Underground Cable Fault Detection and Location

UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DETECTION AND
LOCATION
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
award of the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering
(Electrical Power Engineering)
by
Name of Students ID
ISRAEL ZEKARIYAS ETS 0640/10
YOHANNES SOLOMON ETS 1285/10
ZERIHUN PAULOS ETS 1334/10
Under the guidance of
Mr. YARED T.
ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

JUNE 2022
EXAMINING COMMITTEE APPROVAL SHEET
TITLE OF THESIS: Underground Fault detection and Location

STUDENT NAMES AND ID:
Name of Students ID
ISRAEL ZEKARIYAS ETS 0640/10
YOHANNES SOLOMON ETS 1285/10
ZERIHUN PAULOS ETS 1334/10
Approved by the examining committee members:

NAME ACADEMIC RANK SIGNATURE DATE
Advisor: _______________________ ________________ ___________
______
Co-Advisor: ____________________ ________________ ___________
______
Examiner: _____________________ ________________ ___________
______
Examiner: _____________________ ________________ ___________
______
Name Signature Date

DC Chairperson: ______________________________ ___________ ___________
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Associate Dean for
Under Graduate Programs: _____________________ ___________ ___________
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ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Certificate
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Underground Cable
Fault Detection” is submitted by ISRAEL ZEKARIYAS, YOHANNES
SOLOMON and ZERIHUN PAULOS for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering (Electrical Power
Engineering), Addis Ababa Science and Technology University is a record of
original work carried out under my supervision and they fulfils the
requirements of the regulations laid down by the University and meets the
accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
The results of the thesis have neither partially nor fully been submitted to
any other University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.
Name of Advisor: Mr. YARED T. Signature: _________

Head of Department: Mr. FISEHA A. Signature: _________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deep gratitude to the head of department Mr. Fiseha A.
and all of the Electrical and Computer Engineering department staffs, instructors, laboratory
technicians for helping us through this long journey to acquire knowledge in Addis Ababa
Science and Technology University. We would also like to thank Mr. Yared T., for helping
us as our advisor and assistance in keeping our progress on schedule.
Finally, we wish to thank our parents for their support and encouragement
throughout our study. No one walks alone on the journey of life. Just where we start to thank
those that joined us, walked beside us, and helped us in many aspects. We would like to
express our sincere thanks to who directly and indirectly involved in successful completion of
this project work.
Project Associates
1. Israel Zekariyas
2. Yohannes Solomon
3. Zerihun Paulos
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ABSTRACT
In the past decade, electricity demand has increased rapidly in metropolitan areas. All
over the world, large scale underground power cable installations networks are replacing
overhead transmission lines due to environmental concerns in densely populated areas.
Underground cable systems are manufactured to have long life with reliability. However, the
useful life span of these cables is not infinite. The increase in failure rates and system
breakdowns on older underground power cables are now adversely impacting system
reliability and many losses involved; therefore it is readily apparent that necessary action has
to be taken to manage the consequences of this trend. In this paper an appropriate method of
fault detection and classification of power system transmission line using discrete wavelet
transform is proposed.
The detection is carried out by the analysis of the detail coefficients energy of phase
currents. Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) analysis of the transient disturbance caused as
a result of occurrence faults is performed. The work represented in this paper is focused on
classification of simple power system faults using the maximum detail coefficient, energy of
the signal of each type of is used for distinguishing fault types.
Index Terms – Transmission line faults, wavelets transform.
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Organization of the thesis
Generally this project report is divided into five chapters, each chapter having its own
importance and they are:
Chapter 1 Defines a complete overview of the project, the problem statement, objective and
scope of the project.
Chapter 2 In this chapter we reviewed all the literatures that have been done about our
project
Chapter 3 Discuss about the methodology that are adopted for this project work and which
basically defined the planning process flow. Principles that are essential guides
to produce a well planning project are also described.
Chapter 4 Discusses the project testing and findings.
Chapter 5 Concludes all the works that had been presented in previous chapters and all the
results of the project. This is followed by recommendations for the future study
work
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
EXAMINING COMMITTEE APPROVAL SHEET...........................................................ii
Certificate................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................v
Organization of the thesis.......................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1.............................................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem..............................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives........................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General Objective......................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................3
1.4. Significance of the Project............................................................................................3
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project.............................................................................3
CHAPTER 2.............................................................................................................................4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................4
2.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................4
2.2. Ageing phenomenon of underground cables...............................................................5
2.3. Underground cable faults.............................................................................................6
2.4. Types of underground faults........................................................................................7
2.4.1 Short Circuit and Earth Faults................................................................................7
2.4.2 Open Circuit Faults..................................................................................................9
2.5. Fault detection techniques............................................................................................9
CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................11
3. METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................11
3.1 Identification of Fault...................................................................................................11
3.1.1 Wavelet Transform..................................................................................................11
3.1.2 MATLAB Functions...............................................................................................13
3.1.3 Comparison between Fourier transform (FT) and Wavelet transform (WT)......14
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3.1.4 System Design with Block Diagrams.....................................................................14
3.1.5 Description of Block Diagrams..............................................................................15
3.2 Localization of underground cables using Proteus...................................................16
3.2.1 System Descriptions of the Project.........................................................................16
3.2.2 Working...................................................................................................................16
3.3 System components and operation..............................................................................17
3.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)...................................................................................17
3.3.2 Arduino....................................................................................................................17
3.3.3 Relay........................................................................................................................19
3.3.4 Relay driver circuit ULN2003................................................................................20
3.3.5 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).................................................................................21
3.3.6 Buzzer......................................................................................................................23
3.3.7 Resistors...................................................................................................................23
3.4 Theory of Operation.....................................................................................................24
3.4.1 Ohm’s law................................................................................................................24
3.4.2 Power dissipation....................................................................................................24
3.5 Overall operation of the Project..................................................................................25
3.6 Murray Bridge Loop Method......................................................................................26
CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................28
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...................................................................................28
4.1 Basic System Model......................................................................................................28
4.2 List of Components with their specifications.............................................................28
4.3 Simulation Diagram.....................................................................................................29
4.3.1 Test Results for No-Fault.......................................................................................29
4.3.2 Test Results for Single Phase Faults......................................................................31
4.3.3 Test Results for Double Phase Faults....................................................................34
4.3.4 Test Results for Double Phase to Ground Faults..................................................38
4.3.5. Test Results for Three Phase Fault.......................................................................42
4.3.6. Test Results for Three Phase to Ground Fault.....................................................44
4.4 Simulation Results and their interpretations.............................................................45
4.5 Software Simulation Results and Discussions for Proteus Design...........................45
CHAPTER 5...........................................................................................................................48
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK...............................................48
5.1 Conclusions...................................................................................................................48
5.2 Scope for Future Work................................................................................................49
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REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................51
APPENDIX.............................................................................................................................54
I. Code For Underground Cable Fault Detection........................................................54
II. Code For Locating Short Circuit Faults...............................................................57
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Parts of an underground power cable-----------------------------------------------------4
Figure 2.2 Three Phase-to-Ground fault---------------------------------------------------------------8
Figure 2.3 Three Phase short circuit fault-------------------------------------------------------------8
Figure 2.4 Line-to-Line short circuit fault------------------------------------------------------------8
Figure 2.5 Double Line-to-Ground short circuit fault------------------------------------------------9
Figure 2.6 Single Line-to-Ground short circuit fault-------------------------------------------------9
Figure 3.1 Detail and Approximate Coefficients----------------------------------------------------13
Figure 3.2 Block Diagram for fault identification.--------------------------------------------------14
Figure 3.3 Block diagram of underground fault detector------------------------------------------17
Figure 3.4 Arduino UNO R3---------------------------------------------------------------------------18
Figure 3.5 Relay-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
Figure 3.6 ULN2003 Relay driver--------------------------------------------------------------------21
Figure 3.7 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)------------------------------------------------------------22
Figure 3.8 Resistors-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
Figure 3.9 Murray Bridge Loop-----------------------------------------------------------------------26
Figure 4.1 Basic power system model----------------------------------------------------------------28
Figure 4.2 Simulink Model of Underground Cable Fault Detection-----------------------------29
Figure 4.3 Three Phase current During No Fault----------------------------------------------------30
Figure 4.4 Detail coefficients during no fault-------------------------------------------------------30
Figure 4.5 Three Phase current during A-g Fault---------------------------------------------------31
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Figure 4.6 Detail Coefficients during A-g Fault----------------------------------------------------32
Figure 4.7 Three phase current during B-g fault----------------------------------------------------32
Figure 4.8 Detail Coefficients during B-g Fault-----------------------------------------------------33
Figure 4.9 Three phase current during C-g fault----------------------------------------------------33
Figure 4.10 Detail Coefficients during C-g Fault--------------------------------------------------34
Figure 4.11 Three phase current during A-B fault--------------------------------------------------35
Figure 4.12 Detail Coefficients during A-B Fault.--------------------------------------------------35
Figure 4.13 Three phase current during A-C fault--------------------------------------------------36
Figure 4.14 Detail Coefficients during A-C Fault--------------------------------------------------37
Figure 4.15 Three phase current during B-C fault--------------------------------------------------37
Figure 4.16 Detail Coefficients during B-C Fault---------------------------------------------------38
Figure 4.17 Three phase current during AB-G fault------------------------------------------------39
Figure 4.18 Detail Coefficients during AB-G Fault------------------------------------------------39
Figure 4.19 Three phase current during AC-G fault------------------------------------------------40
Figure 4.20 Detail Coefficients during AC-G Fault------------------------------------------------41
Figure 4.21 Three phase current during BC-G fault------------------------------------------------41
Figure 4.22 Detail Coefficients during BC-G Fault------------------------------------------------42
Figure 4.23 Three phase current during three phase fault------------------------------------------43
Figure 4.24 Detail Coefficients during Three phase Fault-----------------------------------------43
Figure 4.25 Three phase current during three phase to Ground fault-----------------------------44
Figure 4.26 Detail Coefficients during Three phase to Ground Fault----------------------------45
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Figure 4.27 Simulation of Resistor and Switch Part------------------------------------------------46
Figure 4.28 no fault simulation result-----------------------------------------------------------------46
Figure 4.29 LG-fault result-----------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Figure 4.30 LLG-faults results displayed on LCD--------------------------------------------------47
Figure 4.31 Result displayed on the LCD------------------------------------------------------------47
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Types of short circuit faults---------------------------------------------------------------15
Table 4.1 Maximum coefficient of each phase during no fault-----------------------------------31
Table 4.2 Maximum coefficient of each phase during A-g fault----------------------------------32
Table 4.3 Maximum coefficient of each phase during B-g fault----------------------------------33
Table 4.4 Maximum coefficient of each phase During C-g fault---------------------------------34
Table 4.5 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-B fault---------------------------------36
Table 4.6 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-C fault---------------------------------37
Table 4.7 Maximum coefficient of each phase During B-C fault---------------------------------38
Table 4.8 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AB-g fault-------------------------------40
Table 4.9 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AC-g fault-------------------------------41
Table 4.10 Maximum coefficient of each phase During BC-g fault------------------------------42
Table 4.11 Maximum coefficient of each phase During Three phase fault----------------------44
Table 4.12 Maximum coefficient of each phase During Three phase to ground fault---------45
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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Underground cable fault classification and location has been one of the primary
concerns of power industry. Many researchers has suggested techniques for fault type
detection. These techniques depends mainly on studying the pattern of the voltage and current
waveforms associated with the fault. Among these are Kalman filtering based algorithms,
Fourier analysis based algorithms and FIR filtering based protection. Recently a new
technique is presented for wave analysis which is wavelet analysis [1] Wavelet analysis
allows the decomposition of a signal into different levels of resolution.
The basic function (mother wavelet) is dilated at low frequencies and compressed at
high frequencies, so that large windows are used to obtain the low frequency components of
the signal while small windows are used to obtain reflect discontinuities [2]. Some
applications of the wavelet analysis are used for modeling the power system transients [3]
power quality and power system relaying [4]-[5]. The basic system under consideration for
wavelet based fault classification is presented in [6]. The DWT based fault classification
taking current signal as reference is presented in [7].
1.1 Background
During the early years, long transmission lines and overhead lines were an
“indissoluble binomial” for the AC Power Systems [8]. Faults are considered as the total
breakdown or loss of synchronism of power system network which does not exclude the
environmental hazards such as electrocution and a devastating fire outbreak [9]. This means
that the general belief as at the time was purely of the reliance on overhead lines for
transmission of signals. This left the use of High Voltage (HV) and Extra High Voltage
(EHV) insulated cables to be dedicated to DC submarine links. Faults are however meant to
be located and cleared as fast as possible to forestall further loss of revenue and discomfort
from the customer end [10].
The underground cable system was first considered in Northern Germany as early as
1870 and was implemented on the telegraph system [11]. This was generally as a result of a
heightened regard for environmental conditions, the increasing hindrances encountered on the
overhead lines, and increased reliability on the high-quality extruded insulations among other
reasons.
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The replacement of these overhead cables and lines by underground ones or
inculcating a hybrid system (i.e. merging of the overhead lines and the underground cables)
has been considered by power systems operators in the power sectors in various countries.
The underground cable system installations are mostly carried out for economic
reasons amongst others. Some of the advantages of its installation are highlighted below.
1. A greatly reduced probability of damage from weather conditions e.g. lightning,
winds, freezing, among others.
2. Underground cable system provides a reduced range of Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)
emission [11].
3. Less components are installed alongside the underground cables. This is the opposite
in the use of overhead lines as more components are installed alongside for safety,
maintenance or repair.
4. Underground cable system reduces the probable hazard that could have been imposed
on flying aircraft and wildlife.
5. There are reduced chances of conductor theft, sabotage and illegal connections [12].
6. In environmental conscious countries, underground cable system provides spaces for
large trees to be planted and grow freely.
The advantages of underground system process can, in some cases, outweigh its
disadvantages generally. One of the most observed and more practical disadvantage of
underground system process is the fault detection and location difficulty whenever it occurs.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Frequently faults in underground cables are caused due to the breakdown of the paper
or polymer plastic insulation due to chemical action, reaction or even poor workmanship
during installation and the difficulty in locating the approximate fault area have long been a
serious engineering problem.
Most underground faults are located by unearthing the entire length of armored cable
to enable visual inspection to be carried out. In case where visual inspection is not helpful,
the entire length of cable is replaced. This analogue method is not only expensive, but also,
long outage of cable from service results in a heavy loss of revenue to the power distribution
company, production loss of industries as well as unpleasant conditions to the general public,
since the consumers are left without electricity for the whole period taken to unearth the cable
and carryout necessary repairs.
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In order to locate the fault we must know the type of fault occurring on the line. So
we first have to design a method to classify the type of fault that may occur. This research is
aimed at designing and constructing an underground cable fault detector to solve the problem.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
The main objective of this project is to identify types of faults using Matlab and detect
the location of fault in underground cable lines from the base station in kilometers using an
Arduino board.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
 To identify all types of short circuit using Matlab.
 To classify the fault type using Discrete Wavelet Transform.
 To detect all short-circuit faults using Arduino software
 To interface LCD with Arduino microcontroller kit
1.4. Significance of the Project

