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Evaluation of stiffness and fatigue using 2 Point Bending and

Indirect Tensile Fatigue tests

MAGGIORE1 Cinzia, AIREY2 Gordon

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1
Marie Curie Early-Stage Researcher, University of Nottingham, Faculty of civil
engineering, Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre (NTEC), University
Park, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, NG7 2RD. United Kingdom. Email:
cinzia.maggiore@nottingham.ac.uk
2
Professor of Pavement Engineering Materials, University of Nottingham, Faculty
of civil engineering, Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre (NTEC),
University Park, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, NG7 2RD. United Kingdom.
Email: Gordon.airey@nottingham.ac.uk

ABSTRACT
Flexural fatigue due to repeated traffic loading is a process of cumulative
damage and one of the main failure modes of flexible pavement structures. In order
to characterise fatigue resistance in asphalt mixture, different methods, such as
phenomenological, fracture mechanics and dissipated energy approaches, allied to
different testing methods, such as simple flexure, diametral loading and direct axial
loading tests, are usually used.
This paper presents a comparison of fatigue resistance obtained using
Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test (ITFT) and 2 Point Bending (2PB) undertaken at the
University of Nottingham (UK). A 20 mm Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM) has
been chosen for the laboratory study and different fatigue tests have been undertaken.
Both 2PB and ITFT have been undertaken under different loading at 10 °C in stress
and strain controlled mode in order to evaluate the properties of the mixtures
(stiffness, dissipated energy, fatigue life, etc.).

INTRODUCTION
Flexural fatigue is one of the main failure modes of flexible pavement
structures. It is caused by high tensile stress/strain caused by a relatively thin or
weak asphalt mix layer, very high traffic load or tire pressure, or relatively weak
sub-grade and/or base, and/or subbase, due to environmental factors or bad
construction phases. From a mechanical point of view, the mechanism of fatigue can
be divided into two parts: the first one is the occurrence of tensile stress/strain in the
base layer; the second one is the repetitive occurrence of such tensile stress/strain
under traffic repetitions. The repetition of the tensile stress/strain causes the
accumulation of micro damage in the bottom of the base layer that, over time, results

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in the break between the aggregate and the binder, thus generating more or less deep
cracks. Since the asphalt pavement has viscoelastic behaviour, it recovers when the
load is removed. At the end of this first cycle there is part of the strain that is
recovered and a small part that is permanent. Under the next load the pavement
undergoes the same cycle. Ultimately the pavement will fail due to damage
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accumulation.
Different approaches such as phenomenological approach, fracture
mechanics and dissipated energy methods, are usually used in characterising fatigue
behaviour of HMA. As well as different testing methods, such as simple flexure,
diametral loading and direct axial loading tests, are usually used to characterise
fatigue resistance in asphalt mixtures.
This paper presents a comparison of fatigue resistance obtained using
Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test (ITFT) and 2 Point Bending (2PB) undertaken at the
University of Nottingham (UK)

2 POINT BENDING (2PB) TEST

The 2 Point Bending test is widely used for measuring fatigue resistance and
stiffness for asphaltic paving materials in Europe. The test consists of applying a
continuous sinusoidal waveform at the top of a trapezoidal specimen. The specimen
is glued between to plates (at the top and at the bottom) and the fracture usually
occurs at 1/3 of the height, where the bending moment is a maximum (see Figure 3)
(EN 12697-24, 2004; EN 12697-26, 2004). Trapezoidal specimens dimensions are
shown schematically in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the 2PB equipment at the
University of Nottingham.

Figure 1. Trapezoidal specimen for 2PB Figure 2. 2 Point Bending equipment

The trapezoidal specimen is mounted as vertical cantilever. Sinusoidal constant stress
is applied at the top of the specimen, while the bottom base is fixed.
As mentioned before, fracture usually happens at 1/3 high from the bottom because
that area is the most stressed in the specimen as shown in the Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Fracture in trapezoidal specimen

The initial stiffness is usually chosen between the 50th and the 100th load
application. Traditionally, a fatigue test ends when the stiffness has decreased to half
of its initial value in strain controlled mode; it ends when the specimens has reached
the failure in the case of stress controlled mode (Rowe, 1993; SHRP-A-404, 1994).
Figure 4 and 5 show the typical sinusoidal stress waveform applied to the
trapezoidal specimen and the typical strain waveform recorded by the machine
during a fatigue test with the 2PB.

600 200

300 100
Strain (με)
Stress (kPa)

0 0

-300 -100

-600 -200
9.6 9.63 9.66 9.69 9.6 9.63 9.66 9.69
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Figure 4. Strain waveform Figure 5. Stress waveform

INDIRECT TENSILE FATIGUE TEST (ITFT)

The Indirect tension test is a simple fatigue test widespread in United

Kingdom due to the fact that it is easily suitable for cylindrical specimen
manufactured in the laboratory or cored from a flexible pavement. A disadvantage
of this testing machine is the accumulation of permanent deformation and that tends
to hide the real fatigue damage; thus the ITT does not measure fatigue behaviour
directly, mostly at high temperature when the viscoelastic behaviour is more

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underlined (Cocurullo et al., 2008, Read, 1996, Hartman, 2001).

