STUDY MATERIAL

FOR THE SUBJECT OF

PROBLEMATIC SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT (SSAC-221)

For B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture Part- II

Compiled and edited by

Sh. Prahlad Ram Raiger Dr. Hanuman Prasad Parewa

Assistant Professor (Soil Science & Assistant Professor (Soil Science &
Agricultural Chemistry) Agricultural Chemistry)
COA, Jodhpur COA, Sumerpur

AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY,
JODHPUR– 342 304
www.aujodhpur.ac.in
DISCLAIMER: Sh. Prahlad Ram Raiger and Dr. Hanuman Prasad Parewa has compiled and
edited study material from various text books and online sources does not warrant or assume
any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the
contents. The contents are provided free for non-commercial purpose such as teaching and
self-learning.
Lesson: 1

SOIL HEALTH AND SOIL QUALITY

Soil health, also referred to as soil quality, is defined as the continued capacity of soil to
function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. This definition
speaks to the importance of managing soils so they are sustainable for future generations. To
do this, we need to remember that soil contains living organisms that when provided the basic
necessities of life - food, shelter, and water - perform functions required to produce food and
fiber.

Soil quality is the capacity of each soil to function, within its natural or managed ecosystems,
to sustain productivity, enhance water and air quality, support human and animal health, and
habitation. This is not limited to agriculture, but most work and evaluation has occurred on
agricultural lands.

Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system,
which include sustaining biological productivity of soil, maintain the quality of surrounding
air and water environments, as well as promote plant, animal, and human health. Soil
function include sustaining biological diversity, activity and productivity, regulating water
and solute flow, filtering, buffering, degrading organic and inorganic materials, storing and
cycling nutrients and carbon, providing physical stability and support.

Soil health deals with both the inherent and dynamic soil quality. The former relates to the
natural (genetic) characteristics of the soil (e.g., texture), which are the result of soil-forming
factors. They are generally cannot easily be amended. On the other hand, the dynamic soil
quality component is readily affected by management practices and relates to the levels of
compaction, biological functioning, root proliferation, etc. which is of most interest to
growers because good management allows the soil to come to its full potential.

Soil quality or health cannot be determined by measuring only crop yield, water quality, or
any other single outcome but with indicators which are measurable properties of soil or plants
that provide clues about how well the soil can function

Characteristics of soil health:

Soil heath integrates all three components (physical, chemical and biological) of the soil
system and is assessed by indicators that qualify physical, chemical and biological properties.
soil characteristics that contributes to a healthy soil include

(i) Good soil Tilth: Soil tilth indicates the overall physical condition of the soil in
context of its suitability for crop production.
 (ii) Sufficient depth: It refers to the depth of soil profile to which roots are able to
grow and function. Crop grown in soil with shallow depth due to compaction or
erosion become more susceptible to extreme fluctuation of weather.

(iii)Balance store of available nutrients: an adequate and balanced and accessible

supply of nutrients is necessary to optimum plant growth.

(iv) Low level of soil borne pathogens and insect pest: soil borne pathogens and
insect pest can cause damage to crop. a healthy soil characterized by low and or
inactive population of these organisms due to direct competition with other
beneficial soil organisms for food or habitats(hyper- parasitism )

(v) Adequate internal drainage: because of good soil structure and well
distribution of different pore size spaces, a healthy soil can drain excess water
more rapidly but can retain adequate water for plant availability.

(vi) Large population of beneficial organisms: soil microorganism are essential to

the functioning of nutrient cycling, decomposition of organic matter,
maintenance of soil structure , biological suppression of plant pests, etc. a healthy
soil must have a high and diverse population of beneficial organisms to carry out
these activities.

(vii) Favourable soil pH: a healthy soil is characterized by the soil reaction
which favourable for plant growth and microorganisms.

(viii) Low weed pressure:

(ix) Low level of toxic substances:

Soil health indicators:

The quality of soil is rather dynamic and is controlled by chemical, physical and biological
components of soil and their interaction the Soil health indicators are the soil measurements
that are able to relate changes in soil properties with changes in soil management. Thus
holistic soil management requires the monitoring of soil physical, chemical, and biological
properties, and their interaction and relationship with farm management practices. The soil
health indicators vary according to the location, and the level of precision at which
management are likely to be made. Therefore, it is not possible to develop a unique list of
quantitative indicators which are suitable for all purpose.