Underground cable constitute the heart of any distribution system such as the power
and communication utilities.
This research work will help these utilities in easy identification the type underground
cable fault which will directly help the process of detecting the fault without unearthing the
entire length of the cable.
This research will also help to reduce the loss of revenue due to damage in trying to
locate or detect faults and long power down time will be reduced as minimum time will be
used to restore supply. Thus, the research will help to enhance the quality and reliability of
the power or signal delivered to the customer and reduces cost of services to the customer.
This project will also help researchers for future work.
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project

The analysis of the fault identification and classification is categorized into two
stages. Firstly, the pre-processing stage is carried out in which the simulation of signals with
different types of faults are simulated using MATLAB Simulink 2013a. Three types of faults
are single line to ground, double lines to ground, line to line and three phase fault. The
waveform and signal produced will be computed using Wavelet transform (WT) algorithm.
Secondly, the data from the pre-processing stage were analyzed and used to detect all types of
short circuit faults.
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CHAPTER 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
Unlike the overhead cables, the underground cables are made to curb electromagnetic
induction and to withstand various soil conditions. In order to serve its purpose, the
underground cables are manufactured in thick protective layers, and with varying diameters
depending on the depth of earth it is buried, and its volts-amp rating. Generally, underground
cables for transmission are of less diameter than those for distribution. The anatomy of
underground cables is shown below in fig. 1
Figure 2.1 Parts of an underground power cable
The main part of the underground cable is the core conductor, which transmits the
electrical energy from the source point to the load. Underground cables have now been made
for different applications and at different voltage levels and are still under research and
development. The selection of conductor is relative, depending on manufacturer’s discretion.
It could either be aluminum or copper in solid or stranded form. Also, its application could
influence the choice of conductor, based on its flexibility, economics, physical property,
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shape, voltage, ampacity and other factors [13]. Conductors are made to carry current under
various conditions and withstand pulling stresses during cable laying [14].
In order to prevent electrical field concentration, a semiconductor interface is
provided between the conductor and the insulation. This is usually black in color. This is the
conductor screen (or shield). It works synergistically with the insulation shield to make for a
uniform cylindrical surface for even distribution of electrical stress [15].
There are different types of insulations for underground power cables, such as
Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR), Cross-Linked Polyethene (XLPE), paper insulated and
TreeRetardant Polyethylene (TRPE) compounds. The insulation is used to insulate a high
voltage working conductor from the shield, when working at earth potential [14]. The
insulation has to be able to insulate electrical field under rated voltages, and during
overvoltage. This therefore implies that the size of insulator varies directly as voltage rating.
The insulation screen is also a semiconductor. Apart from aiding of even distribution
of electrical stress, the insulator screen borders electric field within the cable, reduce dangers
arising from shocks, curb radio interference and protect voltage induced by cable when
connected to overhead lines [16]. The outer part of the shield is usually connected to ground
at one point. It is either metallic or non-metallic; drain wires or concentric neutral wires. The
metallic sheath (or concentric neutral conductors) is the metallic part of the insulation screen
and serves as a conduction path for neutral return current [17].
The conductive tape and water tight tape work simultaneously to ensure an
improvement in electrostatic shield and serves as a moisture barrier. The outermost layer and
the first point of protection for the cable is the cable jacket. It provides thermal, mechanical,
environmental and chemical protection. The outer jacket could be made of different
compounds like polyethene, nylon, and a number of other plastics. Some cable manufacturers
prefer the use of sheath or armor instead of a jacket, as this provides better protection than a
jacket.
2.2. Ageing phenomenon of underground cables