For both stiffness and fatigue tests, cylindrical specimens of 100 mm
diameter with a height of 40 mm were obtained from square slabs (305 x 305 mm
and 60 mm high) uniformly mixed and compacted according to EN 12697-35:2002
and EN 12697-33:2003. From each slab usually five specimens are obtained, after
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trimming the bottom and the top layer of the slab. (see Figure 6 and 7).

100 mm

Figure 6. Slab made for cylindrical Figure 7. Cylindrical specimen

specimen

In order to obtain the stiffness modulus of the mixture, a repeated load

pulses with rest period are applied along the vertical diameter of the specimen. The
load waveform is a haversine and the rise-time is 124 ± 4 ms according to EN
12697-26:2004 (see Figure 8). The peak deformation is measured along the
horizontal diameter using linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT) (see
Figure 9); experience indicates 5±2 με as suitable values for a 100 mm diameter
specimen.
1200 2650
1000 2600
Stress (kPa)

Strain (με)

800 2550
600 2500
400 2450
200 2400
0 2350
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Time (ms) Time (ms)

Figure 8. Stress pulse applied. Figure 9. Strain waveform recorded.

Usually 10 preloading pulses are applied before applying 5 load pulses for
the determination of stiffness. After that, the specimen is rotated through 90° in
order to repeat the same procedure. Stiffness modulus is obtained from the average
values recorded at those two tests. In order to be correct stiffness modulus mean
value from the second test shall be within +10% and -20% of the mean value

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recorded for the first test.

Regarding the measurement of fatigue indirect tension fatigue tests (ITFT)
are conducted; experimental test is analogous to the indirect tension to cylindrical
specimens (IT-CY) but some changes. A haversine compressive load is applied to
the vertical diameter plane of the cylindrical specimen with 0.1 sec loading time
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and 0.4 sec rest time. This creates a uniform tensile stress perpendicular to the
direction of the applied load. Thus the specimen usually fails along the central part
of the vertical diameter splitting in two halves (EN 12697-24:2004) as showed in
Figure 10.

Figure 10. Indirect Tension Fatigue Test

Fatigue life is usually determined as the number of load that causes the
completely fracture of the asphalt specimen.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The laboratory tests were carried on continuously graded 20 mm dense

bitumen macadam (DBM). The aggregates type selected was a crushed limestone.
The particle size distribution of the materials and the specification limits are given in
Figure 11 according to the standards (BS-EN-13108-1-2006). The penetration grade
binder used for the mixture was a 40/60 pen.

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100
90 0/20mm Dense Binder Course
80
Upper and Lower Limits
70
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% Passing

60 Mid Range
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

Figure 11. Aggregate Gradation Curve

According to the standards, stiffness values were calculated for ITFT using
the following equation:
× .
= ×
(Eq. 1)

where F is the peak value of the applied vertical load (N); z is the amplitude of the
horizontal deformation obtained during the load cycle (mm); h is the mean
thickness of the cylindrical specimen (mm); ν is the Poisson’s ratio (0.35).
Regarding the 2PB, the stiffness modulus corresponds to the absolute value
of complex modulus and that is the sum of the real part E1 and the imaginary partE2:

| ∗|
= + (Eq 2)

= × × cos Φ + × (Eq. 3)

= × × sin Φ (Eq. 4)

where γ is the form factor function of specimen size and form and μ is the mass
factor which depends on the mass of specimens (standards).
Figure 12 show the values of the initial stiffness calculated for both kind of
tests plotted for both tests. Stiffness values calculated by 2PB are slightly bigger
than the values calculated by the ITFT.

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20000

Initial Stiffness (MPa)

16000

12000
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8000
2PB
4000 ITFT
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Number of cycle

Figure 12. Initial stiffness values for ITFT and 2PB.

The evolution of stiffness modulus for two different tests undertaken at the
same stress level (1200 kPa) is shown in the Figure 13. Stiffness modulus decreases
more rapidly in the case of ITFT.