A. PHYSICAL INDICATORS: Amongst the soil physical properties which heavily

influence the plant growth which are following
 (i) Soil texture
(ii) Soil structure
(iii)Depth of soil
(iv) Infiltration and bulk density

(v) Presence and absence of subsurface hard pan

(vi) Water holding capacity

B. Chemical indicators:

(i) Soil organic carbon

(ii) Top soil PH

(iii) Cation exchange capacity to 1 m depth

(iv) Anion exchange capacity in top soil

(v) Base saturation

(vi) Concentration of potential pollutant elements/ organic micro pollutants

C. Biological indicators

(i) Soil organic matter

(ii) Microbial biomass carbon / SOC

(iii)Soil biomass (bacterial , fungal and total )

(iv) Soil respiration

(v) DNA based microbial diversity index and enzyme assays.

MANAGING FOR SOIL QUALITY

(i) Add organic matter: Organic matter, and the organisms that eat it, can improve
water holding capacity, nutrient availability, and can help protect against erosion.

(ii) Avoid excessive tillage: Tillage has positive effects, but it also triggers excessive
organic matter degradation, disrupts soil structure, and can cause compaction.

(iii)Increase ground cover: Bare soil is susceptible to wind and water erosion, and to
drying and crusting Ground cover protects soil, provides habitats for larger soil
organisms, such as insects and earthworms, and can improve water availability Cover
crops, perennials, and surface residue increase the amount of time that the soil surface
is covered each year

(iv) Increase plant diversity: Each crop contributes a unique root structure and type of
residue to the soil. A diversity of soil organisms can help control pest populations, and
a diversity of cultural practices can reduce weed and disease pressures. Diversity
 across the landscape and over time can be increased by using buffer strips, small
fields, contour strip cropping, crop rotations, and by varying tillage practices.
Changing vegetation across the landscape or over time increases plant diversity, and
the types of insects, microorganisms, and wildlife that live on your farm.

(v) Crop rotation: Appropriate crop rotation such as inclusion of leguminous crops in
crop sequence also improve soil health by enhancing nutrient contents especially
nitrogen content in soil. Of late, crop rotation is also important component of soil and
pest management in many agricultural crop production systems. Crop rotation can
also help in nutrient management through incorporation of crop residues and improve
soil resiliency after a root crop. Therefore, rotating with diversity of root structures
from tap root to fibrous rooted crops will also improve physical, chemical and
biological soil quality.

Major factor affecting soil quality:

The major causes of poor soil quality are:

(i) Wide gap between nutrient demand and supply

(ii) High nutrient turnover in soil plant system coupled with low and imbalanced fertilizer
use
(iii)Emerging deficiency of secondary and micronutrients due to improper use of inputs
such as water, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
(iv) Insufficient use of organic inputs
(v) Acidification and Al3+ toxicity
(vi) Development of salinity and alkalinity in soils
(vii) Development of adverse soil conductions such as heavy metal toxicity
(viii) Disproportionate growth of microbial population responsible soil sickness and
(ix) Natural and manmade calamities such as erosion, deforestation occurring due to rapid
industrialization and urbanization
Lesson: 2

WASTE LAND

Based on the ecological conditions, Land systems are classified into various types as,
a) Cropland
b) Barren Land
c) Wet Land
d) Arid dry land
e) Range land
f) Grass land
g) Snowy land and
h) Wastelands. Wasteland is a major category by itself.