As cable ages, deterioration is inevitable. Most utility components, especially
underground cables, have higher failure rates as time passes [18]. This deterioration is caused
by thermal, mechanical, electrical and environmental factors or combination of any of these
factors [19]. The underground cable eventually fails due to persistence of the acting factor.
The activation of any of these factors could cause either an intrinsic aging, or an
extrinsic aging. Intrinsic aging occurs when the aging mechanism changes the bulk properties
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of the material used for insulation. On the other hand, extrinsic aging occurs when the aging
mechanism causes degradation of the cable [15]. This degradation comes about by the
persistent presence of defects, contaminants, protrusions or voids and their intercourse with
any of the aging mechanisms [20].
Electrical stresses tend to be the most dominant ageing factor. Consequently, this
stress causes the underground cable to fail via partial discharge or water treeing mechanism
(that is, heightened by the presence of moisture) [15]. Water treeing activities is the major
and the worst cause of cable failures in organic extruded dielectric and cross-linked
polyethene, in particular. The cable encounters damages in its insulation in which the path of
deterioration resembles a tree. In dry insulators, the main cause of treeing is the presence of
partial discharge under high electric stress and water (or moisture) at low electrical stresses.
In laminated cables, treeing is caused by drying of oil and burning of the insulating papers,
leaving carbon deposits (carbon treeing). This forms a conductive path through the dielectric
material leading to cable failure.
Generally, they are formed by the presence of moisture, impurities, contamination and
electric field over time [21]. Treeing occurs in two forms: -
1. Bow-tie treeing
2. Vented treeing.
Bow-tie trees grow from the insulation outwards towards the surface; the growth is in
the direction of the electric field and in the both directions towards the two electrodes. They
exhibit faster initial growth rate, but don’t grow so large enough to cause failure in insulation.
Vented trees grow from the surface of the polymer inwards towards the dielectric system.
They also grow in the direction of the electric field. However, they exhibit lower initial
growth rate and can grow right through the entire dielectric thickness. This type of trees tends
to cause more damage and, if not checked, lead to cable failure.
Nevertheless, reoccurring cable failures are caused by thermally aged insulation
breakdown. This is mostly observed in the paper insulated cables. Insulation losses are
increased by presence of moisture. This causes heat localization which gradually degrades the
paper insulation [17].
2.3. Underground cable faults

Faults, if not attended to, tend to cause adverse or drastic effects on the workings of
power systems in a number of ways. They cause an abnormal increase in voltage or current
levels at specific points of the system, and this rise shortens the life span of the equipment.
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Faults also cause instability of the power system, causing three-phase equipment to operate
abnormally. Faults are also liable to cause dangers to personnel and could also start a fire
[22]. Therefore, it is expedient that a fault be disconnected or cleared as soon as it occurs, in
order to maintain normal working conditions of the rest of the system.
Lengthy transmission lines are victims of environmental topography, giving it an
increased fault probability. These faults are broadly classified to shunt and series faults.
Shunt faults, however, have higher chances of occurrence (e.g. single line-to-ground fault).
These faults can be caused by lightning, trees growing on lines, among others [21].
Generally, faults in power systems can be broadly categorized into two, which are
symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults.
Symmetrical faults are faults that occur in a power system without causing an
imbalance of the system (i.e. the phases still maintain phase angles of 120° between the
phases). This type of faults rarely occurs and exhibits a large amount of current flow. An
example of symmetrical fault is when the three phases are short circuited to earth [23].
Unsymmetrical faults occur on one phase or two phases. An unsymmetrical fault causes an
imbalance in the power system (i.e. the phases are no longer separated by a phase angle of
120°). They occur between phases or between phase (and phases) and ground [24].
Faults, whether symmetrical or unsymmetrical, are unsafe to the power system and
personnel alike. They are usually caused by persisting ageing mechanisms and other factors.
Some of these factors are: -
1. Poor workmanship.
2. Inherent defects during manufacture.
3. Damage by improper handling.
4. National Electric Energy Testing, Research & Applications Center
(NEETRAC) by Georgia Institute of Technology estimated 42.7% of
outages to faulty splices and terminations [24]
2.4. Types of underground faults

2.4.1 Short Circuit and Earth Faults
Short circuit faults decrease impedances but increase phase angle. This, however,
depends on the distance of the fault from the source [25]. Short circuit faults closer to source
reduces impedance dramatically and increases fault current, therefore making it hazardous in
nature [26, 27]. They could be as a result of a damage in the cable insulation and causes
overheating of conductors. Usually, arcing occurs at the point of fault or an area close the
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fault location [20]. Earth faults, on the other hand, are the most common faults in power
system. This type of fault occurs when a current carrying conductor comes in contact with the
lead (or metallic) sheath, which transfers current to the earth [28]. These faults manifest
themselves in several ways.
1. Three Phase-to-Ground
This occurs when all three phases are in contact with each other. It is exhibited by
large amount of current flow and a drastic voltage drop across the phases (very close to zero),
while the system remains balanced, as shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2.2 Three Phase-to-Ground fault
2. Three Phase short circuit fault

All the three phases are connected together at the fault location as shown in fig. 3, and
there is heavy current flow through conductors to the ground. The system remains balanced.
Figure 2.3 Three Phase short circuit fault
3. Line-to-Line fault
A short circuit occurs between two phases as shown in fig.4. It is exhibited by heavy
current through the two phases, while the third still supplies its load. The system gets
unbalanced due to these types of faults.
Figure 2.4 Line-to-Line short circuit fault
4. Line-to-Line-to-Ground
Fault current flows through the shorted phases and to the ground as shown in fig. 5.
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Figure 2.5 Double Line-to-Ground short circuit fault
5. Single Line-to-Ground
This type of fault accounts for 95 percent of faults in power systems [25]. The load is
supplied by all three phases, but there will be a heavy flow of current to ground from the
failed phase. This fault current circulates back, returns to the neutral and then to the
generator. Fig. 8 shows the fault described
Figure 2.6 Single Line-to-Ground short circuit fault
2.4.2 Open Circuit Faults

These types of faults are also called Ferro-resonance [25]. This Ferro-resonance
causes very high voltage level across transformer windings and from line to ground. The
voltage level is so high, it could damage the insulators and windings of the transformer.
However, no current flows through the open circuit, making it less hazardous to personnel.
An example of this is a loose joint connection or a broken conductor, usually caused when
cable has been stretched beyond its limit [28]. It can also be caused by a malfunction of a
protective device (e.g. circuit breaker, fuses, etc.). Open circuit faults isolate the load side
from the generation or supply side and could cause an imbalance in the system [26].
2.5. Fault detection techniques

Faults have negative effects on power system as a whole. They constitute a major
fraction of losses in the power system [29], and also pose a hazard to instrument and
personnel. Therefore, it is necessary to locate and rectify a fault as soon as it is detected.
Apart from reduced reliability, cable faults tend to be costly. Detection of these faults quickly
would, not only save working time, but also play a part in loss of revenue for the power
company [13]. Structural changes and reviewed policies have put the power sector in a
position where they give customers quality and reliable supply of electrical power at reduced
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costs. This place power companies in positions where they can condone only a very small
amount of losses and also, to optimize their maintenance culture as much as possible.
There are many techniques that are used to detect underground cable fault. All
depending mainly on studying the pattern of the voltage and current waveforms associated
with the fault. Recently a new technique is presented for wave analysis which is wavelet
analysis. Wavelet analysis allows the decomposition of a signal into different levels of
resolution. The basic function (mother wavelet) is dilated at low frequencies and compressed
at high frequencies, so that large windows are used to obtain the low frequency components
of the signal while small windows are used to obtain reflect discontinuities The DWT based
fault classification taking current signal as reference is used to detect all types of short circuit
faults occurring on the line.
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CHAPTER 3
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Identification of Fault
3.1.1 Wavelet Transform
A wavelet is a mathematical function used to divide a given function or continuous-
time signal into different scale components. Usually one can assign a frequency range to each
scale component. Each scale component can then be studied with a resolution that matches its
scale. A wavelet transform is the representation of a function by wavelets. The wavelets are
scaled and translated copies (known as "daughter wavelets") of a finite- length or fast-
decaying oscillating waveform (known as the "mother wavelet"). Wavelet transforms have
advantages over traditional Fourier transforms for representing functions that have
discontinuities and sharp peaks, and for accurately deconstructing and reconstructing finite,
non-periodic and/or non-stationary signals.
Wavelet transforms are classified into discrete wavelet transforms (DWTs) and
continuous wavelet transforms (CWTs).In the wavelet transform we should note that both
DWT and CWT are continuous-time (analog) transforms. They can be used to represent
continuous-time (analog) signals. CWTs operate over every possible scale and translation
whereas DWTs use a specific subset of scale and translation values or representation grid.
There are a large number of wavelet transforms each suitable for different applications.
The wavelet transform can be accomplished in two different ways depending on what
information is required out of this transformation process. The first method is a continuous
wavelet transform (CWT), where one obtains a surface of wavelet Coefficients, CWT(b,a),
for different values of scaling 'a' and translation 'b', and the second is a Discrete Wavelet
Transform (DWT), where the scale and translation are discredited, but not are independent
variables of the original signal. In the CWT the variables 'a' and 'b' are continuous. DWT
results in a finite number of wavelet coefficients depending upon the integer number of
discretization step in scale and translation, denoted by 'm' and 'n'. If a0 and b0 are the
segmentation step sizes for the scale and translation respectively, the scale and translation in
terms of these parameters will be
a=a0m and b=b0a0m (3.1)
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(3.2)
The above presented equation represents the mother wavelet of continuous time
wavelet series. After discretization in terms of the parameters, a0 ,b0 , 'm' and 'n', the mother
wavelet can be written as,
(3.3)
After discretization, the wavelet domain coefficients are no longer represented by a

simple 'a' and 'b'. Instead they are represented in terms of „m‟ and „n‟. The discrete wavelet
coefficients DWT (m, n) are given by equation:
(3.4)
The commonly used wavelet mother functions are mainly considered as the
following:
(1) Classic wavelet: Harr wavelet, Morlet wavelet and Gaussian wavelet.
(2) Orthogonal wavelet: Daubechies wavelet, Symlets wavelet and Coiflets
wavelet.
(3) Biorthogonal wavelet
The transformation is over continuous time but the wavelets are represented in a
discrete fashion. Like the CWT, these discrete wavelet coefficients represent the correlation
between the original signal and wavelet for different combinations of m‟ and „n‟. In this
study, the line current signals are used as the input signals of the wavelet analysis. The DWT,
using a Daubechies-4 wavelet (db4), performed better at identifying the start and end of a
disturbance. The Daubechies wavelet is very well suited for identifying short-time, high
frequency transients, as well as low frequency behavior over longer periods of time. In both
cases the signals are non- periodic or non-stationary. The fault transients of the study cases
are analyzed through discrete wavelet transform at levels one to five. Both approximation and
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details information related fault current are extracted from the original signal with the multi-
resolution analysis.
The figure 3.1 below shows the details and approximations of the original signal by
passing the signal through low-pass filters which remove high frequency components and
high-pass filters which pick out high frequency components in the signal being analyzed
Figure 3.7 Detail and Approximate Coefficients
3.1.2 MATLAB Functions

