SRM

Solar PV powered SRM drive for EV's with flexible energy control functions
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Electric vehicles
Electric vehicles (EVs) have taken a significant leap forward by advances in

motor drives, power converters, batteries, and energy management systems. However,
due to the limitation of current battery technologies, the driving miles are relatively short
that restricts the wide application of EVs . In terms of motor drives, high-performance
permanent-magnet (PM) machines are widely used while rare earth materials are needed
in large quantities, limiting the wide application of EVs.In order to overcome these
issues, a photovoltaic (PV) panel and a switched reluctance motor (SRM) are introduced
to provide power supply and motor drive, respectively. First, by adding the PV panel on
top of the EV, a sustainable energy source is achieved. Nowadays, a typical passenger car
has a surface enough to install a 250-W PV panel. Second, a SRM needs no rare-earth
PMs and is also robust so that it receives increasing attention in EV applications. While
PV panels have low-power density for traction drives, they can be used to charge
batteries most of time.
Generally, the PV-fed EV has a similar structure to the hybrid electrical vehicle
(HEV), whose internal combustion engine (ICE) is replaced by the PV panel. The PV-fed
EV system is illustrated in Fig. 1. Its key components include an off-board charging
station, a PV, batteries, and power converters. In order to decrease the energy conversion
processes ,one approach is to redesign the motor to include some on board charging
functions. For instance, paper designs a 20-kW split-phase PM motor for EV charging,
but it suffers from high harmonic contents in the back electromotive force (EMF).
Another solution is based on a traditional SRM. Paper achieves onboard charging and
power factor correction in a 2.3-kW SRM by employing machine windings as the input
filter inductor. The concept of modular structure of driving topology is proposed in
paper. Based on the intelligent power modules (IPMs), a four-phase half bridge converter
is employed to achieve driving and grid-charging. Although modularization supports
mass production, the use of half/full bridge topology reduces the system reliability (e.g.,
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shoot-through issues). Paper develops a simple topology for plug-in HEV that supports
flexible energy flow. But for grid-charging, the grid should be connected to the generator
rectifier that increases the energy conversion process and decreases the charging
efficiency. Nonetheless, an effective topology and control strategy for PV-fed EVs is not
yet developed. Because the PV has different characteristics to ICEs, the maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) and solar energy utilization are the unique factors for the PV-fed
EVs.
In order to achieve low-cost and flexible energy flow modes, a low-cost tri-port
converter is proposed in this paper to coordinate the PV panel, SRM, and battery. Six
operational modes are developed to support flexible control of energy flow.
Fig 1. PV-fed HEV.
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CHAPTER-2
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL AND MPPT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Increasing energy demand and the need to find clean and cheap alternative energy
sources have led to extensive research in renewable energy sources (RES). The growth in
the RES market is also directly related to the development of power electronics. Among
several types of RES the photovoltaic (PV) energy source has benefits such as high
efficiency, reliability and a long life. In addition, it is also characterized by low cost,
freedom from moving components and also easy and quick to setup. In PV power
applications, establishing PV arrays with the desired voltage levels involves individual
PV modules linked in series. The serious issue in such configurations is to manage the
partial shading problem which arises from exposing the series connected PV modules to
uneven insulation. The PV partial shading is a consequence of clouds, poles, trees, dust,
dirt or any obstacles which cause different levels of irradiance at the surface of the PV
modules.
As a result of the PV partial shading, the generated current of the series connected
PV modules is limited by that of the shaded PV modules. Consequently, this not only
reduces the overall generated power significantly, but also causes a hotspot effect
resulting in damage to some PV cells and malfunction of the PV system. The PV partial
shading problem increases the maintenance cost of the PV system, and the power loss
makes the PV generated power more expensive than originally planned. The simplest
method to reduce the effects of the PV partial shading problem is connecting a bypass
diode across each PV module in the series string. However, more than one power peak
(in the PV power curve) can appear and to reach the maximum power a maximum power
point (MPP) tracker has to be used. Reaching the MPP does not mean all the shaded PV
modules have to be bypassed, and so the remaining shaded modules still limit the current
to a certain extent, but partial shading effects are reduced. Bypassing PV modules from
the series PV connection that would otherwise be reverse biased actually raises the total
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output DC voltage level. In other words, bypassing some shaded PV modules improves
the total generated power. Yet that still represents a sort of wasted power, which could
potentially be generated from the bypassed modules. Also, even though the system is
operated at its MPP, the generated power is still lower than that achievable by the
modular configuration (not series connection) due to the mismatch power loss of the
series connection.
2.2 PV FUNDAMENTALS AND CELL MODELING

The conversion of the solar radiation into electricity is known as the photovoltaic
(PV) effect which can be achieved via solar cells. Among semiconductor materials, the
crystalline silicon cells are the most widespread PV source and dominate more than 95%
of the market. This is due to their high efficiency compared with other materials. Fig.
shows the silicon crystal lattice, where electron pair bonds are formed and so a stable
electron configuration results (the outer shell of the silicon atoms includes eight
electrons). Although the applied energy (solar energy) results in an intrinsic conductivity
state where free electron and hole result, electrical energy cannot be generated.
Fig 2. Silicon crystal lattice and intrinsic conductivity.
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The crystalline silicon solar cell can be achieved by creating semiconductor

material with a p-n junction. That is accomplished by adding doping atoms to the silicon
crystal lattice, for example, phosphorus atoms to create an n-layer and boron atoms to
create a p-layer, where extrinsic conduction results. In between the two layers, a p-n
junction is created, and so the free electrons in the n-layer diffuse into p-layer causing a
depletion region to be established as shown in Fig.
Fig 3. PV cell semiconductor layers (a) non-illuminated and (b) illuminated
As can be seen in Fig.2.2b, when the PV cell is insolated, the electrons in the
depletion region are exited where the created bonds are broken. The resultant free
electrons are drawn towards the n-layer due to the electrical field, while the holes leave in
the opposite direction. That diffusion causes the voltage to arise across the solar cell
terminals.The solar cell can be modelled as shown in Fig the p-n silicon semiconductor is
a diode, so under a dark condition the solar cell is represented by a diode (Fig.). The
photovoltaic effect is represented by an irradiance dependent current source which
generates photocurrent (Iph) according to the irradiance level.
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The solar cell losses are represented by two resistances, the series resistance (Rs)
and the shunt (Rsh) resistance. Rs represents the ohmic resistance losses such as the
resistance of the semiconductor, metal contacts, and contacts between them. Rsh describes
the leakage currents through the edges of the solar cell as well as the p-n junction (due to
material defects). For a more accurate equivalent circuit, another diode can be added in
parallel to the first diode. The added diode represents the recombination which happens
in the space charge region out of the depletion region.
Fig 4. PV equivalent circuit (a) cell model, (b) cell model with reverse bias
Characteristics and (c) PV array model with reverse bias characteristics.
One of the main causes for electrical mismatching among the serial connected PV
cells is due to partial shading, where a different number of carriers are generated
according to the cell irradiation level. The carrier difference forces the majority carriers
of the shaded cell (the lowest carrier number) to leave the layers, so the depletion region
is increased. When the electrical field is significantly increased, more carriers are
accelerated and therefore further ionization occurs in the lattice atoms, results in
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avalanche breakdown. The temperature of the junction is considerably increased due to

the avalanche breakdown current causing thermal breakdown of the shaded solar cell.
The PV cell model which considers the reverse characteristics includes a
multiplication factor M(Vj) for the leakage current, Ish, to express the avalanche
breakdown mechanism. According to this model, Ish, output current Iout and voltage Vout
can be expressed respectively as follows:
In the case of several PV cells connected in series and parallel to form a PV array, the PV
model can be represented as shown in Fig. Where, Vj is the junction voltage, Vbr is the
junction breakdown voltage, a is the fraction of ohmic current involved in the avalanche
breakdown, m is the avalanche breakdown exponent, Iph is the photocurrent, Isat is the
reverse saturation current, q is the electron charge, A is diode ideally factor, k is
Boltzmann constant, and Tcel is the cell temperature in Kelvin.
By considering the temperature effect, the saturation current and the photovoltaic
current can be determined by applying the equations given below respectively.
Where, Tr is the reference temperature, Isr is the reverse saturation current atreference
temperature. Eg is the solar cell energy band gab, Ipr is the photocurrent at reference
temperature, Ki is the photocurrent temperature coefficient at Ipr, and G is the irradiance
level.
At Standard Test Conditions (STC) (T =25C, S=1000 W/m2), the current voltage
characteristic of a PV cell can be modeled mathematically using below Equations
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where: Isc=short-circuit current (A), Uoc=open-circuit voltage (V), Im=maximum power