Wasteland: Definition:

 Land which is lying unproductive or which is not being utilized to its potential.
 Land which is incapable of producing material or services of value (American Society
of Soil Science).
 Wasteland is that land which is presently lying unused or which is not being used to
its optimum potential due to some constraints (National Remote Sensing Agency -
NRSA).
 According to the National Wasteland Development Board, wasteland mean degraded
land which can be brought under vegetative cover, with reasonable effort and which is
currently lying unutilized and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water
and soil management or on account of natural cause.
 According to Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Wasteland is a
degraded land which can be brought under vegetative cover, with reasonable effort,
and which is currently under utilised and land which is deteriorating for lack of
appropriate water and soil management or on account of natural causes.
Classification: National wastelands development board classifies wastelands into two categories:

Cultivable wastelands: Uncultivable wastelands:

These are cultivable wastelands which are not Uncultivable wastelands which cannot be used
being utilised to their full potential or are being for vegetation or available for cultivation.
mismanaged due to various reasons such as
State or private occupation or having being
declared as notified forest area.

The cultivable wastelands have been classified These are classified as:
into:
1. Gullied and/or ravenous lands 1. Brown rocky / stony / shut of rocks
2. Undulating land without shrubs 2. Steep sloppy areas
3. Surface waterlogging land and marsh 3. Snow covered and / or glacier lands
4. Salt affected land
5. Shifting cultivation area
6. Degraded forestland
7. Degraded pasture / grazing land
8. Degraded forest plantations
9. Strip lands
10. Sand dunes
11. Mining / industrial wastelands

Extent of Wastelands
NRSA estimates put wastelands at 16.21% of the total land area of the country. Of this,
16.74% is culturable and rest 4.47% is unculturable. The wastelands are found maximum in
Jammu and Kashmir 60.10%. Total wastelands in India: 129.57mha

Category-wise wastelands of India

Category Area % of total geographical
(sq km) area covered
Gullied and/ or ravinous land 20553.35 0.65
Land with or without scrub 194014.29 6.13
Waterlogged and marshy land 16568.45 0.52
Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-coastal/inland 20477.38 0.65
Shifting cultivation area 35142.20 1.11
Under-utilized/degraded notified forest land 140652.31 4.44
Degraded pastures/grazing land 25978.91 0.82
Degraded land under plantation crop 5828.09 0.18
Sands-Inland/coastal 50021.65 1.58
Mining/industrial wasteland 1252.13 0.04
Barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock area 64584.77 2.04
Steep sloping area 7656.29 0.24
Snow covered and/or glacial area 55788.49 1.76
Total wasteland area 638518.31 20.17
Table: NRSA wasteland classes (1986–2000)

Wasteland class Area (in M ha) Percentage

Gullied/ravinous land 2.06 0.65
Land with/without scrub 19.40 6.13
Waterlogged/marshy land 1.66 0.52
Land affected by salinity 2.04 0.65
Shifting cultivation area 3.51 1.11
Degraded notified forest land 14.07 4.44
Degraded pastures/grazing land 2.60 0.82
Degraded land under plantation 0.58 0.18
Sandy area 5.00 1.58
Mining/industrial wasteland 0.12 0.04
Barren rocky/stony/sheet rock 6.46 2.04
Steep sloping area 0.77 0.24
Snow covered/glacial area 5.58 1.76
Total 63.85 20.16
Source: NRSA and MoRD. 2000

The main causes of formation of wastelands are:

1. Deforestation
2. Over-cultivation
3. Over grazing
4. Unskilled irrigation
5. Improper developmental activities such as dumping of wastes, mine wastes

Wasteland Reclamation:
1. Afforestation: It means growing the forest over culturable wasteland.
2. Reforestation: Growing the forest again over the lands where they were existing and was
destroyed due to fires, overgrazing, and excessive cutting. Reforestation checks water
logging, floods, soil erosion and increase productivity of land.
3. Providing surface cover: The easiest way to protect the land surface from soil erosion is
of leave crop residue on the land after harvesting.
4. Mulching: Here also protective cover of organic matter and plants like stalks, cotton
stalks, tobacco stalks etc. are used which reduce evaporation, help in retaining soil
moisture and reduce soil erosion.
5. Leaching: In salt affected land, the salinity can be minimized by leaching them with more
water.
6. Changing agricultural practices: Like mixed cropping, crop rotation and cropping of plants
are adopted to improve soil fertility.
7. Ecological Succession: This refers to the natural development or redevelopment of an
ecosystem which help in reclaiming the minerally deficient soil of wasteland.
Lesson: 3
PROBLEM SOILS BASED ON PROPERTIES