In order to perform discrete wavelet analysis of the current signals, some functions
found within the Wavelet Toolbox of MATLAB are required. The wavedec function returns
the wavelet decomposition of a signal x, at a level n, using the wavelet specified by ‘wname’
as seen in Equation (3.5).
[c,l]=wavedec(x,n,’wname’) (3.5)
The outputs c and l contain the decomposition vector and bookkeeper vector
respectively. The detcoef function can then use to retrieve the detail coefficients from the c
and l decomposition values at level n obtained from the wavedec function as seen in Equation
(3.6).
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D=detcoef(c,l,n) (3.6)
The detail coefficients can then be plotted and the time-frequency indices of the signal
peaks modulus maxima can be used to calculate the fault location. An example of the
wavedec and detcoef functions being used for fault Detection will be shared in Appendix.
3.1.3 Comparison between Fourier transform (FT) and Wavelet transform (WT)
FT does not reflect frequency that changes over time, that is, for a certain frequency is
detected, when it is generated can’t be determined from Fourier transform. The Fourier
transform lacks the local signal analytical ability. Facing this drawback, Translation and
expansion are a feature of wavelet transform. Therefore, various signals can be analyzed in
different frequency ranges and different time positions. Through this multi-resolution
analysis, a good time sensitivity is obtained in high-frequency signals. Good sensitivity to
time and frequency at different frequencies of wavelet solve the disadvantages of FT
applications and nonstationary signals
3.1.4 System Design with Block Diagrams
A fault can be detected by observing the norm of DWT coefficient of these
fundamental frequency components. If the norm of DWT coefficient for line current less than
certain threshold, the lines are healthy. Once the norm of one or more current DWT
coefficient exceeds the threshold value then disturbance is selected. Six level decomposition
is performed for fault classification.
START
Load Input Current

Data
Compute norm of DWT Coefficient

Of Current Signal
Identify the Phase that has Largest Value
Norm>
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NO
No Fault
YES
Phase is involved in Fault
Figure 3.8 Block Diagram for fault identification.
3.1.5 Description of Block Diagrams

The Primary step for analyzing underground cable fault by wavelet transform is the
signal to be analyzed in this case the current signal. The Current signal is then decomposed
by using multi resolution analyzer (MRA). MRA is the process of decomposing a signal into
different levels of resolutions [1]. Initially, the signal is passed through two discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) filters – high pass (HP) filter and low pass (LP) filter. The samples of
output signal from the HP filter are known as detail coefficients, and those from the LP filter
are known as approximated coefficients. This is considered the first level. Next, the obtained
samples from LP filter (first level approximated coefficients) are further processed through
HP and LP filters forming the second level. In this way, the original signal can be processed
through many levels depending on the need of resolution of signal.
Table 3.1 Types of short circuit faults
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The three phase current signals fed through the wavelet decomposition filter, it’s used
to reconstruct the original signal and extract the high frequency detail coefficients and we
will check each lines high frequency detail coefficient value and compare it to the threshold
value if it is greater than the threshold there is a fault in the line and if it is less than the
threshold there is no fault by using this technique we can check all the Eleven types of fault
shown in the above figure and display what kind of Fault is occurring or not in the cable.
3.2 Localization of underground cables using Proteus

3.2.1 System Descriptions of the Project
Underground fault detector deals with finding of exact fault location from the base
station itself. Cables have some resistance. We are mainly focusing that resistance.
Resistance can vary with Respect to the length of the cable. If the length of the cable is
increase, the value of the resistance will also increase. If any deviation occurs in the
resistance value, we will call that is fault point and finding that place through Arduino
technology. That fault point represents the standard of distance (kilometer) from the base
station.
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3.2.2 Working
Normally people have been using commercial voltage (230V).This voltage is step-
down through step down transformer. Transformer is an electrical device that transfers
electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.. Generally,
transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltages of alternating current in electric
power applications. This step-down voltage goes to rectifier unit. Rectifier is nothing but an
electronic device which used to convert an AC supply into DC supply. This project we were
using bridge rectifier.12V AC supply is converts into 12V DC supply. These voltage moves
to the regulator unit.
Regulator is an electrical device which is used to maintain a constant voltage. Here
we were using two voltage regulators. Program was written if any fault occurs in the cable,
immediately will open the relay terminal and disconnect that faulty line only. Rest of the
other lines operates normally. Now a day’s embedded system changed meteorically.
Arduino is the advanced version of embedded system. These Arduino has ample types but we
selected Arduino UNO. These Arduino UNO helps to develop many advanced version of
Arduino UNO creates user friendly environment.
It easily to adopt other devices using serial port. Next we move the relay. Relay is
nothing but an electrical device here which acted as a switch if any fault occur in the line, the
line will be disconnect using relay. The connector of the relay moves from normally close
conduct to the normally open conduct. We easily find the fault and to disconnect the fault
line. Display unit is connecting the Arduino kit which is used to where the fault occurs and to
display it.
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Figure 3.9 Block diagram of underground fault detector
3.3 System components and operation

3.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Here, we have used the infrared sensor that consists of infrared transmitter which is
one type of LED, which emits infrared rays generally called as IR Transmitter. Similarly, IR
Receiver is used to receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter. One important thing
is that, both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line to each other. The
transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter whenever the signal is high, the IR transmitter
LED is conducting and passes the IR rays to the receiver. The IR receiver is connected with
comparator to feed input signal.
3.3.2 Arduino
It is a powerful single board computer, an open source hardware platform allowing
creating interactive electronic objects. It consists of Arduino board, set of various analog and
digital I/O pins, serial communication interfaces, including USB on some models, for loading
programs from personal computers. Its platform provides an integrated development
environment (IDE) based on the processing project, which includes support for C, C++ and
Java programming languages. This method features an Atmel Atmega328 operating at 5v
with 2kb RAM, 32kb of flash memory for storing programs and 1kb of EEPROM for storing
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parameters. The clock speed is 16 MHz which translates to executing about of 300,000 lines
of C source code per second.
We uploaded the program in the kit. Program was written if any fault occurs in the
cable, immediately will open the relay terminal and disconnect that faulty line only. Rest of
the other lines operates normally. Now a day’s embedded system changed meteorically.
Arduino is the advanced version of embedded system. These Arduino has ample types but we
selected Arduino UNO. These Arduino UNO helps to develop many advanced versions of
Arduino UNO creates user friendly environment. It is easily to adopt other devices using
serial port.
Figure 3.10 Arduino UNO R3
 Pin Configuration of Arduino UNO R3

