consumers about the connection
between electricity use and the environment. And it’s a way to bring increased national
security to our energy System—drawing on greater amounts of home-grown electricity that is
more resistant to natural disasters and attack.

21
4.2 Bi-directional AC – DC Converter:
Bidirectional energy flow using a single bidirectional power supply can save overall
system cost and improve system power density when compared with using two unidirectional
power supplies [1, 2]. High-power bidirectional power supplies can be found in applications
including UPS, ESS and OBC with a vehicle to grid feature included in hybrid electric and
electric vehicles (HEV/EV) [3]. Example system block diagrams are shown in Figure 1. As
can be observed in these systems, a battery is included, requiring bidirectional energy flow
capability to charge and discharge the battery. The power range of these systems is typically
from 500 W to 22 kW.

Since the system power level is high, high efficiency and high-power density are required in
these applications. Using the OBC system in Figure 2 as an example, the power stage of a
high- power bidirectional AC/DC power supply consists of two parts – an AC/DC non-
isolated rectifier/ inverter and an isolated DC/DC converter. This two-stage approach
optimizes overall system efficiency, power density and also provides easy ground fault
protection as well as high grid interference immunity. The intermediate voltage can be
variable to track the battery voltage, allowing the isolated DC/DC converter to operate.

Fig. 4.2.1 Block representation of a AC-DC converter

around the optimal efficiency point. The battery voltage level is generally high, up to 450
VDC in this case, in order to decrease the conduction losses in the system for higher
efficiency. Moreover, wide bandgap switching devices, such as silicon carbide (SiC)
MOSFET and gallium nitride (GaN) FET, are preferred choices in OBC systems. The wide
bandgap power switches have lower RDS(ON), lower reverse recovery charge (Qrr) and lower

22
parasitic capacitance than regular silicon MOSFETs, hence, the overall system efficiency can
be further improved. The control scheme is complicated by the control and communication
for bidirectional energy flow; therefore, a digital controller is implemented as the controller
in a bidirectional power supply.

In this paper, we focus on the discussion of designing a two-stage high-power bidirectional

AC/DC power supply using SiC MOSFETs. In Section II, various suitable topologies to be
used in the rectifier/inverter stage and isolated DC/DC stage are discussed. In Section III, we
focus on the detailed explanation of why wide bandgap devices, like SiC MOSFETs, are
selected here as well as SiC MOSFET gate driver selection criteria. In Section IV, the
controller selection criteria for this high-power density bidirectional power supply are
addressed.

4.3 Single Phase Rectifiers/Inverters:

As the bidirectional AC/DC power supply is intended to transfer high-power, we need

to ensure the power factor in the AC/DC rectifier stage is high enough to minimize the
reactive power generated from power plants. Also, we need to generate a high voltage bus
(intermediate voltage) to lower the conduction losses in both the AC/DC rectifier/inverter and
the isolated DC/DC converter. Therefore, a boost type bidirectional AC/DC rectifier with an
active power factor correction (PFC) function is needed. Three commonly used bidirectional
PFC topologies – totem-pole bridgeless PFC (TTPL bridgeless PFC) and two bridgeless
PFCs with bidirectional switches (AC-switch bridgeless PFC) – are shown in Figure.

23
 (a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 4.3.1 Circuit of a Bi-directional AC-DC converter

In their original rectifier form [7], diodes are used as part of the power switches. In
order to allow bidirectional current flow, these diodes need to be replaced by power switches
that allow bidirectional current flow, MOSFETs for example. The operation of these boost
type AC/DC rectifier topologies can be analogous to a simple boost converter in rectifier
mode or a simple buck converter in inverter mode. Taking the TTPL bridgeless PFC
illustrated in Figure 3 as an example, the current flow paths are the same as a common ground
boost converter in rectifier mode and a common ground buck converter in inverter mode
during the AC positive half cycle. During the AC negative half cycle, the TTPL bridgeless
PFC current flow paths are the same as a common source boost converter in rectifier mode
and a common source buck converter in inverter mode.