CATEGORIZATION OF PROBLEM SOILS BASED ON PROPERTIES

1. Physical problem soils

2. Chemical Problem soils
3. Biological Problem soils
4. Nutritional problem soils as a result of above constraints

Physical problems soils

An optimum physical environment of soils is essential for better growth of plants,

consequently for better yields. Based on soil physical properties viz., infiltration, bulk
density, hydraulic conductivity, porosity (capillary and non-capillary), aggregates etc soil
physical constraints are identified as below.
1. Slow permeable soils
2. Excessively permeable soils
3. Subsoil hardening
4. Surface crusting
5. Fluffy paddy soils
6. Shallow soils

Slow permeable soils

Slow preamble soils are those having infiltration rates less than 6 cm/day due to high clay
content of the soil. Due to low infiltration rates, the amount of water entering the soil
profile is reduced thus increasing the run-off. Further, it encourages erosion of surface
soil leading to nutrient removal in the running water. More ever, due to heavy clay
content, the capillary porosity is relatively high resulting in impeded drainage and
reduced soil conditions. This results in increase of some soil elements to the level of
toxicity to the plants. It also induced nutrient fixation in the clay complex thereby making
the nutrient becoming unavailable to the crop, eventually causing deficiency of nutrients.
Management

The constraints in such soils can be managed by adopting suitable practices like

1. Provision of drainage facilities either through open or closed sub surface drains.
2. Forming contour and compartmental bunding to increase the infiltration rates of soils.
3. Application of huge quantities of river sand or red soils of coarser texture to dilute
heaviness of the soil.
4. Application of liberal doses of organic manures like Farm Yard Manure, Compost,
Green manure, Composted coir pith, sewage waste, press mud etc.
5. Adopting ridges and furrows, raised beds, broad bed and furrow systems
6. Application of soil conditioners like H-concentrate, Vermiculite, Jalasakti etc. to
reduce run-off and soil erosion.
Excessively Permeable Soils

Excessively permeable soils are those having high amount of sand exceeding 70- present.
Due to this, the soils are inert and unable to retain nutrient and water. These soils being
devoid of finer particles and organic matter, the aggregates are weakly formed, the non-
capillary pores dominating with very poor soil structure. Due to low retaining capacity of the
soils, the fertilizer nutrients are also lost in the drainage water.

Management
The excessively permeable soils can be managed by adopting the techniques given below
1. Compacting the field with 400 kg stone roller (tar drum filled with 400 kg of sand or
stones can also be used) 8-10 times at optimum moisture conditions
2. Application of clay soil up to a level 100 t ha-1 based on the severity of the problem and
availability of clay materials
3. Application of organic materials like farm yard manure, compost, press mud, sugar
factory slurry, composted coir pith, sewage sludge etc.
4. Providing asphalt sheet, polythene sheets etc. below the soil surface to reduce the
infiltration rate
5. Crop rotation with green manure crops like Sun hemp, sesbania, daincha, kolinchi etc.

Sub soil hardening /hardpan

The sub soil hard pan in red soils in due to illuviation of clay to the sub soil horizon coupled
with cementing action of oxides of Fe, Al and Calcium carbonate, which increases the soils
bulk density to more than 1.8 Mg m-3. Further, the hard pan can also develop due to
continuous cultivation of crops using heavy implements up to certain depth constantly.
Besides, the higher exchangeable sodium content in black soils areas also results in
compactness. All put together lowered the infiltration and percolation rates, nutrient
movement and free air transport within the soils profile. It prevents root proliferation and
limits the volume of soils available for nutrients uptake resulting in depleted, less fertile
surface soil. Due to this, the contribution of sub soil fertility to crop growth is hampered.