Every Arduino board needs a way to be connected to a power source. The Arduino
UNO can be powered from a USB cable coming from our computer or a wall power supplies.
It’s not allowed to use a power supply greater than 20 Volts as we will overpower and
thereby destroy the Arduino. The recommended voltage for most Arduino models is between
6 and 12 Volts. The pins on the Arduino are the places where it will connect wires to
construct a circuit probably in conjunction with a breadboard and some wire. They usually
have black plastic „headers‟ that allow you to just plug a wire right into the board. The
Arduino has several different kinds of pins, each of which is labeled on the board and used
for different functions.
a) GND: Short for “Ground” There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which
can be used to ground your circuit. 5V (4) & 3.3V (5): As we might guess, the 5V pin
supplies 5 volts of power, and the 3.3V pin supplies 3.3 volts of power. Most of the
simple components used with the Arduino run happily off of 5 or 3.3 volts.
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b) Analog: The area of pins under the „Analog In‟ label (A0 through A5 on the UNO) is
Analog In pins. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor (like a
temperature sensor) and convert it into a digital value that we can read.
c) Digital: Across from the analog pins are the digital pins (0 through 13 on the UNO).
These pins can be used for both digital input (like telling if a button is pushed) and
digital output (like powering an LED).
d) PWM: The digital pins (3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 on the UNO). These pins act as normal
digital pins, but it can also be used for something called Pulse-Width Modulation
(PWM).
e) AREF (Stands for Analog Reference): Most of the time you can leave this pin alone.
It is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as
the upper limit for the analog input pins.
3.3.3 Relay
A relay is electro mechanical switch which is used in industrial application to provide
isolation between high voltage and low voltage circuits. These two circuits have different
voltage rating. One might be a low voltage side and other high voltage side. A relay is
electrical mechanical switch which is used for switching between 5 volt circuits and 220/ 12
Volt AC circuits. For example, in microcontrollers based circuits, relay is used to isolate
microcontrollers from 220 volt AC supply.
 Components of electro mechanical relay
Electrical mechanical relay have three main components:
1. Coil
2. Spring
3. Contacts
A five volt signal at the coil can turn on relay. When coil is energize with 5 volt
signal, current flows through the coil. When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field
are created in the coil which attract causes the armature (contacts) to attract towards spring.
When no current flows through coil, spring causes the contacts to pull towards normal
position.
In our project, 5 volt signal is given to coil of electro mechanical relay, when switch is
closed, current flows through the coil and energize the coil. When coil energize through 5
volt signal, spring attracts contact form normally open position to closed position. On Left
hand side of coil is normally open position of contact. Because circuit is no complete or in
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other words current flow path is not complete. When coil is energized with the help of 5 volt
signal, internal spring of electro mechanical relay attract or pulls contact towards other point
and complete the circuit.
An electro mechanical relay can be either normally open or normally closed. In above
circuit diagram, normally open electro mechanical relay is used. A voltage required to
energize the coil, vary from relay to relay. Voltage may vary from 5 volt to 50 volt and
current may vary from mA to 20mA. The relays also have minimum voltage rating. Its means
below voltage rating relay will not operate. One can check minimum operating voltage o
relay in its data sheet. But current requirements are not specified in date sheets. Coil
resistance is usually provided in data sheet of relay which can be used to find current
requirement of relay using Ohm’s law formula V= IR. Relays are used in a wide variety of
applications like electric power systems, home appliances, automobiles, industrial equipment,
digital computers, etc. The connector of the relay moves from normally close conduct to the
normally open conduct easily find the fault and to disconnect the fault line.
Figure 3.11 Relay
3.3.4 Relay driver circuit ULN2003

After getting basics understanding of relay, now we can understand what relay driver
is and how to use relay driver circuit IC ULN2003?
Relays are used mostly interfaced with microcontrollers and digital systems. But
microcontroller usually cannot provide enough current to drive relays. Microcontrollers pins
usually provide maximum current of 1-2 mA per pin which is not enough o operate relay.
The circuits which are used to derive relays are called relay driver circuits. Therefore relay
driver circuits using ULN2003 is used to drive relays.
It is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor arrays. It consists
of seven NPN Darlington pairs that feature high voltage outputs with common cathode clamp
for switching inductive loads. It has high current carrying capability of about 500mA. We
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need to use relays to control AC loads or high voltage loads. Relays are used to provide
isolation between microcontroller’s circuits and high voltage operating loads.
Microcontrollers are only used to provide on/off signals to relays. Microcontrollers don’t
have enough current sourcing ability to derive relays. Therefore relay driver circuits IC is
used to derive relays properly.
There are many ways to design relay driver circuits. But dedicated relay driver
circuits integrated circuits are available which serve the purpose of relay driver IC. Relay
driver circuit IC ULN2003 is one of popular relay driver circuits.
Figure 3.12 ULN2003 Relay driver
3.3.5 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

An LCD is an electronic display module which uses liquid crystal to produce a visible
image. A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is
combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid crystal to
produce a visible image. Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screen that
are generally used in laptop computer screen, TVs, cell phones and portable video games.
LCD technologies allow displays to be much thinner when compared to cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology.
Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized
panel filters and electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the image in notebook or
some other electronic devices like mini computers. Light is projected from a lens on a layer
of liquid crystal. This combination of colored light with the grayscale image of the crystal
(formed as electric current flows through the crystal) forms the colored image. This image is
then displayed on the screen. An LCD is either made up of an active matrix display grid or a
passive display grid.
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Most of the Smartphone‘s with LCD display technology uses active matrix display,
but some of the older displays still make use of the passive display grid designs. Most of the
electronic devices mainly depend on liquid crystal display technology for their display. The
liquid has a unique advantage of having low power consumption than the LED or cathode ray
tube. Liquid crystal display screen works on the principle of blocking light rather than
emitting light. LCD requires backlight as they do not emits light by them. We always use
devices which are made up of LCD‘s displays which are replacing the use of cathode ray
tube.
Cathode ray tube draws more power compared to LCD‘s and are also heavier and
bigger. Most of the LCD Displays available in the market are 16X2 (That means, the LCD
displays are capable of displaying 2 lines each having 16 Characters a), 20X4 LCD Displays
(4 lines, 20 characters). It has 14 pins. It uses 8 lines for parallel data plus 3 control signals, 2
connections to power, one more for contrast adjustment and two connections for LED back
light. The 16×2 LCD display is a very basic module commonly used in circuits. Most
common displays are 16*2 and 20*2 display. A 16X2 LCD has two registers, namely,
command and data.
 Command Register: The command register stores the command instructions given to
the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like
initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.
Processing for commands happen in the command register.
 Data Register: The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. When
we send data to LCD it goes to the data register and is processed there. The standard
refers to as HD44780U, which refers to the controller chip which receives data from
an external source (LCD) and communicates with the LCD. Display unit is
connecting the Arduino kit which is used to where the fault occurs and to display it.
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Figure 3.13 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Advantages of a LCD
 LCD consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
 LCD is consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill
watts for LED
 LCDs are of low cost
 Provides excellent contrast
 LCDs are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED
Applications of LCD
Liquid crystal technology has major applications in the field of engineering as well
on electronic devices.
 Liquid crystal thermometer
 Optical imaging
 The liquid crystal display technique is also applicable in visualization of the
radio frequency waves in the waveguide
 Used in the medical applications
3.3.6 Buzzer
Buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight, simple
construction and low price make it usable in various applications like car/truck reversing
indicator, computers, call bells etc. Piezo buzzer is based on the inverse principle of piezo
electricity discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie. It is the phenomena of generating
electricity when mechanical pressure is applied to certain materials and the vice versa is also
true. Such materials are called piezo electric materials.
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3.3.7 Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks
and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits.
Figure 3.14 Resistors
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
3.4 Theory of Operation

3.4.1 Ohm’s law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's
law: Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I),
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor
is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes
flows through that resistor. Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance
which affect the relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits. The ohm
(symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is
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equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very
large range of values, the derived units of mill-ohm, kilo-ohm, and mega-ohm are also in
common usage.
3.4.2 Power dissipation
At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is
calculated as: where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current
flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is
converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature
rises excessively. Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. They
usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their
power rating. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used
in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to
as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt
or greater.
Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color
codes, and external packages. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its
power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is
distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it
warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where
it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are
flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Since poor air
circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors may be
specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service. All resistors have a
maximum voltage rating; this may limit the power dissipation for higher resistance values.
3.5 Overall operation of the Project

The project uses four sets of resistances in series representing cables i.e. R 4, R3, R2,
R1, R8, R7, R6, R5, R12, R11, R10, R9 and R16, R15, R14, R13 one set for each phase and for the
neutral. Each series resistors represents the resistance of the underground cable for a specific
distance thus 4 such resistances in series represent 1-4kms (i.e. each resistors are placed
1Km’s from each other). 3 relays are used to common point of their contacts are grounded
while the NO points are connected to the input of the R 4, R8 & R12 being the 3-phase cable
input. R16 is fed with a series resistor R17 to 5v supply. The common point of R 16 & R17 is
given to input pin of 6 of ADC0804.The four sets of resistances in series representing cables
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and twelve switches representing faults are simulated using Proteus. Example if Switch SW 1
is closed, this results in a voltage drop across R 4. While any of the 12switches (representing
as fault switches) are operated they impose conditions like line to ground (LG), line to line
(LL), line to line to line(LLL) fault as per the switch operation.
The program while executed continuously scans by operating the three relays in
sequence of a time interval written in the Arduino IDE. Thus, any NO point while driven to
GND through the common contact point of the relay develops a current flow through R16 &
any of the cable by the fault switch depending on the created fault. Thus, the voltage drop at
the analog to digital (ADC) pin varies depending on the current flow which is inversely
proportional to the resistance value representing the length of cable in kilometers. This
varying voltage is fed to the ADC to develop an 8-bit data to the microcontroller port1.
Program while executed displays an output in the LCD display upon the distance of the fault
occurring in km. In a fault situation, it display’s for example R=2km if the 2km’s switch is
made ON. Accordingly, all other faults are indicated. Here the operation principle is
described basically as: regular conducting wire along with resistors is used to represent the
power cable. Four switches and the resistors have been inserted at regular intervals on the
wire.
3.6 Murray Bridge Loop Method

This is one of the oldest method of underground and submarine cables localization.
An end of the defective cable is connected through a resistor pair to a voltage source. A
balance galvanometer (zero detector) is connected and the other cable end is short circuited.
The galvanometer bridge is kept balanced by adjusting P and Q. An example of Murray Loop
Testing is shown in the figure below
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Figure 3.15 Murray Bridge Loop
Where; l = line segment of wire,

x = length of faulty cable,
RC = resistance of sound cable length,
RD = resistance of faulty cable length,
R = ratio P/Q.
RC is proportional to (l + (l – x)) = (2l – x) and RD is proportional to x. Also,
P/Q= RC / RD
R = (2l-x)/x
X = 2l/(R+1)
However, the Murray Bridge Loop method is of the assumption that only a single
fault exists along the cable length, cable resistance per unit length is uniform through the
whole cable and has lower resistance as against the high resistance of the cable
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CHAPTER 4
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Basic System Model
In order to investigate the applicability of proposed algorithm, a 250 KV-50Hz power
system is considered for the purpose. The power system model is shown in Fig.2. The system
is simulated using MATLAB/Simulink software. The sending end (SE) is a three phase
source and the receiving end (RE) is a three phase load. In normal condition, power is
transferred from SE to RE through a line having two section, each of 50-km length. Lines are
modeled with distributed parameters in the simulation.
50KM 50KM
S L
Figure 4.16 Basic power system model
4.2 List of Components with their specifications