current (A), Um= maximum power voltage (V), Uo=cell voltage (V), I =cell current (A).
According to the Isc, Uoc, Im, Um on reference condition, the new parameters (Isc, Uoc,
Im, Um) can be developed, thus getting the new IeU relationship considering the
illumination intensity and temperature on the output characteristic of PV cell.
2.3 HOT-SPOTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Along with the power reduction caused by the shading in a string connection of
illuminated PV cells, considerable damage can be done to the shaded cells if bypass
diodes are not employed. When the PV array current is greater than the short-circuit
currents (Isc) of the shaded cells/modules, the shaded cells operate in a reverse biased
mode, dissipating their generated power in addition to power from other cells in the series
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connection (operating as a load). The power is dissipated in the form of heat, and so the
surface of the PV array suffers high degrees of temperature concentrated in small areas at
the shaded cells (hot-spots).
For illustrative purposes, supposing two PV cells or two PV modules (two groups
of PV cells) are connected in series as shown in Fig. As a PV partial shading example,
the first PV module is under full irradiance whereas the second PV module undergoes a
certain level of shadowing. In this situation, I1 is always greater than I2 and the load
current IL. However, I2 might be greater or less than IL according to the load impedance
value. Here I1 and I2 are the photocurrents (almost the short circuit currents) of the first
and the second PV modules respectively. The diode D2 is in the forward biased mode if
I2 is greater than IL, and so the module voltage V2 is still positive even though the system
is under a partial shading condition. With a decrease in the load impedance, the modules’
currents increase as well as the load current and therefore at a specific point IL will be
greater than I2. At the mentioned point the surplus current (about IL-I2) is leaked in
reverse through the diode D2 and the shunt resistance. The reverse biasing of D2 means
V2 is negative, so the power is dissipated in the shaded module causing a hot-spot. The
reduction of the PV generated power is due to the fact that the reverse current through D2
is strictly limited so the string current is significantly reduced.
Fig 5. Two PV cells/modules connected in series under partial shading.
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There are some factors which increase the hot-spot effect, for instance a high
ambient temperature, high level of irradiance, low speed of wind, a shadow on a small
area of the PV array (number of shaded cells), high reverse current, and poor ventilation
of the PV array. According to the results achieved in, for a PV cell reverse voltage of -10
V, a high risk of the hot-spot can result if the cell current exceeds 1 A. Table 2.1
describes the forms of damage with the associated effects on the PV array as a result of
the hot-spot and according to the level of the PV cell temperature.
Temperature(T) Array damage Consequence
T<1500 C No damage No effects
1500 C≤T<1700 C Array encapsulation Delamination of the array heat

Melting conducting material
1700 C ≤T<2000 C Deterioration of the Reduction of the electrical

back sheet isolation
T>2000C PV cell p-n junction is

destroyed Loss of the PV operation
TABLE 1. The Effects of the Hot-Spots
Even though the PV partial shading is an incredibly common and frequent problem,
it is not the only problem affecting the yielded PV power and leading to hot-spots, these
can also be caused by PV cells’ manufacturing defects, internal disconnection, cracked
PV cells, etc. All the mentioned reasons lead to different current generation between the
PV cells in the series connection, so power drop and hot-spots can be a result.
2.4 PV CELL REVERSE MODE AND SHUNT RESISTANCE EFFECT
The I-V characteristic of a PV cell is shown in Fig., As can be seen, in the normal
generating operation the PV cell voltage rises to its open circuit voltage (Voc) which is
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almost 0.6 V. On the other side of the PV curve, the reverse mode of the PV cell is up to
the p-n junction breakdown voltage (Vbr) which can be from 12 to 20 V in poly-Si PV
cells, while it can reach 30 V in the mono-Si PV cells.
Fig 6. PV cell I-V curve
As was previously mentioned, the shaded PV cell is in the reverse biased mode if
its short circuit current is lower than the current generated by the non-shaded cells in the
string. Fig. shows a linear region (from 0 V to almost -10 V) within the reverse bias
voltage where the current has a linear relation to voltage due to the leakage currents
which are assumed to pass through the PV cell shunt resistance Rsh. The breakdown of the
cell p-n junction occurs due to further increases in the bias voltage when a considerable
amount of current is passed. As known, the PV shunt resistance Rsh represents the leakage
currents due to impurity and defects in the PV cell semiconductor. With increasing
impurity concentration, the value of the shunt resistance is decreased, so the break down
can occur at lower reverse bias voltages. Around the area where the current exceeds a
specific amount it causes permanent damage in the solar cell due to the associated hot-
point. In other words, in the forward mode, low Rsh results in reducing maximum power
point (Pmpp), so the fill factor (FF=Pmpp/(Voc.Isc)) is reduced. Also, in the reverse mode,
low Rsh speeds up any thermal damage to the cell.
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2.5 THE POWER REDUCTION

At least one shaded PV cell, in a series connection with illuminated PV cells, can
cause significant power reduction in the whole PV system. The shaded PV cell is able to
limit the string current to almost its reduced current. For instance, one PV cell operating
under various irradiance levels, connected in series with 17 non-shaded cells of (1000
W/m2), is considered for illustration as shown in Fig.
Fig 7. 18PV cells connected in series to form a PV module (one shaded cell and
17 non-shaded PV cells).
2.6 PV BYPASS DIODE PROTECTIONS
To avoid damage to the shaded PV cells in the series connected string, bypass
diodes have been used. The shaded PV cell is reverse biased due to current difference
caused by the shaded cell. The current difference caused by partial shading does not
appear because no way to pass through the shaded cell, and so the string current drops
down to almost the current of the shaded cell. If a bypass diode is placed across the
shaded cell, it will conduct carrying the surplus current, i.e, current difference.
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Consequently, the dissipated power by the shaded cells/modules is zero, so no hot-spots

result.
In PV arrays, the bypass diodes have to be properly allocated for sets of series
connected cells (PV modules), so the bypass diode of a PV module which includes the
shaded PV cell can turn on before any damage occurs to the shaded cell. The bypass
diodes are commonly allocated for each 12 to 18 PV cells in the array. The number of the
bypassed series connected PV cells in one set is calculated according to a PV cell worst
case condition which is the maximum allowed power dissipation by a shaded PV cell. As
soon as the bypass diode of the shaded module (any number of shaded cells in the
module) starts to conduct, the shaded module no longer limits the current of the non-
shaded modules in the PV array, so the generated power by the PV array is improved.
However, a significant reduction in the array voltage results, as the voltage for each
conducting diode is about 0.7 V. Such a situation is not recommended in some grid-
connected applications where the voltage is the most important factor in delivering the
generated power to the grid.
The bypass diodes are considered a method for protecting the PV cells from being
damaged more than being a method for power improvement. That is because when
reaching the required point, which the bypass diode turns on at, a maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) system is needed. The MPPT system controls the PV generated current
so the operating voltage of the shaded module can be controlled to reach the mentioned
point where the bypass diode turns on. For instance, if there are more than one shaded PV
module, not all of them have to be bypassed in order to reach the MPP of the PV array
via the MPPT system. The deeply shaded modules are bypassed and the other less shaded
ones might be left with the non-shaded modules for seeking the MPP.
2.7 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING TECHNIQUES
In order to extract the maximum PV available power at certain atmosphere and

load conditions, maximum power point tracking has to be used. As can be seen in Fig. the
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direct connection of the load to the PV source results in the operating point of the PV
source being the intersecting point of I-V curve with the load impedance line. However,
this point may not be at the location where the PV panel generating the maximum power.
Fig 8. I-V PV characteristics and load line
As illustrated in Fig., the load line crosses the PV I-V characteristic curves under
different irradiance levels at several points. The load impedance at these points is always
5 Ω, while the PV impedances at MPP are 8 Ω at 1000 W/m2, 10.36 Ω at 750W/m2 and
15 Ω at 500W/m2. To achieve the maximum PV power delivered to the load, the load
impedance has to be equal to the PV impedance at MPP points and if that condition
cannot be obtained by direct load connection, power converters have to be used. Power-
converters have not only been used to convert the supplied electric power from one form
to another suitable to the load requirements, they can also be used to match the
impedances of the PV panel at MPPs with that of the load so that the maximum PV
power can be delivered.
Even though implementing the MPPT increases the system complexity with
regard to the use of digital computing techniques and additional transducers, many
benefits can be gained such as high system efficiency hence the total cost can be reduced
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in some cases by 15% and the efficiency improved by 16% in the worst case. Also, the
system is able to generate the maximum possible power regardless of the irradiance and
temperature levels. Finally, employing the MPP control can be beneficial for other
aspects for example, realizing storage element charging/discharging control so its life
time can be extended.
2.7.1 Basic Principle and the Simplest MPPT Scheme
Overall, the MPPT consists of three parts - a power converter, a controller