Management
These soils are managed by adopting following practices.
1. Ploughing the soil with chisel plough at 0.5m interval criss cross at 0.5m depth once in
2-3 years.
2. Application of organics to improve the aggregation and soil structure so as to prevent
further movement of clay to the lower layers
3. Deep ploughing of the field during summer season to open up the sub soils
4. Cultivating deep rooted crops like tapioca, cotton so as to encourage natural breaking
of the hard pan
5. Raising deep rooted semi perennial crops like Mulberry, Jasmine, Match wood tree etc.
can also help in opening up the sub surface hard pan.
Surface crusting
Surface crusting is due to presence of colloidal oxides of iron and Aluminum in Alfisols
which binds the soil particles under wet regimes. On drying it forms a hard mass on the
surface. The ill effects of surface crusting are
1. Prevents germination of seeds
2. Retards/inhibits root growth
3. Results in poor infiltration
4. Accelerates surface run off
5. Creates poor aeration in the rhizosphere
6. Affects nodules formation in leguminous crops

Management

Surface crushing can be managed as below

1. When the soil is at optimum moisture regime, ploughing is to be given

2. Lime at 2 t ha-1 may be uniformly spread and another ploughing given for blending of
amendment with the surface soil
3. Farm yard manure at 10 t ha-1 or composted coir pith at 12.5 t ha-1 or other organics
may be applied to improve the physical properties of the soils, after preparation of
land to optimum tilth.
4. Scraping surface soil by tooth harrow will be useful
5. Bold grained seeds may be used for sowing on the crusted soils
6. More number of seeds/hill may be adopted for small seeded crops
7. Sprinkling water at periodical intervals may be done wherever possible
8. Resistant crops like cowpea can be grown

Fluffy paddy soils

The traditional method of preparing the soil for transplanting rice consists of puddling, which
substantially breaks soil aggregates into a uniform structure less mass. Under continuous
flooding and submergence of soil for rice cultivation in a cropping sequence of rice-rice-rice,
the soil particles are always in a state of flux and the mechanical strength is lost leading to the
fluffiness of the soils. Impacts of fluffiness are sinking of drought animals and laborers
during pudding. This has been thus, an invisible drain of finance for the farmers due to high
pulling power needed for the bullocks and slow movement of laborers during the puddling
operations. Further fluffiness of the soil lead to very low bulk density and thereby leading to
very rapid hydraulic conductivity and in turn the soil does not provide a good anchorage to
the roots and the potential yield of crops is adversely affected.

Management

Following practices are needed to be adopted to overcome this problem

1. The irrigation should be stopped 10 days before the harvest of rice crop
2. After the harvest of rice, when the soil is under semi-dry condition, compact the field
by passing 400 kg stone roller or an tar drum filled with 400 kg of sand for 8 times.
3. The usual preparatory cultivation is carried out after compaction.
Shallow soils:

The shallow soils are characterized by the presence of the parent root immediately below
the soil surface at about 15-20 cm depth. This restricts the root elongation and spreading.
Hence, the crops grown in these soils necessarily are shallow noted crops, which can exhaust
the soil within 2-3 seasons. Therefore, frequent renewal of soil fertility is a must in these
soils. These soils can be managed by growing crops which can withstand the hard rooky sub
soils like mango, ber, fig, country goose berry, west Indian cherry, Anona, Cashew, Tamarind
etc.
2. Chemical Problem soils

2.1. Salt - affected soils

The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and semiarid regions where evapo-transpiration
greatly exceeds precipitation. The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include
sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates. The salt-
affected soils can be primarily classified as saline soil and sodic soil.

Problem soils are classified into different groups according to associated constraints like

(i) Saline soil

(ii) Alkali soil (Sodic soil)
(iii)Saline alkali soil
(iv) Acid soils
(v) Acid sulphate soils
(vi) Degraded alkali soil
(vii) Calcareous soils
(viii) Water logged soil

Salt Affected Soils

There are four major tracts where salt affected soils are commonly met within India. These are
(i) The Semi-arid Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts (mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh and a part of Bihar)
(ii) The arid tracts of Rajasthan and Gujarat
(iii)The arid and semi arid tracts of southern states, particularly of the irrigated Regur
(Vertisol) soils
(iv) The coastal alluvium

It is estimated that about 7.0 Million hectares of land have been affected by salinity/ Sodicity
conditions in India.
Extent of salt-affected soils India (ha)