Basically we have used three major components to design our model. These
components are:
4.2.1 Three phase programmable voltage source: we used this block to generate a three-
phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying parameters.
Parameters:
 Configuration------------------------------------Yn
 Phase to phase voltage-------------------------250
 Phase angle of phase A------------------------0
 Frequency (HZ)---------------------------------50
4.2.2 Three phase series RLC load: The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a
three-phase balanced load as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified
frequency, the load exhibits a constant impedance. The active and reactive powers
absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Parameters:
 Configuration…………………………Y (Grounded)
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 Nominal phase to phase voltage………220
 Nominal frequency…………………….50
 Active power…………………………..304.8
 Inductive Reactive Power………………228.6
 Capacitive Reactive Power…………….0
4.2.3 Distributed Parameter Line: the Distributed Parameters Line block implements an N-
phase distributed parameter line model with lumped losses.
Parameters:
 Number of Phases………………………3
 Line length (KM)………………………..50
 Frequency………………………………..50
 Resistance per unit length (NxN)………. [0.01273 0.3864]
 Inductance per unit length (NxN)……… [0.9337e-3 4.1264e-3]
 Capacitance per unit length (NxN)…….. [12.74e-9 7.751e-9]
4.3 Simulation Diagram
Figure 4.17 Simulink Model of Underground Cable Fault Detection
The performance of the proposed technique has been tested for numerous fault
situations. The proposed technique has been tested by varying different types of fault
parameters. Simulation results of the proposed technique have been described in the next sub
sections.
4.3.1 Test Results for No-Fault
By simulating the test system for no-fault, the performance of the proposed scheme is
tested for healthy operation of a test system. The approximate and the high frequency detail
coefficients signify the output of wavelet filter after passing the signal through it. The three
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phase current for the duration of no-fault is shown in Fig. 3.The detail coefficients of phase –
A, B and C for the period of no-fault are shown in Fig. 4, 5 and 6. The performance of
wavelet transform based fault detection is examined for no-fault operation and the test results
are demonstrated in Table 4.1.
Figure 4.18 Three Phase current During No Fault
Phase-A Phase-B
Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.19 Detail coefficients during no fault
Type of Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
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Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of
Fault
Phase A Current Phase B Current Phase C Current Ground Current
No Fault 91.0156 156.3831 211.4927 4.1648e-09
Table 4.2 Maximum coefficient of each phase during no fault
4.3.2 Test Results for Single Phase Faults

The performance of the proposed scheme is examined for faults between Phase A to
Ground, Phase B to Ground and Phase C to Ground.
1. Phase A to Ground Fault: occurs when Phase A is connected to ground. We can
simulate this fault by changing the three phase fault block parameter and then we can
measure and determine the three phase current and detail coefficients during A-g
faults by using this method the three phase current and detail coefficients are shown
below.
Figure 4.20 Three Phase current during A-g Fault
Phase-A Phase-B
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Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.21 Detail Coefficients during A-g Fault
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

Type of
Fault
A-g Fault 217.8358 261.5786 169.7924 196.7317
Table 4.3 Maximum coefficient of each phase during A-g fault
2. Phase B to Ground Fault: occurs when Phase B is connected to ground. The three
phase current and detail coefficients during B-g faults are shown below.
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Figure 4.22 Three phase current during B-g fault
Phase-A Phase-B
Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.23 Detail Coefficients during B-g Fault
Table 4.4 Maximum coefficient of each phase during B-g fault

Type of
Fault
B-g 158.9878 203.7577 149.0465 132.4833
3. Phase C to Ground Fault: occurs when Phase C is connected to ground. The three
phase current and detail coefficients during C-g faults are shown below.
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Figure 4.24 Three phase current during C-g fault
Phase-A Phase-B
Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.25 Detail Coefficients during C-g Fault

Type of
Fault
C-g 205.5118 130.8212 293.3373 415.0677
Table 4.5 Maximum coefficient of each phase During C-g fault
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4.3.3 Test Results for Double Phase Faults
Double phase Faults occur when a short circuit occurs between two phases. It is
exhibited by heavy current through the two phases, while the third still supplies its load. The
system gets unbalanced due to these types of faults. We examined the three double phase
faults in our model and their results are shown below.
1. Fault between Phase A and Phase B: occurs when Phase A is connected to Phase-B.
The three phase current and detail coefficients during faults are shown below.
Figure 4.26 Three phase current during A-B fault
Phase-A Phase-B
Phase-C Ground
37 | P a g e
Figure 4.27 Detail Coefficients during A-B Fault.

Type of
Fault
A-B 227.6360 321.4145 211.4927 0.0219
Table 4.6 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-B fault
2. Fault between Phase A and Phase C: occurs when Phase A is connected to Phase C.
Figure 4.28 Three phase current during A-C fault
Phase-A Phase-B
38 | P a g e
Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.29 Detail Coefficients during A-C Fault

Type of
Fault
A-C 359.1130 92.2382 313.5872 0.0413
Table 4.7 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-C fault
3. Fault between phase B and phase C: occurs when Phase B is connected to Phase C.
39 | P a g e
Figure 4.30 Three phase current during B-C fault
Phase-A Phase-B
Phase-C Ground
Figure 4.31 Detail Coefficients during B-C Fault
40 | P a g e
Table 4.8 Maximum coefficient of each phase During B-C fault

Type of
Fault
B-C 91.0156 691.7341 299.7242 0.0076
4.3.4 Test Results for Double Phase to Ground Faults

Double line to ground fault occurs when any two phases of the power circuit is short
circuited to ground or neutral. We examined the three double phase to ground faults in our
model and their results are shown below.
1. Fault between Phase A-Phase B to Ground: this kind of fault occurs when fault
current flows through the shorted phases A and B and to the ground. The three phase
current and detail coefficients during faults are shown below.
Figure 4.32 Three phase current during AB-G fault
Phase A Phase B
41 | P a g e
Phase C Ground
Figure 4.33 Detail Coefficients during AB-G Fault

Type of
Fault
AB-G 291.5058 480.2274 135.6282 119.2312
Table 4.9 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AB-g fault
2. Fault between Phase A-Phase C to Ground: this kind of fault occurs when fault
current flows through the shorted phases A and C and to the ground. The three phase
Figure 4.34 Three phase current during AC-G fault
Phase A Phase B
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Phase C Ground
Figure 4.35 Detail Coefficients during AC-G Fault
Table 4.10 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AC-g fault

Type of
Fault
AC-G 416.4983 86.8144 563.7343 121.2863
3. Fault between Phase B-Phase C to Ground: this kind of fault occurs when fault
current flows through the shorted phases B and C and to the ground. The three phase
43 | P a g e
Figure 4.36 Three phase current during BC-G fault
Phase A Phase B
Phase C Ground
Figure 4.37 Detail Coefficients during BC-G Fault
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Fault
BC-G 74.7976 486.8336 390.2171 177.2475
Table 4.11 Maximum coefficient of each phase During BC-g fault
4.3.5. Test Results for Three Phase Fault

Occurs when all the three phases are connected together at the fault location, and
there is heavy current flow through conductors to the ground. The system remains balanced.
Figure 4.38 Three phase current during three phase fault
Phase A Phase B
Phase C Ground
45 | P a g e
Figure 4.39 Detail Coefficients during Three phase Fault

Type of
Fault
Three
401.7281 634.9413 312.2988 0.0255
phase
Table 4.12 Maximum coefficient of each phase During Three phase fault
4.3.6. Test Results for Three Phase to Ground Fault

This occurs when all three phases are in contact with each other. It is exhibited by
large amount of current flow and a drastic voltage drop across the phases (very close to zero),
while the system remains balanced. The three phase current and detail coefficients during
faults are shown below.
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Figure 4.40 Three phase current during three phase to Ground fault
Phase A Phase B
Phase C Ground
Figure 4.41 Detail Coefficients during Three phase to Ground Fault

Fault Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of
47 | P a g e
Three
319.0618 61.1395
phase to 579.5183 398.6282
Ground
Table 4.13 Maximum coefficient of each phase During Three phase to ground fault
4.4 Simulation Results and their interpretations

We have seen the graphs and calculated the maximum coefficients of each phases for
all the eleven fault conditions from that data we can clearly observe that when a fault happens
in one of the phases the current passing through it will be very large. So we used the wavelet
transform to get the detail coefficients of each phases from that we can clearly observe that
the faulty lines will have higher value than the line with no fault after that we calculated the
maximum coefficient for each phases. We can then detect all the eleven faults by setting a
threshold value for all the faults and we will compare the maximum coefficient to the
threshold if it is greater than the threshold a fault has occurred and the program will specify
the type of fault.
4.5 Software Simulation Results and Discussions for Proteus Design
Simulation software is based on the process of modeling a real phenomenon with a set
of mathematical formulas. It is, essentially, a program that allows the user to observe an
operation through simulation without actually performing that operation. In this project,
underground cable fault detection system using Arduino microcontroller is proposed. For
underground cable fault and current detection system, a fault sensing circuit and current
sensing circuits were designed and the results have been verified with proteus simulation.
Result: In this method, the short circuit fault at a particular distance in the underground cable
can be located using simple concepts of OHM’s law enables to rectify fault efficiently.
Circuit can be tested with different resistors to simulate various fault conditions. It displays
exact location of short circuit.
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Figure 4.42 Simulation of Resistor and Switch Part
This project can show different results based on various cases.