(voltage or power feedback controller) and a MPPT algorithm. The latter represents the
core of MPPT technique which continuously monitors the PV power and then
consequently controls the power converter in order to ensure that the load works at the
maximum possible PV power. With respect to the controller, the voltage-feedback
control is mostly used to maintain the PV terminal voltage varying about that
corresponding to the MPPs. The simple voltage-feedback controller diagram is shown in
Fig.
Fig 9. Simple MPPT system with voltage-feedback controller.
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It can be noticed that in this scheme the reference voltage, i.e. the voltage
corresponding to MPP has to be known and set according to predetermined
measurements or the data sheet of the PV source, so this technique is called the constant
reference voltage MPPT. However in practice it is difficult to obtain the reference voltage
values due to changes of weather condition and data sheet may not be available. To avoid
the dependency of this technique to the predetermined reference voltage, an improvement
is made in order to make it more flexible specifically with respect to the atmosphere
changes.
The regular changes in the reference voltage due to the changes of irradiance and
temperature levels are basically rely on the PV open circuit voltage which is close to the
MPP PV voltage (Vmpp is almost 68% to 77% of Voc). For every time period, the PV
source and load are disconnected regularly, so the open circuit voltage can be sampled. In
1998 this method with the open-circuit voltage measurement was chosen to be used in the
integrated maximum power point tracker for PV panels. As a result of repeatedly reset
the PV source to its open-circuit voltage (PV output power is equal to zero), considerable
amount of energy is lost also the system needs some time to settle down again after each
interrupt. Because of that in a pilot model or separated reference solar cell was used
instead of interrupting the main PV power flow. Although the pilot model idea improves
the system operation and increases the total extracted PV power, the main drawback is
that the mismatching between the reference solar cell and the main PV panel may occur
due to, for example, dust falling on the reference cell not on the main PV panel and any
other different conditions differing between them. If this mismatching is neglected,
incorrect information about the MPP voltage may be obtained, resulting in inaccurate or
even erroneous control. Overall, the constant reference voltage technique is a simple and
inexpensive MPPT method to implement, but it may not respond to the irradiation and
temperature variations correctly. Even though it has been developed to overcome the
mentioned problem, it is an inaccurate and unreliable MPPT method. Artificial
intelligence has been used to find the desired reference voltage, for instant in the artificial
neural networks were trained in order to predict the proper reference values in different
load and atmospheric situations. As a result, the PV MPP tracking is improved. However,
using the ANN needs a large number of predetermined information patterns in order to
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improve its feed-forward response and that requires quite long training time especially in
the on-line training also it will be difficult to reduce the total squared error so inaccurate
reference values are still produced. However, smaller pattern numbers results in the ANN
method not being able to respond accurately to the new patterns which it had not been
trained to deal with, hence it cannot lead to high performance MPPT.
Another simple method uses the power-feedback controller, instead of using the
PV voltage as a control variable, the PV power is used to maintain the maximum PV
extracted power. This strategy is characterized by the fact that the MPP is actually
achieved independently of any PV source characteristics or predetermined reference
values. Also, it is able to track the PV MPP efficiently regardless of any atmospheric
changes, Fig. shows the simple power-feedback MPPT.
Fig 10. Simple MPPT system with power-feedback controller
The most commonly used power feedback MPPT algorithms are Perturbation and
Observation (P&O), Hill-Climbing (HC) and Incremental Conductance (IncCond) due to
them being efficient, simple and easy to implement.
2.8 P&O MPPT ALGORITHM
The Perturbation and Observation algorithm is broadly used due to it is simple

and easy to construct. According to the flowchart illustrated in Fig., P&O method
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basically increases or decreases (the perturbation stage) the controller reference voltage
by a step size noted as C, hence the PV source terminal voltage, and subsequently
estimates the power difference between the present PV power and that before the
perturbation (observation stage).
If a positive PV power difference is obtained that means the PV power is
increased and the tracking is in the right direction, the perturbation direction will be
carried on (increase or decrease). On the contrary if power difference is negative, a power
reduction is caused due to the perturbation, so the direction of perturbation should be
reversed.
Fig 11. P&O algorithm flowchart.
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As a result of continuous perturbation, P&O algorithm may not stop at the desired
MPP voltage but oscillates around it, causing PV power loss. One way to minimize the
tracking oscillation is to reduce the perturbation voltage step. As a consequence of that, in
the constant irradiance state the PV power curve will be smooth with very small ripples.
However, the tracking speed will detract causing more power lose and losing the ability
to track certainly at the rapid atmospheric changes. Even though choosing a large
perturbation step will result in achieving fast tracking response at the suddenly
atmospheric changes, in the steady state the mentioned oscillation will be quite
considerable.Furthermore, during the transient time of a rapid irradiance change, an
incorrect MPP will be tracked, and after that the actual MPP is reached. This issue was
raised for the first time in 1995 and the interpretation is that because of a perturbation
step is made in a specific direction and then due to the sudden power increase, the
perturbation will be kept on in the same direction as that of the previous step which may
be the wrong direction of searching, consequently power loss is incurred before reaching
the actual MPP.
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CHAPTER 3
DC-DC CONVERTERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A DC–DC converter with a high step-up voltage gain is used for many
applications, such as high-intensity discharge lamp ballasts for automobile headlamps,
fuel cell energy conversion systems, solar-cell energy conversion systems and battery
backup systems for uninterruptible power supplies. Theoretically, a dc–dc boost
converter can achieve a high step-up voltage gain with an extremely high duty ratio.
However, in practice, the step-up voltage gain is limited due to the effect of power
switches, rectifier diodes and the equivalent series resistance (ESR) [7] of inductors and
capacitors.
In general, a conventional boost converter can be adopted to provide a high step-
up voltage gain with a large duty ratio. However, the conversion efficiency and the step-
up voltage gain are limited due to the constraints of the losses of power switches and
diodes, the equivalent series resistance of inductors and capacitors and the reverse
recovery problem of diodes. However, the active switch of these converters will suffer
very high voltage stress and high power dissipation due to the leakage inductance of the
transformer. To reduce the Voltage spike, a resistor–capacitor–diode snubber can be
employed to limit the voltage stress on the active switch. However, the efficiency will be
reduced. High step-up converters [19]-[21] with a low input current ripple based on the
coupled inductor have been developed. The low input current ripple of these converters is
realized by using an additional LC circuit with a coupled inductor.
However, leakage inductance issues that relate to the voltage spike and the
efficiency remain significant. An integrated boost–flyback converter [9] based on a
coupled inductor with high efficiency and high step-up voltage gain has been presented.
The energy stored in the leakage inductor is recycled into the output during the switch off
period. Thus, the efficiency can be increased and the voltage stress on the active switch
can be suppressed. Many step-up converters, which use an output voltage stacking to
increase the voltage gain, are presented.
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Low Voltage High Voltage