24
Fig. 4.3.2 Modes of operation of a Bi-directional AC-DC converter

25
4.3.1 Unidirectional Converters:

They cater to various onboard loads such as sensors, controls, entertainment, utility
and safety equipment’s.

4.3.2 Bidirectional Converters:

They are used in places where battery charging and regenerative braking is required.
The power flow in a bi-directional converter is usually from a low voltage end such as battery
or a supercapacitor to a high voltage side and is referred to as boost operation. During
regenerative braking, the power flows back to the low voltage bus to recharge the batteries
know as buck mode operation. Both the unidirectional and bi-directional DC-DC converters
are preferred to be isolated to provide safety for the lading devices. In this view, most of the
DC-DC converters incorporate a high frequency transformer. Classification of Converters
The converter topologies are classified as:

 Buck Converter: In Figure 4.3.3 a buck converter is shown. The buck converter is
step down converter and produces a lower average output voltage than the dc
input voltage.
 Boost converter: In Figure 4.3.4 a boost converter is shown. The output voltage is
always greater than the input voltage.
 Buck-Boost converter: In Figure 4.3.5 a buck-boost converter is shown. The
output voltage can be either higher or lower than the input voltage.

26
 Fig. 4.3.3 General configuration of a Buck converter

Fig. 4.3.4 General configuration of a Boost converter

Fig. 4.3.5 General configuration of Buck-Boost converter

4.3.3 Principle of Step-Down Operation:

The principle of step-down operation of DC-DC converter is explained using the
circuit shown in Figure 3a. When the switch 1 S is closed for time duration T 1, the input
voltage Vin appears across the load. For the time duration T2 is switch 1 S remains open and
the voltage across the load is zero. The waveforms of the output voltage across the load are
shown in Figure 3b.

27
 Fig. 4.3.6 Step-down operation

Fig. 4.3.7 Voltage across the load

28
In case the converter is assumed to be lossless, the input power to the converter will be equal
to the output power. Hence, the input power (Pin) is given by

(4)

The effective resistance seen by the source is (using equation 2)

The duty cycle D can be varied from 0 to 1 by varying T1 , T or f . Thus, the output
voltage Voavg can be varied from 0 to Vin by controlling D and eventually the power flow can
be controlled.

4.4 The Buck Converter with RLE Load:

The buck converter is a voltage step down and current step up converter. The two
modes in steady state operations are:

4.4.1 Mode-1: Operation:

In this mode the switch 1 S is turned on and the diode D1 is reversed biased, the
current flows through the load. The time domain circuit is shown in Figure. The load current,
in s domain, for mode 1 can be found from

Where 01 I is the initial value of the current and I01 = I1.

Fig. 4.4.1 Time domain circuit of Buck converter in mode-1

29
 Fig. 4.4.2 Time domain circuit of Buck converter in mode-2

From equation 6, the current 1 i (s) is given by:

In time domain the solution of equation 7 is given by

The mode1 is valid for the time duration 0<t<T1=0<t< DT . At the end of this mode, the load
current becomes

4.4.2 Mode-2: Operation:

In this mode the switch 1 S is turned off and the diode D1 is forward biased. The time
domain circuit is shown in Figure 5. The load current, in s domain, can be found from

Where,
I02 is the initial value of load current.
The current at the end of mode1 is equal to the current at the beginning of mode 2.
Hence, from equation 9 I02 is obtained as

30
31
4.4.3 Current Ripple:

4.4.4 Continuous and Discontinuous Conduction Modes:

In case of large off time, particularly at low switching frequencies, the load current
may be discontinuous, i.e I2 (t=T=(1-D)T) will be zero. The necessary condition to ensure
continuous conduction is given by

4.5 The Buck Converter with R Load and Filter:

The output voltage and current of the converter contain harmonics due to the
switching action. In order to remove the harmonics LC filters are used. The circuit diagram of
the buck converter with LC filter is shown in Figure 6. There are two modes of operation as
explained in the previous section.
32
The voltage drop across the inductor in mode 1 is

Fig. 4.5.1 Buck converter with resistive load and filter

Fig. 4.5.2 Voltage and current waveforms

33
Where,
Toff is the duration in which switch S remains off the diode D conducts

Neglecting the very small current in the capacitor Cf, it can be seen that

Io = Isw for time duration in which switch S conducts

and
I0 = ID for the time duration in which the diode D conducts

The voltage and current waveforms are shown in Figure 4.3.11.