Case 1: when there is no fault in the transmission lines, the following simulated results could
be occurred.
i.e., the fault which occurred in the three lines (R, Y, and G) is zero.
Figure 4.43 no fault simulation result
Case 2: when there is a LG-fault among one of the three lines, we can get the following the
simulated result.
i.e., a fault is happen for the red line in 1km but not in any two lines (Y and B).
Figure 4.44 LG-fault result
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Case 3: if there is a LLG-faults in the transmission lines, the LCD displays the result below.
i.e., LLG faults are occurred in the yellow line and Redline (Y, B) in 2km and 1km
respectively.
Figure 4.45 LLG-faults results displayed on LCD
Case 4: when LLLG-faults exists, the simulated result as shown below indicates that a fault is
happen for the red line in1km, for the yellow line in 2km and for the Green line in 3km.
Figure 4.46 Result displayed on the LCD
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CHAPTER 5
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusions
The purpose of this thesis is to present the topic of fault detection and Location .The
detection is done using the Wavelet transform method. A new algorithm for fault detection in
underground cable using wavelet transform is proposed. The proposed logic is based on
DWT which is used to detect the transient fault current signal and extract the high frequency
detail coefficient it used to detect, classify all eleven type of fault in the line. The DWT is
used as the”db4‟ as a mother wavelet. The proposed algorithm is tested under
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment with different all the eleven types of faults conditions.
This Study shows that the scheme is insensitive to fault type on the cable. Studies also
show that the wavelet technique is able to offer a very high accuracy in fault detection on
underground cable.
The application of wavelet transform to detect and identify the type of fault has
achieved a very good and accurate classification for the change in the signal shape due to
fault phenomena. The ability of wavelets to decompose the signal into frequency bands in
both time and frequency resolution allows accurate fault identification. This paper presents a
data reduction technique for estimation of fault classification on transmission lines rapidly
and accurately.
The simulation work is carried for different faults like single line to ground (Lg),
double line to ground (LLg) and three phase to ground (LLLg).In this work, the proposed
method used wavelet decomposition which provides more features about the signals. After
wavelet decomposition with details of wavelet coefficients were calculated for each current
signals waveform with or without fault condition and with making looking to data after fault
inception and take like a threshold condition of that maximum detail coefficient as if it is
increased than 0.001 this means faulty condition and to know whether there was a phase to
phase fault or double phase to ground fault checking all lines detail maximum coefficients to
the threshold and if it’s greater there is fault and if not there is no fault and after we checked
all the lines we will display the type of fault occurring in the line.
It is a difficult task to locate the faults in underground cables. By using Arduino
controller we can find out exact fault location. This circuit is fabricated to detect short circuit
fault. Once faults occur in the cable, the display unit displays the exact fault location that
51 | P a g e
displays which phase is affected in the cable. This Thesis we have undertaken has helped us
to gain a better perspective on various aspects related to our course of study as well as
practical knowledge of underground cable fault detection system. We became familiar with
software analysis and designing concerned with our project.
This paper explains the importance of locating faults in the distribution network and
reviews some of the cable fault locating methods that are mostly used in practical field. There
is a need to immediate indication about occurrence of a fault via remote communication;
hence it needs to implement some techniques which will help power utilities in immediate
indication of fault occurrence and accurate methods for locating faults. To facilitate the
development, the preliminary investigation requirements and the essential segments to be
verified are presented in this paper. In this paper the exact location of short circuit fault at a
particular distance in the underground cable from feeder end in km can be located by using
Arduino microcontroller.
The concept of OHM’s law is used so fault can be easily detected and repaired. It’s a
difficult task to identify the faults in underground cables. By using Arduino controller, we
can find out exact fault location. Once faults occur in the cable, the display unit displays the
exact fault location that displays which phase is affected in the cable. In this project, simple
OHM’s law is used to locate the short circuit fault. A DC voltage is applied at the feeder end
through a series resistor, depending upon the length of fault of the cable current varies. The
voltage drop across the series resistor changes accordingly, this voltage drop is used in
determination of fault location. Generally Underground cables are used largely in urban area
instead of overhead lines. But we can’t easily identify the faults in the underground cables.
Therefore, this thesis deals with Arduino microcontroller, and LCD to sufficiently detect and
identify the faults in underground cables easily
5.2 Scope for Future Work