Number of cycle (ITFT)

0 5000 10000 15000 20000
1.2
2PB
Stiffness ratio E/Einitial

1
0.8 ITFT
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Number of cycle (2PB)

Figure 13 Evolution of stiffness during ITFT and 2PB (1200 KPa)

Fatigue tests were carried out in stress controlled mode. ITFT tests were
undertaken at 10˚C and the stress levels were chosen between 600 and 1200 kPa.
2PB tests were undertaken at 10˚C and 25 Hz and stress levels were between 1150
and 1800 kPa. Figure 14 and 15 show the fatigue lines of the same material
characterized with the two different fatigue machines. Di Benedetto et al. found that
the ITT method produced shorter fatigue lives when compared with bending testing
such as the 2PB, due to the different loading waveforms between the two tests and
the rest period used in the ITFT (Di Benedetto et al. 2001 and 2004, Cocurullo et al.
2008, Read and Collop, 1997).

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Thus, fatigue lives calculated with the 2PB are much bigger than the values
calculated with the ITFT, if the stress criterion is considered. However, converting
the initial stress into strain and plotting, then, the initial strain value for each test
against the number of cycle to failure, it is possible to fit the data from the two
different machines in the same trend line with a high R2 value.
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10000
R² = 0.8024
Stress level (kPa)

1000

R² = 0.9212
100 2PB
ITFT

10
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycle

Figure 14. Fatigue lines: stress criterion

1000
Initial Strain (με)

100
R² = 0.9692

10
2PB
ITFT
1
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycle

Figure 15. Fatigue lines: strain criterion

CONCLUSION
Fatigue in asphalt materials is a very complex phenomenon. Different
approaches are usually used to describe and analyse it. Several testing machines
exist in order to obtain the fatigue lives of asphalt materials.
This paper compares two different fatigue testing machines spread in Europe:
2 Point Bending and Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test. The following conclusion can be
underlined:

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• 2 PB consists of applying a continuous sinusoidal waveform at the

top of a trapezoidal specimen; fracture usually happens at 1/3 of the
height of the specimen from the bottom.
• In the ITFT, a repeated load pulses with rest period are applied along
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the vertical diameter of a cylindrical specimen. Manufacturing

cylindrical specimens is much easier than trapezoidal ones, but a
disadvantage of this testing machine is the accumulation of
permanent deformation during a fatigue test.
• Stiffness modulus values are slightly bigger when determined by the
use of 2PB. Stiffness decreases more rapidly in the case of ITFT.
• Fatigue lives obtained by the use of 2PB are much bigger than the
values calculated with the ITFT, this it can be due to accumulation of
permanent deformation and that tends to hide the real fatigue damage.
However, plotting the initial strain value for each test against the
number of cycle to failure, it is possible to fit the data from the two
different machines in the same trend line.
• The fatigue data used in this paper are based on test results for one
mixture. Thus further analysis within a wider spectrum of loading
conditions and different materials will be needed to confirm those
results.

REFERENCES

EN-12697-24-2007. “Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt - Part
24: Resistance to fatigue”.
EN-12697-26-2004. “Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt - Part
26: Stiffness”.
Rowe, G. M. 1993. “Performance of Asphalt Mixtures in the Trapezoidal Fatigue
Test”. Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, vol. 62.
SHRP-A-404 1994. “Fatigue Response of Asphalt-Aggregate Mixes”. Washington,
DC: Report for the Asphalt Research Program Institute of Transportation Studies
University of California, Berkeley. Strategic Highway Research Program National
Research Council.
Cocurullo, A, Airey, G. D., Collop, A. C. and Sangiorgi, C. 2008. “Indirect Tensile
versus Two Point Bending Fatigue Testing”. ICE Transport, Vol.161, Issue TR4, pp.
207-220, 2008. ISSN 0965-092X

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Read, J. M.,“Fatigue cracking of bituminous paving mixtures”. PhD Thesis,

University of Nottingham, UK. 1996
Hartman, A.M., Gilchrist, M.D. and Walsh, G. 2001. “Effect of Mixture Compaction
on Indirect Tensile Stiffness and Fatigue”. ASCE, Journal of Transportation
Engineering, pp.370-378.
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EN-12697-33-2003. “Bituminous mixtures - Tests methods for hot mix asphalt –

Part 33: Specimen prepared by roller compactor”. BS-EN-12697-33-2003, London.
EN-12697-35-2003. “Bituminous mixtures - Tests methods for hot mix asphalt –
Part 35: Laboratory mixing”. BS-EN-12697-35-2004, London
EN-13108-1-2006. “Bituminous mixtures — Material Specifications — Part 1:
Asphalt Concrete”. BS-EN-13108-1-2006, London.
Di Benedetto H., Partl, M.N., Francken L., De La Roche C. “Stiffness testing for
bituminous mixtures”. Journal of materials and structures, Vol 34, pp 66-70. March
2001.
Di Benedetto H., De La Roche C, Baaj H., Pronk A and Lundstrom R.. “Fatigue of
bituminous mixtures”. Journal of materials and structures, Vol 37, pp 202 216. 2004.
Read J. M. and Collop A. C. “Practical fatigue characterisation of bituminous paving
mixtures”. Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 1997, 66, 74–
108.

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