34
35
Fig. 4.5.3 The inductor voltage and current Fig. 4.5.4 Current versus duty ratio keeping
waveforms for discontinuous operation input voltage constant

4.6 Discontinuous Conduction Mode with Constant Input Voltage

Vin:
In applications such as speed control of DC motors, the input voltage (Vin) remains
constant and the output voltage (Vo) is controlled by varying the duty ratio D. Since V DV o
in  , the average inductor current at the edge of continuous conduction mode is obtained
from equation 43 as

36
 Fig. 4.6.1 Discontinuous operation of buck converter

Fig. 4.6.2 Buck converter characteristics for constant input current

37
38
39
4.7 Boost and Buck-Boost Converters:
4.7.1 Introduction:

Fig. 4.7.1 General configuration of a Boost converter

Fig. 4.7.2 Inductor current waveform

40
Fig. 4.7.3 Output voltage vs Duty ratio for Boost Converter

Fig. 4.7.4 Boost converter with resistive load and emf source
41
Fig. 4.7.5 Configuration of a Boost converter in mode-1

42
Fig. 4.7.6 Configuration of a Boost converter in mode-2

43
Fig. 4.7.7 Configuration of a Buck-Boost converter

44
45
4.8 Buck-Boost Converter:

Fig. 4.8.1 Buck boost converter in mode-1 Fig. 4.8.2 Buck boost converter in mode-2

Fig. 4.8.3 Current and voltage waveforms of Buck-Boost Converter

46
47
48
 Fig. 4.8.4 Current and Voltage waveforms of buck-boost converter in boundary between
continuous and discontinuous modes

4.9 Implementing Technologies:

4.9.1 Grid-to-vehicle (G2V):
The basic concept of vehicle-to-grid power is that EDVs provide power to the grid
while they are parked. The EDV can be a battery-electric vehicle, hybrid, or a fuel cell
vehicle connected to the grid. Each vehicle must have three required elements for V2G. A
power connection to the grid for electrical energy flow Control or logical connection
necessary for communication with grid operators. Precision metering on-board the vehicle.

Fig. 4.9.1 Grid-to-Vehicle system

49
4.9.2 Why Grid to Vehicle Make Sense:
o In order to schedule dispatch of power, a grid operator needs to rely that enough
vehicles are parked and potentially plugged in at any minute during the day.
o An average personal vehicle is on the road only 4–5% of the day, which means that a
great majority of the day the vehicles are parked.
o At least 90% of personal vehicles are parked even during peak traffic hours.
Economic Sense of G2V.
o The electricity from V2G is not cheap when compared to bulk electricity from large
power plants.
o This electric energy can be competitively used for ancillary services because of the
two parts that make up the price of power in the ancillary service market  capacity
price  energy price.
o When a generator, in this case a battery-vehicle, provides ancillary services it is paid a
capacity price for being available to respond on a minute's notice, and an energy price
for the actual energy output.
The energy output may be quite small, making the cost to produce each kWh of little
consequence for the overall economics. The more important factors are:
o The capital cost of generation or storage equipment ability to vary output
quickly ability to operate in these modes without serious maintenance
penalties
o Vehicles are better than central generators on all three counts

4.9.3 Benefits of G2V Vehicle:

o Consumers may profit from the use of electric vehicles (Evs) because electricity is
cheaper than petrol for equivalent distances travelled.
o EVs in a V2G configuration could provide additional revenue to owners who wish to
sell power back to the grid. Benefits of G2V to Utilities.
o The electric utility system may also benefit from implementing the V2G concept, not
only by supplying electricity to the new vehicles, but by drawing power from them to
maintain ancillary services.