DC Bus DC Bus
+ High Step- + +
up DC-DC DC-AC
VFc VDC Vac
Front END Inverters
- - -
24-40VDC 380-400VDC
Fig 12. General Power generation system with a high step-up converter.
A high step-up dc–dc converter is shown in Fig.1.1 with an integrated coupled
inductor and a common mode electromagnetic interference reduction filter. Here a Sepic–
flyback converter with a coupled inductor and an output voltage stacking is developed. A
high step-up converter, which utilizes a coupled inductor and a voltage doubler technique
on the output voltage stacking to achieve a high step-up voltage gain, is introduced. A
high step-up boost converter that uses multiple coupled inductors for the output voltage
stacking is proposed.
Additionally, step-up converters, which use a voltage lift, are introduced. Since
the switch must suffer high current during the switch on period, this technique is
appropriate for low-output-power applications. Since the low voltage rating and the low
conducting resistance RDS (on) of the power switch are used for these converters, the high
conversion efficiency can be achieved. However, the requirement for a coupled inductor
with a high coupling coefficient will result in manufacturing difficulty and cost
increment. A high step-up converter, which uses a three state switching cell and a voltage
multiplier stage based on capacitors, can achieve high step-up gain.
Power engineering is the method used to supply electrical energy from a source to
its users. It is of vital importance to industry. It is likely that the air we breathe and water
we drink are taken for granted until they are not there. Energy conversion technique is the
main focus of power engineering. The corresponding equipment can be divided into four
groups:
• AC/AC transformers
• AC/DC rectifiers
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• DC/DC converters
• DC/AC inverters
Grid interconnection of PV/FC system requires power converters to meet the grid
requirements like voltage amplitude, frequency, and phase angle. First convert the low
voltage dc into high voltage dc by using boost dc-dc converter and then convert this dc
voltage into ac by using inverters and finally connect the whole system to grid. This type
of system (dc-dc and dc-ac conversion) is called two stage conversion systems.
DC-DC converters are electronic devices used whenever we want to change DC
electrical power efficiently from one voltage level to another. They are needed because
unlike AC, DC cannot simply be stepped up or down using a transformer. In many ways,
a DC-DC converter is the equivalent of a transformer. The DC-DC converters can be
viewed as dc transformer that delivers a dc voltage or current at a different level than the
input source. Electronic switching performs this dc transformation as in conventional
transformers and not by electromagnetic means. The dc-dc converters find wide
applications in regulated switch-mode dc power supplies and in dc motor drive
applications.DC-DC converters are non-linear in nature. The design of high performance
control for them is a challenge for both the control engineering engineers and power
electronics engineers. In general, a good control for dc-dc converter always ensures
stability in arbitrary operating condition. Moreover, good response in terms of rejection
of load variations, input voltage changes and even parameter uncertainties is also
required for a typical control scheme.
After pioneer study of dc-dc converters, a great deal of efforts has been directed
in developing the modeling and control techniques of various dc-dc converters. Classic
linear approach relies on the state averaging techniques to obtain the state-space averaged
equations. From the state-space averaged model, possible perturbations are introduced
into the state variables around the operating point. On the basis of the equations, transfer
functions of the open-loop plant can be obtained. A linear controller is easy to be
designed with these necessary transfer functions based on the transfer function. DC to DC
converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop
computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such electronic
devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level requirement
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different than that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes higher or
lower than the supply voltage, and possibly even negative voltage). Additionally, the
battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained. Switched DC to DC converters
offer a method to increase voltage from a partially lowered battery voltage thereby saving
space instead of using multiple batteries to accomplish the same thing.
DC-DC converters are electronic devices that are used whenever we want to
change DC electrical power efficiently from one voltage level to another. In the previous
chapter we mentioned the drawbacks of doing this with a linear regulator and presented
the case for SMPS. Generically speaking the use of a switch or switches for the purpose
of power conversion can be regarded as a SMPS. From now onwards whenever we
mention DC-DC Converters we shall address them with respect to SMPS.A few
applications of interest of DC-DC converters are where 5V DC on a personal computer
motherboard must be stepped down to 3V, 2V or less for one of the latest CPU chips;
where 1.5V from a single cell must be stepped up to 5V or more, to operate electronic
circuitry. In all of these applications, we want to change the DC energy from one voltage
level to another, while wasting as little as possible in the process. In other words, we
want to perform the conversion with the highest possible efficiency.
3.2 TYPES OF DC-DC CONVERTERS
There are many different types of DC-DC converters, each of which tends to be
more suitable for some type of applications than for others. For convenience they can be
classified into various groups, however. For example some converters are only suitable
for stepping down the voltage, while others are only suitable for stepping it up a third
group can be used for either. In this we are going to main types of DC-DC converters.
Currently DC-DC converters can be divided into two types
o Non-isolated dc-dc converters
o Isolated dc-dc converters
3.3 NON-ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS
The non-isolated converter usually employs an inductor, and there is no dc
voltage isolation between the input and the output. The vast majority of applications do
not require dc isolation between its input and output voltages. The non-isolated dc-dc
converter has a dc path between its input and output. Battery-based systems that don’t use
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the ac power line represent a major application for non-isolated dc-dc converters. Point-
of-load dc-dc converters that draw input power from an isolated dc-dc converter, such as
a bus converter, represent another widely used non-isolated application.
Most of these dc-dc converter ICs use either an internal or external synchronous
rectifier. Their only magnetic component is usually an output inductor and thus less
susceptible to generating electromagnetic interference. For the same power and voltage
levels, it usually has lower cost and fewer components while requiring less pc-board area
than an isolated dc-dc converter. For lower voltages non-isolated buck converters can be
used.
There are five main types of converter in this non-isolating group they are
• Buck Converter
• Boost Converter
• Buck-Boost Converter
• Cuk Converter
The Buck converter is used for voltage step-down reduction, while the Boost
converter is used for voltage step-up. The Buck-Boost and Cuk converters can be used
for either step-down or step-up, but are essentially voltage polarity reversers or
‘inverters’. The Charge-pump converter is used for either voltage step-up or voltage
inversion, but only in relatively low power applications.
3.4 BOOST CONVERTER
A boost converter (step-up converter) [40] is a DC-to-DC power converter with
an output voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of switched- mode power
supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor)
and at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination.
Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added
to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.
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LOAD
SUPPLY
Fig 13. The basic schematic of a boost converter
Overview:
Power for the boost converter [40] can come from any suitable DC sources, such
as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC
voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is
a DC-to-DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost
converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it “steps up” the source voltage.
Since power (P=VI) must be conversed, the output current is lower than the source
current.
History:
For high efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly and have low
losses. The advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a
major milestone that made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. The major DC to
DC converters were developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had
become available. The aero scope industry’s need for small, lightweight, and efficient
power converters led to the converter’s rapid development.
Switched systems such as SMPS are a challenge to design since its model depends on
whether a switch is opened or closed. R. D. Middle brook from Caltech in 1977 published
the models for DC to DC converters used today. Middle brook averaged the circuit
configurations for each switch state in a technique called state-space averaging. This
simplification reduced two systems into one. The new model led to insightful design
equations which helped SMPS growth.
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Applications
Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage.
However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications
due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of
cells. Two battery-powered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.
A boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known
as the ‘Joule thief’. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and
is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery.
This energy would otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery
makes it unusable for a normal load. This energy would otherwise remain untapped
because many applications do not allow enough current to flow through a load when
voltage decreases. This voltage decrease occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a
characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery. Since (P=V2/R) as well, and R tends to
be stable, power available to the load goes down significantly as voltage decreases.
Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to
resist changes in current. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than
the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 1.2 When the
switch is closed, current flows through the inductor, which stores energy from the current
in a magnetic field. During this time, the switch acts like a short circuit in parallel with
the diode and the load, so no current flows to the right hand side of the circuit.
When the switch is opened, the short circuit is removed and the load is back in
play in the circuit. This represents a sudden increase in the impedance of the circuit,
which, by Ohm’s law will demand either a decrease in current, or an increase in voltage.
The inductor will tend to resist such a sudden change in the current, which it does by
acting as a voltage source in series with the input source, thus increasing the total voltage
seen by the right hand side of the circuit and thereby preserving (for a brief moment) the
current level that was seen when the switch was closed. This is done using the energy
stored by the inductor. Over time, the energy stored in the inductor will discharge into the
right hand side of the circuit, bringing the net voltage back down.
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If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in
between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the
input source alone when the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the
capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is
then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is
therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the
blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch
must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too
much.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 1.3):
▪ In the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1.3) is closed, resulting in an increase in
the inductor current.
▪ In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the fly back diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This result in
transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
▪ The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure
1.3.So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the
input filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter
IL ID
L D
Vi R V0
S Vs C
Is
Fig 14. Overall diagram of Boost converter
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Fig 15. The two configuration of boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S
Continuous mode:
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the
inductor (IL) never falls to zero. Figure 1.5 shows the typical waveforms of currents and
voltages in a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as
follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior)
operating in steady conditions.
Fig 16. Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous
mode
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During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear
across the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor
during a time period (t) by the formula:
(1.1)
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:
(1.2)
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which
the switch is ON. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load.
If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage
to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:
(1.3)
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
(1.4)
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of

energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end
of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
(1.5)
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle.
This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
(1.6)
Substituting and by their expressions yields:
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(1.7)
This can be written as:

(1.8)
This in turn reveals the duty cycle to be:

(1.9)
The above expression shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to
infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-
up converter.
Discontinuous mode:
Fig 17. Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous
mode.
If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely discharged
before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light loads. In this
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case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in
figure 1.6). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It
can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value (at
t=DT) is
(1.10)
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

(1.11)
Using the two previous equations, δ is:

(1.12)
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure
1.6, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the
output current can be written as:
(1.13)
Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:
(1.14)
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:
(1.15)
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the
output voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the
input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.
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CHAPTER 4
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is an emerging technology in the modern world
because of the fact that it mitigates environmental pollutions and at the same time
increases fuel efficiency of the vehicles. Multilevel inverter controls electric drive of
HEV of high power and enhances its performance which is the reflection of the fact that
it can generate sinusoidal voltages with only fundamental switching frequency and have
almost no electromagnetic interference. This paper describes precisely various topology
of HEVs and presents transformer less multilevel converter for high voltage and high
current HEV. The cascaded inverter is IGBT based and it is fired in a sequence. It is
natural fit for HEV as it uses separate level of dc sources which are in form of batteries or
fuel cells. Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are more
fuel efficient due to the optimization of the engine operation and recovery of kinetic
energy during braking. With the plug-in option (PHEV), the vehicle can be operated on
electric-onlymodes for a driving range of up to 30–60 km. The PHEVs are charged
overnight from the electric power grid where energy can be generated from renewable
sources such as wind and solar energy and from nuclear energy. Fuel cell vehicles (FCV)
use hydrogen as fuel to produce electricity, therefore they are basically emission free.
When connected to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can provide electricity for
emergency power backup during a power outage. Due to hydrogen production, storage,
and the technical limitations of fuel cells at the present time, FCVs are not available to
the general public yet. HEVs are likely to dominate the advanced propulsion in coming
years. Hybrid technologies can be used for almost all kinds of fuels and engines.
Therefore, it is not a transition technology. In HEVs and FCVs, there are more electrical
components used, such as electric machines, power electronic converters, batteries, ultra
capacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers. In addition to these electrification components
or subsystems, conventional internal combustion engines (ICE), and mechanical and
hydraulic systems may still be present. The challenge presented by these advanced
propulsion systems include advanced powertrain components design, such as power
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electronic converters, electric machines and energy storage; power management;

modeling and simulation of the powertrain system; hybrid control theory and
optimization of vehicle control.
In recent years, research in hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) development has been
focused on various aspect of design, such as component architecture, engine efficiency,
reduced fuel emissions, material for lighter components, power electronics, efficient
motors and high power density batteries . To meet some of the aspect of HEV cascaded
multilevel inverter is used so as to meet high power demands. The multilevel voltage
source inverters with unique structure allow them to reach high voltages with low
harmonics without the use of transformers or series-connected synchronized switching
devices . The general function of the multilevel inverter is to synthesize a desired voltage
from several levels of dc voltages. For this reason, multilevel inverters can easily provide
the high power required of a large electric drive. As the number of levels increases, the
synthesized output waveform has more steps, which produces a staircase wave that
approaches a desired waveform. Also, as more steps are added to the waveform, the
harmonic distortion of the output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of
levels increases. As the number of levels increases, the voltage that can be spanned by
summing multiple voltage levels also increases.
The structure of the multilevel inverter is such that no voltage sharing problems
are encountered by the active devices. HEV Configurations
4.2 Why EV’S,HV’S?
Fig 18. HEV Configurations
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Vehicles equipped with conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) have been in
existence for over 100 years. With the increase of the world population, the demand for
vehicles for personal transportation has increased dramatically in the past decade. This
trend of increase will only intensify with the catching up of developing countries, such as
China, India, and Mexico. The demand for oil has increased significantly. Another
problem associated with the ever-increasing use of personal vehicles is the emissions.
The green house effect, also know as global warming, is a serious issue that we have to
face. There have been increased tensions in part of the world due to the energy crisis.
Government agencies and organizations have developed more stringent standards for the
fuel consumption and emissions. Nevertheless, with the ICE technology being matured
over the past 100 years, although it will continue to improve with the aid of automotive
electronic technology, it will mainly rely on alternative evolution approaches to
significantly improve the fuel economy and reduce emissions. Battery-powered electric
vehicles were one of the solutions proposed to tackle the energy crisis and global
warming. However, the high initial cost, short driving range, long charging (refueling)
time, and reduced passenger and cargo space have proved the limitation of battery-
powered EVs. The HEV was developed to overcome the disadvantages of both ICE
vehicles and the pure battery-powered electric vehicle. The HEV uses the onboard ICE to
convert energy from the onboard gasoline or diesel to mechanical energy, which is used
to drive the onboard electric motor, in the case of a series HEV, or to drive the wheels
together with an electric motor, in the case of parallel or complex HEV. The onboard
electric motor(s) serves as a device to optimize the efficiency of the ICE, as well as
recover the kinetic energy during braking or coasting of the vehicle. The ICE can be
stopped if the vehicle is at a stop, or if vehicle speed is lower than a preset threshold, and
the electric motor is used to drive the vehicle along. The ICE operation is optimized by
adjusting the speed and torque of the engine. The electric motor uses the excess power of
the engine to charge battery if the engine generates more power than the driver demands
or to provide additional power to assist the driving if the engine cannot provide the power
required by the driver. Due to the optimized operation of the ICE, the maintenance of the
vehicle can be significantly reduced, such as oil changes, exhaust repairs, and brake
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replacement. In addition, the onboard electric motor provides more flexibility and
controllability to the vehicle control, such as antilock braking (ABS) and vehicle stability
control (VSC).
4.3 HEV Configurations:

Although a number of configurations are used for HEV powetrains, the main
architectures are the series, parallel and series-parallel ones. They are analyzed in this
Section
i)by disregarding the losses in the electric and mechanical devices, the power
consumption of the auxiliary electric loads, and the presence of gearboxes and clutches,
and
ii) by considering the static converters used for the interface of the electric devices as a
whole with the devices themselves. Moreover, the analysis is carried out by assuming
that
iii)the powers are positive quantities when the associated energy flows in the direction of
the arrows reported in the schemes of the architectures, and
iv) the driving requirements for a vehicle are the speed and the torque at the wheels,
where the product of the two variables gives the required propulsion power.
4.3.1 Series Architecture:

The Power train of a Series HEV (SHEV) has the architecture of Fig.2.2. It
comprises a genset (i.e. a generation set) and a drivetrain of electric type, which are
connected together through a common power Bus (B). To B is also connected an energy
Storage system (S). In the genset, ICE is fed by the Fuel tank (F) and delivers the
mechanical power pe to the electric Generator (G). The latter one converts pe into electric
form and supplies B. The energy associated to pe can be either stored in S (in this case
the power ps of Fig.2.2 is negative) or drawn by the electric drivetrain or both. During the
engine start-up, G behaves as a crank motor energized from S. The electric drivetrain is
constituted by one (or more) electric Motor (M) that draws the propulsion power pw from
B and delivers it to the Wheels (W). Note that in this architecture the wide speed-torque
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regulation allowed by M may make superfluous the insertion of a variable-ratio gearbox

between M and W. During the regenerative braking, M operates as a generator to recover
the kinetic energy of the vehicle into S. The mechanical separation between genset and
electric drivetrain, and the energy buffering action of S give the series architecture the
maximum flexibility in terms of power management. As a matter of fact, SHEV may be
considered as a purely electric vehicle equipped with a genset that recharges S
autonomously instead of at a recharge station. Sometimes, the genset is undersized with
respect to the average propulsion power absorbed during a typical travel mission. In this
case, the genset is used to extend the operating range allowed by S, and SHEV is referred
to as "range extender". Pros and cons of the series architecture may be summarized as
follows. Pros: i) ICE and G are conveniently sized for the average propulsion power or
even less; ii) genset and electrical drivetrain are mechanically separated thus permitting
to maximize the ICE efficiency with a consequential substantial reduction of emissions.
Cons:
i) two electric machines (i.e. G and M) are required;
ii) M must be sized to provide the peak propulsion power;
iii) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W by means of at least two energy
conversions (from mechanical to electrical to possibly chemical inside S, and vice-versa),
with a lower efficiency than a direct mechanical connection.
The series architecture is reputed to be more suited for vehicles mainly used in
urban area, with rapidly varying requirements of speed (and power); it is also used in
large vehicles, where the lower efficiency of both ICE and the mechanical transmission
make more convenient the electric propulsion.
Fig 19. Series architecture
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4.3.2 Parallel Architecture