The system can be further advanced by interfacing a Microcontroller and using
sensors like current, voltage and fault in the system that will inform about the position of the
fault; thus, provides easy location. This project provides a mechanism how to prevent cable
fault detection by using Arduino. In our project work we have done the prevention of short
circuit fault using OHMS law for the set of resistors. Along with potential, temperature will
also be measured across each resistor. The LCD will be interfaced with the micro-controller
and the values of the potential and temperature across each resistor will be displayed on the
LCD screen.
52 | P a g e
This project is a small implication of our concept in protecting and underground short
circuit cable fault detection system. The practical applications of this project are immense or
very large and can have vast level of implementation. This project can be implemented in a
large scale to encompass or address the underground cable fault problem district by using
OHMS law with Arduino technology. This small concept can be also used in fields such as
power system, power system planning and operation and many other related fields where
continuous protection and detection of faults is needed. So, this is not the end of the project
but rather is a step towards exploring other possibilities that it brings with it. We can further
explore and expand this project to detect other type of faults such as open circuit fault and
earth fault in addition to short circuit.
53 | P a g e
REFERENCES
[1] Sukumar M . Brahma, “Distance relay with out of step blocking function using wavelet
transform”, IEEE Trans on Power Delivery,vol.22, No.3 pp.1360-1366 , July 2007.
[2] Ashraf .I. Megahed, A. Monem Moussa,and A.E. Bayoumy, “Usage of wavelet transform
in the protection of series compensated transmission lines”, IEEE Trans on Power
Delivery,vol.21, No.3, pp.1213-1221, July 2006.
[3] C.H. Kim, R.Aggarwal, “Wavelet transforms in power systems”, IET Power Engineering
Journal, vol. 15, Iss 4, pp. 193-202, August 2001.
[4] Joe-Air Jiang,Ping-Lin Fan,Ching-Shan Yu,and Jin Yi Sheu, ‘‘A Fault Detection and
Faulted phase Selection Approach for transmission lines with Haar wavelet transform”,
IEEE Conference on trans and dist, vol. 1 ,pp 285-289, April 2003.
[5] S.R.Samantary,P.K.Dash and G.Panda, ‘‘Transmission line fault detection using time
frequency analysis”,IEEE Conference on Indicon , pp 162-166 , December 2005.
[6] Dr.S.M.El Safty,Dr.M.A. Sharkas, college of engineering, Arab Academy of Science and
Technology, ‘‘Identification of transmission line faults using wavelet analysis”, IEEE
Proceeding on circuits and system, vol. 3, pp 1108-1111, December 2003.
[7] Feng Yan, Zhiya Chen, Zhirui Liang,Yinghui Kong and Peng Li,‘‘Fault location using
wavelet packets”, In Proc. Int. Conference on power system technology, vol.4, pp 2575-
2579, 2002.
[8] Roberto Benato, Antonio Paolucci, EHV AC Undergrounding Electrical Power (Power
Systems), 2010.
[9] Abdulkareem A., C.O.A Awosope, A.A Awelewa “The use of three-phase fault analysis
for rating circuit breakers on Nigeria 330KV Transmission Lines”. Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, 11(12): 2612-2622, 2016.
[10] Awelewa A.A, Mbamaluikem P.O, Isaac A. Samuel “ Artificial neural networks for
intelligent fault location on the 33KV Nigeria Transmission Line”. International
Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, 54(3), 2017.
[11] [Online]. Available: http://www.emfs.info/Sources+of+EMFs/Underground/.
[12] [Online]. Available: http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-to-curb-power-
theftmaharashtra-explores-underground-supply-network-across-state-2084774.
[13] S. Y. King, N. A. Halfter, Underground Power Cables, New York: Longman Inc., 1982.
[14] Association, National Rural Electric Cooperative, Underground Distribution System
Design and Installation Guide, Washington D.C., 1993.
54 | P a g e
[15] Butler-Purry, M. J. Mousavi and K. L, "Study of thermal aging effects on distribution
transformer solid insulation," in 34th North American Power Symposium, Tempe, AZ,
Oct. 2002.
[16] J. Densley, "Ageing mechanisms and diagnostics for power cables – an overview," IEEE
Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 14 - 22, January – February, 2001.
[17] N. Srinivas, and N. Ahmed, "Condition assessment of distribution and transmission class
voltage cable systems," in IEEE 10th International Conference on Transmission and
Distribution Construction, Operation and Live-Line Maintenance, Orlando, FL, 2003.
[18] N. H. Malik, A. A. Al-Arainy, and M. I. Qureshi, Electrical Insulation in Power
Systems, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998.
[19] T. Sandri, Director, Cable Fault Locating Webinar. [Film]. PROTEC Equipment
Resources.
[20] "ELPROCUS," [Online]. Available: https://www.elprocus.com/what-are-the-
differenttypes-of-faults-in-electrical-power-systems/. [Accessed 02 03 2018].
[21] "Quora," [Online]. Available: https://www.quora.com/What-are-symmetrical-
andunsymmetrical-faults. [Accessed 02 March 2018].
[22] B. Anderson, Director, Fault Characteristics of Power Grids. [Film].
[23] G. Ojha, A. G. Roy and R. Verma, "Underground Cable Fault Distance
Locator,"International Journal of Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in
Technology, vol. 3, no. 2.
[24] K., Padmanaban; G., Sanjana Sharon; K., Vishnuvarthini, "Detection of Underground
cable fault using Arduino".
[25] Victory, Itodo Friday, "Design And Construction Of Digital Underground Cable Fault
Locator," University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, February, 2012.
[26] P.S. Pooja . M. Lekshmi, "Fault Detection and Technique to Pinpoint Incipient Fault for
Underground Cables," International Journal of Engineering Research and General
Science, vol. 3, no. 3, May - June, 2015.
[27] M. Dhekale P. , S. Bhise S. , R. Deokate N. , Prof. Survawanshi R., "Underground Cable
Fault Distance Locator," International Journal Of Innovations in Engineering
Research and Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, 2015.
[28] Sawatpipat P., Tayjasanant T., "Fault Classification for Thailand's transmission lines
based on discrete wavelet transform," in International Conference on Electrical
Engineering/Electronics Computer Telecommunications and Information Technology
(ECTI-CON), 2010.
55 | P a g e
[29] Akash Jagtap, Jayesh Patil, Bhushan Patil, Dipak Patil, Aqib Al Husan Ansari, Atul
Barhate, "Arduino based Underground Cable Fault Detection," Maharashtra, India.
56 | P a g e
APPENDIX
I. Code For Underground Cable Fault Detection
clc;
clear all;
open('q.slx');
sim('q.slx');
currentA = current1;
currentB = current2;
currentC = current3;
currentG = current4;
[cA, LA] = wavedec(currentA, 1, 'db4');
[cB, LB] = wavedec(currentB, 1, 'db4');
[cC, LC] = wavedec(currentC, 1, 'db4');
[cG, LG] = wavedec(currentG, 1, 'db4');
coefA = detcoef(cA, LA, 1);
coefB = detcoef(cB, LB, 1);
coefC = detcoef(cC, LC, 1);
coefG = detcoef(cG, LG, 1);
m = max(coefA);
n = max(coefB);
p = max(coefC);
q = max(coefG);
if m > 250
if n > 250
if p > 175
if q > 50
disp("Three Phase to ground Fault is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m > 250
if n > 250
if p > 175
if q < 50
disp("Three Phase Fault is Detected")
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end
end
end
end
if m > 250
if n > 250
if p < 175
if q > 50
disp("Double Line to Gournd Fault (AB-G) is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m > 250
if n < 250
if p > 175
if q > 50
disp("Double Line to Gournd Fault (AC-G) is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m < 250
if n > 250
if p > 175
if q > 50
disp("Double Line to Gournd Fault (BC-G) is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m > 200
if n > 250
if p < 175
if q < 50
disp("Line to Line Fault Between Phase A and B is Detected")
end
end
end
end
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if m > 250
if n < 250
if p > 175
if q < 50
disp("Line to Line Fault Between Phase A and C is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m < 250
if n > 250
if p > 175
if q < 50
disp("Line to Line Fault Between Phase B and C is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m > 200
if n < 300
if p < 175
if q > 50
disp("Single Line to Ground Fault in Phase A is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m < 200
if n > 150
if p < 175
if q > 50
disp("Single Line to Ground Fault in Phase B is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m < 250
if n < 250
if p > 175
if q > 50
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disp("Single Line to Ground Fault in Phase C is Detected")
end
end
end
end
if m < 250
if n < 250
if p < 250
if q < 50
disp("No Fault is Detected. System is Normal")
end
end
end
end
II. Code For Locating Short Circuit Faults
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(2,3,4,5,6,7);
#define sensor A0
#define relay1 8
#define relay2 9
#define relay3 10
#define buzzer 13
int read_ADC;
int distance;
byte symbol[8] = {
B00000,
B00100,
B00100,
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B00100,
B11111,
B01110,
B00100,
B00000};
void setup() {
pinMode(sensor,INPUT);
pinMode(relay1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);
lcd.createChar(1, symbol);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0); // set the cursor to column 0, line 2
lcd.print("Welcome to Cable");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1); // set the cursor to column 0, line 2
lcd.print("Fault Detection");
delay(2000);
lcd.clear();
}
void loop(){
lcd.setCursor(1,0);
lcd.print("R");
lcd.write(1);
lcd.setCursor(7,0);
lcd.print("Y");
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lcd.write(1);
lcd.setCursor(13,0);
lcd.print("B");
lcd.write(1);
digitalWrite(relay1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(relay2,LOW);
delay(500);
data();
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
if(distance>0){lcd.print(distance); lcd.print("KM ");}
else{lcd.print(" NF ");}
delay(500);
data();
lcd.setCursor(6,1);
delay(500);
data();
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lcd.setCursor(12,1);
void data(){
read_ADC = analogRead(sensor);
distance = read_ADC/100;
if(distance>9)distance = 0;
if(distance>0){
digitalWrite(buzzer,HIGH);
delay(200);
digitalWrite(buzzer,LOW);
delay(200);
}
}
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Underground Cable Fault Detection and Location

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Underground Cable Fault Detection and Location

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UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DETECTION AND

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

TITLE OF THESIS: Underground Fault detection and Location

Approved by the examining committee members:

Name Signature Date

Name of Advisor: Mr. YARED T. Signature: _________

Figure 2.1 Parts of an underground power cable-----------------------------------------------------4

Figure 2.2 Three Phase-to-Ground fault---------------------------------------------------------------8

Figure 2.3 Three Phase short circuit fault-------------------------------------------------------------8

Figure 2.4 Line-to-Line short circuit fault------------------------------------------------------------8

Figure 2.5 Double Line-to-Ground short circuit fault------------------------------------------------9

Figure 2.6 Single Line-to-Ground short circuit fault-------------------------------------------------9

Figure 3.1 Detail and Approximate Coefficients----------------------------------------------------13

Figure 3.2 Block Diagram for fault identification.--------------------------------------------------14

Figure 3.3 Block diagram of underground fault detector------------------------------------------17

Figure 3.4 Arduino UNO R3---------------------------------------------------------------------------18

Figure 3.5 Relay-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20

Figure 3.6 ULN2003 Relay driver--------------------------------------------------------------------21

Figure 3.7 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)------------------------------------------------------------22

Figure 3.8 Resistors-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24

Figure 3.9 Murray Bridge Loop-----------------------------------------------------------------------26

Figure 4.1 Basic power system model----------------------------------------------------------------28

Figure 4.2 Simulink Model of Underground Cable Fault Detection-----------------------------29

Figure 4.3 Three Phase current During No Fault----------------------------------------------------30

Figure 4.4 Detail coefficients during no fault-------------------------------------------------------30

Figure 4.5 Three Phase current during A-g Fault---------------------------------------------------31

Figure 4.7 Three phase current during B-g fault----------------------------------------------------32

Figure 4.8 Detail Coefficients during B-g Fault-----------------------------------------------------33

Figure 4.9 Three phase current during C-g fault----------------------------------------------------33

Figure 4.10 Detail Coefficients during C-g Fault--------------------------------------------------34

Figure 4.11 Three phase current during A-B fault--------------------------------------------------35

Figure 4.12 Detail Coefficients during A-B Fault.--------------------------------------------------35

Figure 4.13 Three phase current during A-C fault--------------------------------------------------36

Figure 4.14 Detail Coefficients during A-C Fault--------------------------------------------------37

Figure 4.15 Three phase current during B-C fault--------------------------------------------------37

Figure 4.16 Detail Coefficients during B-C Fault---------------------------------------------------38

Figure 4.17 Three phase current during AB-G fault------------------------------------------------39

Figure 4.18 Detail Coefficients during AB-G Fault------------------------------------------------39

Figure 4.19 Three phase current during AC-G fault------------------------------------------------40

Figure 4.20 Detail Coefficients during AC-G Fault------------------------------------------------41

Figure 4.21 Three phase current during BC-G fault------------------------------------------------41

Figure 4.22 Detail Coefficients during BC-G Fault------------------------------------------------42

Figure 4.23 Three phase current during three phase fault------------------------------------------43

Figure 4.24 Detail Coefficients during Three phase Fault-----------------------------------------43

Figure 4.26 Detail Coefficients during Three phase to Ground Fault----------------------------45

Figure 4.28 no fault simulation result-----------------------------------------------------------------46

Figure 4.29 LG-fault result-----------------------------------------------------------------------------47

Figure 4.30 LLG-faults results displayed on LCD--------------------------------------------------47

Figure 4.31 Result displayed on the LCD------------------------------------------------------------47

Table 3.1 Types of short circuit faults---------------------------------------------------------------15

Table 4.1 Maximum coefficient of each phase during no fault-----------------------------------31

Table 4.2 Maximum coefficient of each phase during A-g fault----------------------------------32

Table 4.3 Maximum coefficient of each phase during B-g fault----------------------------------33

Table 4.4 Maximum coefficient of each phase During C-g fault---------------------------------34

Table 4.5 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-B fault---------------------------------36

Table 4.6 Maximum coefficient of each phase During A-C fault---------------------------------37

Table 4.7 Maximum coefficient of each phase During B-C fault---------------------------------38

Table 4.8 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AB-g fault-------------------------------40

Table 4.9 Maximum coefficient of each phase During AC-g fault-------------------------------41

Table 4.10 Maximum coefficient of each phase During BC-g fault------------------------------42

1.2 Statement of the Problem

 To classify the fault type using Discrete Wavelet Transform.

 To detect all short-circuit faults using Arduino software