50
 o Except for periods of peak use, the power system could generate and deliver a
substantial amount of energy needed to fuel the nation's vehicles at only the marginal
cost of fuel.
o The V2G cars can serve as distributed generators that supplements to utility power
plants and provide valuable generation capacity at peak times.
o V2G PHEVs can further reduce emissions and air pollution in the electricity sector
by providing storage support for intermittent renewable-energy generators.
The long-term case for V2G and sustainable energy production boils down to a
choice: To keep the electric system and vehicle fleet separate. This in turn increases
increase the cost of renewable energy because we have to build storage to match
intermittent capacity. Or, to connect the vehicle and electric power systems intelligently,
using the vast untapped storage of an emerging electric-drive vehicle fleet to serve the
electric grid.

4.10 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G):

Vehicle to grid (V2G) technology can be defined as a system in which there is a
capability to control, bi-directional flow of electric energy between a vehicle and the
electrical grid. The integration of electric vehicles into the power grid is called the vehicle-to-
grid system.

Fig.4.10.1 Vehicle-to-Grid operation

4.10.1 MOTIVATION TOWARDS V2G:

The concept of Vehicle to grid integration (V2G) was first introduced by Willet
Compton of the Delaware University. The initial goal of The V2G was to provide peak power
that is the electric vehicle owners charging their cars in low load with low electric price and
discharging the vehicles in peak load with higher prices so that the vehicle owners can make
significant amount of profit from the V2G project.
51
 V2G is a version of battery-to-grid power applied to vehicles. There are three main
different versions of the vehicle-to-grid concept, all of which involve an onboard battery:
 A hybrid or Fuel cell vehicle, which generates power from storable fuel, uses its
generator to produce power for a utility at peak electricity usage times. Here the
vehicles serve as a distributed generation system, producing power from conventional
fossil fuels, biofuels or hydrogen.
 A battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle which uses its excess rechargeable
battery capacity to provide power to the electric grid in response to peak load
demands. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates
while helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a
distributed battery storage system to buffer power.
 A solar vehicle which uses its excess charging capacity to provide power to the
electric grid when the battery is fully charged.
4.10.2 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND POWER FLOW:
The components flow V2G system. The major subsystems:
1) Energy resources
2) Independent system operator and
3) Charging infrastructure locations
4) Two-way electrical energy flow
5) ISO aggregator
6) On-board and
7) PEV itself with battery and management.
4.10.3 APPLICATIONS OF V2G Technology:
The following are some applications of V2G technology,
o Peak load levelling:
The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by
"valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving" (sending
power back to the grid when demand is high). Peak load levelling can enable utilities new
ways to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide
spinning reserves (meet sudden demands for power).

52
o Peak power:
Peak power is typically generated by power plants that can be switched on for
short periods. V2G can provide peak power may be appropriate for this purpose. the
required duration for peaking units can be 3-5 hours per day. Electric vehicles can afford
to provide power in peak period while consume power during the off-peak period. This
reduces the gap between the energy demand and balance in the power systems. Secondary
advantages of peak shaving include reducing. transmission congestion, line losses, delay
transmission investments and reduce. stressed operation of a power system.

o Spinning Reserves:
Spinning reserves refer to the additional generating capacity that can provide
power quickly to the grid operator generally within 10minutes upon the operators request.
If the spinning reserve is called, the generator is paid an additional amount of money to
energy that is actually delivered. The Electric vehicles. normally incur only short periods
of generating power typically 2 to 3 hours per day.

53
 CONCLUSION
This paper presents the study of an on-board bidirectional battery charger for Electric
Vehicles (EVs) capable of work in the operating modes Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V), Vehicle-to-
Grid (V2G). The hardware topology and the control algorithms of the presented battery
charger are validated through computer simulations.

54
 FUTURE SCOPE
As future work, the power converters will be redesigned in order to obtain a prototype
with size and weight adequate to be integrated in an EV. And another topology will be
introduced in this project is Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) technology.

55
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