The Power train of a Parallel HEV (PHEV) has the architecture of Fig.2.3. It
comprises two independent drive trains, namely one of mechanical type and the other one
of electric type, whose powers are "added" by a 3-way mechanical devices -the Adder
(A)- to provide the propulsion power As shown in Fig.2.2, the mechanical drivetrain
generates the part pe of the propulsion power, whilst the electric drivetrain delivers the
remaining part pm. The propulsion power pw is then equal to
pw=pe+pm
Fig 20. Parallel architecture

Differently from SHEV, M acts here as generator not only during the regenerative
braking but also during the normal driving, whenever S must be recharged; in the latter
circumstance, M draws energy from ICE through A. As a matter of fact, PHEV may be
considered as a conventional vehicle supplemented with an additional drivetrain of
electric type that overtakes the role of the traditional generator-battery set by contributing
to the propulsion. Sometimes, S is chosen to have small storable energy but high power
capability, and M is sized with a wide overload margin. In this case the electric drivetrain
is used as a power boost to supplement ICE during fast changes of the propulsion power,
thus permitting ICE to adapt slowly to the driving conditions. The modifications required
to convert a conventional vehicle into PHEV may be somewhat moderate, and this makes
easier the manufacturing of PHEVs using the existing production processes. A vehicle
built up accordingly is termed “minimal” or “mild” HEV depending on the extent of the
modifications introduced in the original Powertrain. Pros and cons of the parallel
architecture may be summarized as follows. Pros:
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i) only one electric machine is needed;

ii) the peak power requirement for M is lower than in SHEV since both M and ICE
provide the propulsion power;
iii) the power generated by ICE is transferred to W directly, which is more efficient than
through a double energy conversion. Cons: i) an additional 3-way mechanical device is
required to couple together ICE, M and W; ii) such coupling imposes a tighter constraint
on the power flow compared to SHEV, possibly turning into worse operation of ICE.
The parallel architecture is reputed to be more suited for
small- and mid-size vehicles mainly traveling along extraurban routes, where the range
for the required propulsion power is not too wide.
4.3.4 Series-Parallel Architecture:

The Powertrain of a Series-Parallel HEV (SPHEV) has the architecture of Fig.4.4. It may
be viewed as a mix of the SEHV and PHEV architectures, obtained by employing a
Power split apparatus (P) with 2 mechanical ports and 1 electric port. The 3 ports are
connected to ICE, A and B, respectively. P divides the power generated by ICE into two
parts, i.e. the part pd, which is delivered directly in mechanical form to W via A,
similarly to PHEV, and the part pb, which is delivered in electric form to B, similarly to
SHEV. The task of the power split apparatus is then twofold; besides dividing the power
generated by ICE, it must convert mechanical energy into an electric form. The series-
parallel architecture has two main features: the propulsion requirements are decoupled
from the ICE operation and the overall losses are lower since a fraction of the power
generated by ICE is delivered to W without any intermediate energy conversion. The
former feature makes the management of the power flow very flexible, enabling in
principle to optimize the ICE operation in a wide range of driving conditions.
Fig 21. Series-parallel architecture
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Compared to conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are more fuel
efficient due to the optimization of the engine operation and recovery of kinetic energy
during braking. With the plug-in option (PHEV), the vehicle can be operated on electric-
onlymodes for a driving range of up to 30–60 km. The PHEVs are charged overnight
from the electric power grid where energy can be generated from renewable sources such
as wind and solar energy and from nuclear energy. Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) use hydrogen
as fuel to produce electricity, therefore they are basically emission free. When connected
to electric power grid (V2G), the FCV can provide Electricity for emergency power
backup during a power outage. Due to hydrogen production, storage, and the technical
limitations of fuel cells at the present time, FCVs are not available to the general public
yet. HEVs are likely to dominate the advanced propulsion in coming years. Hybrid
technologies can be used for almost all kinds of fuels and engines.
Therefore, it is not a transition technology. In HEVs and FCVs, there are more
electrical components used, such as electric machines, power electronic converters,
batteries, ultracapacitors, sensors, and microcontrollers. In addition to these
electrification components or subsystems, conventional internal combustion engines
(ICE), and mechanical and hydraulic systems may still be present. The challenge
presented by these advanced propulsion systems include advanced powertrain
components design, such as power electronic converters, electric machines and energy
storage; power management; modeling and simulation of the powertrain system; hybrid
control theory and optimization of vehicle control.
This project provides an overview of the state of the art of electric vehicles (EVs),
HEVs and FCVs, with a focus on HEVs. Section II tries to answer a fundamental
question: why EV, HEV, and FCV? It also looks at the key issues of HEVs and FCVs.
Section III reviews the history of EVs, HEVs, and FCVs. Section IV highlights the
engineering philosophy of EVs, HEVs, and FCVs. Section V presents the architectures of
HEVs and FCVs. Section VI provides an overview of the current status of HEVs and
FCVs. Section VII discusses the key technologies, including electric motor technology,
power converter technology, control and power management technology, and energy
storage devices.
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Fig 22. Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and FCVs
4.4 History of HEV:

In 1898, the German Dr. Ferdinand Porsche built his first car, the Lohner Electric
Chaise. It was the world’s first front-wheel-drive car. Porsche’s second car was a hybrid,
using an ICE to spin a generator that provided power to electric motors located in the
wheel hubs. On battery alone, the car could travel nearly 40 miles. By 1900, American
car companies had made 1681 steam, 1575 electric, and 936 gasoline cars. In a poll
conducted at the first National Automobile Show in New York City, patrons favored
electric as their first choice, followed closely by steam.
In the first few years of the 20th century, thousands of electric and hybrid cars were
produced. This car, made in 1903 by the Krieger company, used a gasoline engine to
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supplement a battery pack. Also in 1900, a Belgian carmaker, Pieper, introduced a 3-1/2
horsepower Bvoiturette[ in which the small gasoline engine was mated to an electric
motor under the seat. When the car was Bcruising,[ its electric motor was in effect a
generator, recharging the batteries. But when the car was climbing a grade, the electric
motor, mounted coaxially with the
gas engine, gave it a boost. The Pieper Table 1 Characteristics of BEVs, HEVs, and
FCVs Chan: The State of the Art of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 706
Proceedings patents were used by a Belgium firm, Auto-Mixte, to build commercial
vehicles from 1906 to 1912. In 1904, Henry Ford overcame the challenges posed by
gasoline-powered cars Vnoise, vibration, and od orV and began assembly-line production
of low-priced, lightweight, gas-powered vehicles. Henry Ford’s assembly line and the
advent of the self-starting gas engine signaled a rapid decline in hybrid cars by 1920.
Within a few years, the electric vehicle company failed. In 1905, an American engineer
named H. Piper filed a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid vehicle. His idea was to use an
electric motor to assist an ICE, enabling it to achieve 25 mph. Two prominent electric
vehicle makers, Baker of
Cleveland and Woods of Chicago, offered hybrid cars. Woods claimed that their hybrid
reached a top speed of 35 mph and achieved fuel efficiency of 48 mpg. The Woods Dual
Power was more expensive and less powerful than its gasoline competition and therefore
sold poorly.
Hybrid and electric vehicles faded away until the 1970s with the Arab oil
embargo. The price of gasoline soared, creating new interest in electric vehicles. The U.S.
Department of Energy ran tests on many electric and hybrid vehicles produced by various
manufacturers. The world started down a new road in 1997 when the first modern hybrid
electric car, the Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. Two years later, the U.S. saw its first
sale of a hybrid, the Honda Insight. These two vehicles, followed by the Honda Civic
Hybrid, marked a radical change in the type of car being offered to the public: vehicles
that bring some of the benefits of battery electric vehicles into the conventional gasoline
powered cars and trucks we have been using for more than 100 years. Along the line,
over 20 models of passenger hybrids have been introduced to the auto market.
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4.5 Architecture of HEVs AND FCVs:

HEVs are propelled by an ICE and an electric motor/ generator (EM) in series or
parallel configurations. The ICE provides the vehicle an extended driving range, while
the EM increases efficiency and fuel economy by regenerating energy during braking and
storing excess energy from the ICE during coasting. Design and control of such
powertrains involve modeling and simulation of intelligent control algorithms and power
management strategies, which aim to optimize the operating parameters to any given
driving condition. Traditionally, there are two basic categories of HEV, namely series
hybrids and parallel hybrids. In series HEV, the ICE mechanical output is first converted
to electricity using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or
bypasses the battery to propel the wheels via an electric motor. This electric motor is also
used to capture the energy during braking. A parallel HEV, on the other hand, has both
the ICE and an electric motor coupled to the final drive shaft of the wheels via clutches.
This configuration allows the ICE and the electric motor to deliver power to drive the
wheels in combined mode, or ICE alone, or motor alone modes. The electric motor is also
used for regenerative braking and for capturing the excess energy of the ICE during
coasting. Recently, series– parallel and complex HEVs have been developed to improve
the power performance and fuel economy.
4.5.1 Series HEV:

In series HEVs, the ICE mechanical output is first converted into electricity using a
generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the battery to
propel the wheels via the same electric motor and mechanical transmission.
Conceptually, it is an ICE-assisted EV that aims to extend the driving range comparable
with that of conventional vehicle. Due to the decoupling between the engine and the
driving wheels, it has the definite advantage of flexibility for locating the ICE generator
set. Although it has an added advantage of simplicity of its drivetrain, it needs three
propulsion devices, the ICE, the generator, and the electric motor. Therefore, the
efficiency of series HEV is generally lower. Another disadvantage is that all these
propulsion devices need to be sized for the maximum sustained power if the series HEV
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is designed to climb a long grade, making series HEV expensive. On the other hand,
when it is only needed to serve such short trips as commuting to work and shopping, the
corresponding ICE generator set can adopt a lower rating.
There are six possible different operation modes in a series HEV:
1) battery alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the battery only;
2) engine alone mode: power from ICE/G;
3) combined mode: both ICE/G set and battery provides power to the traction motor;
4) power split mode: ICE/G power split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery;
5) stationary charging mode;
6) regenerative braking mode.
Fig 23. Four common architectures of HEV.
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4.5.2 Parallel HEV

Differing from the series hybrid, the parallel HEV allows both the ICE and
electric motor to deliver power in parallel to drive the wheels. Since both the ICE and
electric motor are generally coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via two clutches, the
propulsion power may be supplied by the ICE alone, by the electric motor, or by both.
Conceptually, it is inherently an electric-assisted ICEV for achieving both lower
emissions and fuel consumption. The electric motor can be used as a generator to charge
the battery by regenerative braking or by absorbing power from the ICE when its output
is greater thAn that required to drive the wheels. Better than the series HEV, the parallel
hybrid needs only two propulsion devices Vthe ICE and the electric motor. Another
advantage over the series case is that a smaller ICE and a smaller electric motor can be
used to get the same performance until the battery is depleted. Even for long-trip
operation, only the ICE needs to be rated for the maximum sustained power while the
electric motor may still be about a half. The following are the possible different operation
modes of parallel hybrid:
1) motor alone mode: engine is off, vehicle is powered by the motor only;
2) engine alone mode: vehicle is propelled by the engine only;
3) combined mode: both ICE and motor provides power to the drive the vehicle;
4) power split mode: ICE power is split to drive the vehicle and charge the battery (motor
becomes generator);
5) stationary charging mode;
6) regenerative braking mode (include hybrid braking mode).
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CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED CONCEPT
5.1 TOPOLOGY AND OPERATIONAL MODES
5.1.1 Proposed Topology and Working Modes
The proposed tri-port topology has three energy terminals, PV, battery, and SRM. They
are linked by a power converter that consists of four switching devices (S0 - S3), four
diodes (D0 - D3), and two relays, as shown in Fig. 2. By controlling relays J 1 and J2, the
six operation modes are supported, as shown in Fig. 3; the corresponding relay actions
are illustrated in Table I. In mode 1, PV is the energy source to drive the SRM and to
charge the battery. In mode 2, the PV and battery are both the energy sources to drive the
SRM. In mode3, the PV is the source and the battery is idle. In mode 4, the battery is the
driving source and the PV is idle. In mode 5, the battery is charged by a single-phase grid
while both the PV and SRM are idle. In mode 6, the battery is charged by the PV and the
SRM is idle.
Proposed tri-port topology for PV-powered SRM drive.
Fig 24. Six operation modes of the proposed tri-port topology. (a) Mode 1.
(b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3. (d) Mode 4. (e) Mode 5. (f) Mode 6
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5.1.2. Driving Modes

1) Mode 1: At light loads of operation, the energy generated from the PV is more than
the SRM needed; the system operates in mode 1. The corresponding operation circuit is
shown in Fig. 4(a), in which relay J1 turns off and relay J2 turns on. The PV panel energy
feeds the energy to SRM and charges the battery; so in this mode, the battery is charged
in EV operation condition.
2) Mode 2: When the SRM operates in heavy load such as uphill driving or acceleration,
both the PV panel and battery supply power to the SRM. The corresponding operation
circuit is shown in Fig. 4(b), in which relay J1 and J2 are turned on.
3) Mode 3: When the battery is out of power, the PV panel is the only energy source to
drive the vehicle. The corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4(c). J1 turns on and J2 turns
off.
4) Mode 4: When the PV cannot generate electricity due to low solar irradiation, the
battery supplies power to the SRM. The corresponding topology is illustrated in Fig. 4(d).
In this mode, relay J1 and J2 are both conducting.
Fig 25. Equivalent circuits under driving modes.
(a) mode 1. (b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3. (d) Mode 4.
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5.1.3 Battery Charging Modes
5) Mode 5: When PV cannot generate electricity, an external power source is needed to

charge the battery, such as ac grid. The corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 5(a). J1 and
J2 turn
on. Point A is central tapped of phase windings that can be easily achieved without
changing the motor structure. One of the three-phase windings is split and its midpoint is
pulled out, as shown in Fig. 5(a). Phase windings La1 and La2 are employed as input
filter inductors. These inductors are part of the drive circuit to form an ac–dc rectifier for
grid-charging.
6) Mode 6: When the EV is parked under the sun, the PV can charge the battery. J1 turns
off and J2 turns on. The corresponding charging circuit is shown in Fig. 5(b).
Fig 26. Equivalent circuits of charging condition modes. (a) Grid charging
mode. (b) PV source charging mode.
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5.2 CONTROL STRATEGY UNDER DIFFERENT MODES
In order to make the best use of solar energy for driving the EV, a control strategy under
different modes is designed.
5.2.1 Single Source Driving Mode
According to the difference in the power sources, there are PV-driving, battery-
driving, and PV and battery parallel fed source. In a heavy load condition, the PV power
cannot support the EV, mode 2 can be adopted to support enough energy and make full
use of solar energy. Fig. 6(a) shows the equivalent power source; the corresponding PV
panel working points are illustrated in Fig. 6(b).
Fig 27. Power supply at mode 2. (a) Compound power source. (b) Working
point of the PV
Fig 28. Working states at mode 2. (a) Winding excitation state. (b) Energy
recycling state. (c) Freewheeling state.
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Because the PV is paralleled with the battery, the PV panel voltage is clamped to the
battery voltage UB. In mode 2, there are three working states: winding excitation, energy
recycling, and freewheeling states, as shown in Fig. 7. Modes 3 and 4 have similar
working states to mode 2. The difference is that the PV is the only source in mode 3
while the battery is the only source in mode 4. Neglecting the voltage drop across the
power switches and diodes, the phase voltage is given by
where Uin is the dc-link voltage, k is phases a, b, or c, Rk is the phase resistance, ik is the
phase current, Lk is the phase inductance, ϑr is the rotor position, ψ(ik, ϑr) is the phase flux
linkage depending on the phase current and rotor position, and ωr is the angular speed.
Fig 29. SRM control strategy under single-source driving mode.
The third term in (1) is the back EMF voltage given by
In the excitation region, turning on S0 and S1 will induce a current in phase a winding, as
shown in Fig. 7(a). Phase a winding is subjected to the positive dc bus voltage
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When S0 is OFF and S1 is ON, the phase current is in a freewheeling state in a zero-
voltage loop, as shown in Fig. 7(c), the phase voltage is zero
In the demagnetization region, S0 and S1 are both turned off, and the phase current will
flow back to the power supply, as shown in Fig. 7(b). In this state, the phase winding is
subjected
to the negative dc bus voltage, and the phase voltage is
In single-source driving mode, the voltage-PWM control is employed as the basic

scheme, as illustrated in Fig. 8. According to the given speed ω∗, the voltage-PWM
control is activated at speed control
5.2.2. Driving-Charging Hybrid Control Strategy
In the driving-charging hybrid control, the PV is the driving source and the
battery is charged by the freewheeling current, as illustrated in drive mode 1. There are
two control objectives:
MPPT of the PV panel and speed control of the SRM. The dual-source condition is
switched from a PV-driving mode. First, the motor speed is controlled at a given speed in
mode 3. Then, J2 is turned on and J1 is turned off to switch to mode 1. By controlling the
turn-off angle, the maximum power of PV panel can be tracked. There are three steady
working states for the dual-source mode (mode 1), as shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 9(a), S0 and
S1 conduct, the PV panel charges the SRM winding to drive the motor. In Fig. 9(b), S0
and S1 turn-off; and the battery is charged with freewheeling current of the phase
winding. Fig. 9(c) shows a freewheeling state. Fig. 10 is the control strategy under
driving-charging mode. In Fig. 10, ϑon is the turn-on angle of SRM; ϑoff is the turn-off
angle of SRM. By adjusting turn-on angle, the speed of SRM can be controlled; the
MPPT of PV panel can be achieved by adjusting turn-off angle, which can control the
charging current to the battery
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Fig 30. Mode 1 working states. (a) Winding exciting state. (b) Battery charging
state. (c) Freewheeling state
Fig 31. Control strategy under driving-charging mode (mode 1).
5.2.3 Grid-Charging Control Strategy
The proposed topology also supports the single-phase grid charging. There are
four basic charging states and S0 is always turned off. When the grid instantaneous
voltage is over zero,
the two working states are presented in Fig. 11(a) and (b). In Fig. 11(a), S1 and S2
conduct, the grid voltage charges the phase winding La2, the corresponding equation can
be expressed as (7); in Fig. 11(b), S1 turns off and S2 conducts, the grid is connected in
series with phase winding to charges the battery, the corresponding equation can be
expressed as (8)
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When the grid instantaneous voltage is below zero, the two working states are presented
in Fig. 11(c) and (d). In Fig. 11(c), S1 and S2 conduct, the grid voltage charges the phase
winding La1 and La2, the corresponding equation can be expressed as (9); in Fig. 11(d), S1
keeps conducing and S2 turns off, the grid is connected in series with phase winding La1
and La2 to charges the battery, the corresponding equation can be expressed as (10)
Fig 32. Mode 5 charging states. (a) Grid charging state 1 (Ugrid > 0). (b) Grid
charging state 2 (Ugrid > 0). (c) Grid charging state 3 (Ugrid < 0). (d) Grid
charging state 4 (Ugrid < 0).
In Fig. 12, Ugrid is the grid voltage; by the phase lock loop (PLL), the phase information
can be got; Iref_grid is the given amplitude of the grid current. Combining sin ϑ and Iref_grid,
the instantaneous grid current reference iref_grid can be calculated. In this mode, when Ugrid
> 0, the inductance is La2; when Ugrid < 0, the inductance is paralleled La1 and La2; in
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order to adopt the change in the inductance, hysteresis control is employed to realize grid
current regulation. Furthermore, hysteresis control has excellent loop performance, global
stability, and small phase lag that make grid-connected control stable.
Fig 33. A Grid-connected charging control (mode 5).
5.2.4. PV-Fed Charging Control Strategy
In this mode, the PV panel charges the battery directly by the driving topology.
The phase windings are employed as inductor, and the driving topology can be
functioned as interleaved buck–boost charging topology. For one phase, there are two
states, as shown in Fig. 13(a) and (b). When S0 and S1 turn on, the PV panel charges
phase inductance; when S0 and S1 turn off, the phase inductance discharges energy to
battery. According to the state-of-charging (SoC), there are three stages to make full use
of solar energy and maintain battery healthy condition, as illustrated in Fig. 13(c). During
stage 1, the corresponding battery SoC is in SoC0 - SoC1, the battery is in extremely lack
energy condition, the MPPT control strategy is employed to make full use of solar
energy. During stage 2, the corresponding battery SoC is in SoC1 - SoC2, the constant-
voltage control is adopted to charge the battery. During stage 3, the corresponding battery
SoC is in SoC2 - 100%, the micro-current charging is adopted. In order to simplify the
control strategy, constant voltage is employed in PV panel MPPT control.
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Fig 34. Mode 6 charging states and control strategy. (a) Phase inductance
charging. (b) Battery charging. (c) Charging control strategy.
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CHAPTER -6
SIMULATION RESULTS
fig 35: Output current waveform
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fig 36: Torque, speed, three phase currents
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CONCLUSION
In order to tackle the range anxiety of using EVs and decrease the system cost, a
combination of the PV panel and SRM is proposed as the EV driving system. The main
contributions of this paper are as follows.
1) A tri-port converter is used to coordinate the PV panel, battery, and SRM.
2) Six working modes are developed to achieve flexible energy flow for driving control,
driving/charging hybrid control and charging control.
3) A novel grid-charging topology is formed without a need for external power
electronics devices.
4) A PV-fed battery charging control scheme is developed to improve the solar energy
utilization. Since PV-fed EVs are a greener and more sustainable technology than
conventional ICE vehicles, this work will provide a feasible solution to reduce the total
costs and CO2 emissions of electrified vehicles. Furthermore, the proposed technology
may also be applied to similar applications such as fuel cell powered EVs. Fuel cells have
a much high-power density and are thus better suited for EV applications
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Solar PV powered SRM drive for EV's with flexible energy control functions

1.1 Electric vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) have taken a significant leap forward by advances in

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Fig 1. PV-fed HEV.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL AND MPPT

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2.2 PV FUNDAMENTALS AND CELL MODELING

Fig 2. Silicon crystal lattice and intrinsic conductivity.

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The crystalline silicon solar cell can be achieved by creating semiconductor

Fig 3. PV cell semiconductor layers (a) non-illuminated and (b) illuminated

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avalanche breakdown. The temperature of the junction is considerably increased due to

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where: Isc=short-circuit current (A), Uoc=open-circuit voltage (V), Im=maximum power

2.3 HOT-SPOTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

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Fig 5. Two PV cells/modules connected in series under partial shading.

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T<1500 C No damage No effects

1500 C≤T<1700 C Array encapsulation Delamination of the array heat

1700 C ≤T<2000 C Deterioration of the Reduction of the electrical

T>2000C PV cell p-n junction is

TABLE 1. The Effects of the Hot-Spots

2.4 PV CELL REVERSE MODE AND SHUNT RESISTANCE EFFECT

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Fig 6. PV cell I-V curve

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2.5 THE POWER REDUCTION

2.6 PV BYPASS DIODE PROTECTIONS

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Consequently, the dissipated power by the shaded cells/modules is zero, so no hot-spots

2.7 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING TECHNIQUES

In order to extract the maximum PV available power at certain atmosphere and

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Fig 8. I-V PV characteristics and load line

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2.7.1 Basic Principle and the Simplest MPPT Scheme

Overall, the MPPT consists of three parts - a power converter, a controller

Fig 9. Simple MPPT system with voltage-feedback controller.

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Fig 10. Simple MPPT system with power-feedback controller

2.8 P&O MPPT ALGORITHM

The Perturbation and Observation algorithm is broadly used due to it is simple

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Fig 11. P&O algorithm flowchart.

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Low Voltage High Voltage

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Fig 13. The basic schematic of a boost converter

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Fig 14. Overall diagram of Boost converter

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