State Saline Sodic Total

Andhra Pradesh 77,598 196,609 274,207
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 77,000 0 77,000
Bihar 47,301 105,852 153,153
Gujarat 1,680,570 541,430 2,222,000
Haryana 49,157 183,399 232,556
Karnataka 1893 148,136 150,029
Kerala 20,000 0 20,000
Madhya Pradesh 0 139,720 139,720
Maharashtra 184,089 422,670 606,759
Orissa 147,138 0 147,138
Punjab 0 151,717 151,717
Rajasthan 195,571 179,371 374,942
Tamil Nadu 13,231 354,784 368,015
Uttar Pradesh 21,989 1,346,971 1,368,960
West Bengal 441,272 0 441,272
Total 2,956,809 3,770,659 6,727,468
Source: NRSA & Associates (1996)

Classification of salt affected soils

Based on pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and Exchangeable sodium percentage

Soils ESP pH
EC (dSm _1)

Saline > 4.0 < 15 < 8.5

Alkaline (Sodic ) < 4.0 > 15 > 8.5
Saline – sodic > 4.0 >15 < 8.5 or > 8.5

Saline soils / white alkali/ solonchak : Soils with high amount of soluble salts having EC >
4.0 dSm-1 and white encrustations is seen on the surface. Hence it is called as white alkali.
Brown alkali: Saline soils with high proportion of nitrate salts

Sodic soils: Two types

1. Black alkali/ solonctz
These soils have PH > 8.5 and ESP > 15 and with precipitated CaCO3. Dispersed clay with
decomposed organic matter (humus) give black colour to these soils and hence these soils are
called as black alkali / solonetz (Russian term).

2. Degraded sodic / degraded alkali / solodi soils

These soils have exchangeable sodium percentage > 15. But the pH of surface horizon is acidic in
nature and there is no precipitate of CaCO3. However, the sub surface horizon may have PH >8.5.
In the absence of CaCO3 and soluble salts the sodic clay with water degrades and Hydrogen clay
is formed in the surface. This process is known as solodization.
1. Saline soils
Saline soils defined as soils having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4 dS
m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15 Saline soils defined as soils having a
conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium
percentage less than 15. The pH is usually less than 8.5. Formerly these soils were called
white alkali soils because of surface crust of white salts. Saline soils are formed through a
soil forming process called salinization in semi arid and arid zones. Salinization refers to
accumulation of soluble salts in the soil surface horizons.
-1
Soils with high amount of soluble salts having EC > 4.0 dSm and white encrustations is seen on
the surface. Hence it is called as white alkali.
Formation of saline soil
The process by which the saline soil formed is called Salinization. Saline soils occur mostly in
arid or semi arid regions. In arid regions saline soils occur not only because there is less rainfall
available to leach and transport the salts but also because of high evaporation rates, which tend
further to concentrate the salts in soils and in surface waters

Reclamation saline soil

All saline soils can be reclaimed through mechanically scraping of salt, flushing and leaching
easily with good quality water if available. Since the salts in this soils are soluble in nature
using quality water they can be solubilized and leached off from the field.
(i) Scraping in the removal of salt from the surface by mechanical reasons. This can
be followed only where there is a serious problem of salinity having encrustation
on the surface.

(ii) Flushing: is the surface washing out of salts with run off water, which is collected
at the sloppy end the fields. This is particularly useful when permeability of the
soil is low and there is some hard layer in the soil profile. Major drain back with
the flushing is that it is unable to remove the salts from the inner depth of the soil.
(iii) Leaching: Leaching is the method of solubilizing and transporting the soluble
salts by downward movement of water through the soil.
In the absence of good quality water in becomes necessary to manage saline soils for better
growth of plants.

Other management of saline soils

1. Crop management
Growing crops that are tolerant to high level soil salinity eg: Cotton, Ragi, Barley, sugar beat,
Beet root, lucerne, Bermuda grass, saline grass, spinach etc. Crops that are tolerant to soil salinity
at medium level are paddy, wheat, onion, maize, sunflower, castor, grapes, pomegranate, tomato,
cabbage and potato. Crops that are tolerant to low level of soil salinity are garden beans, Reddish,
lime etc. Black gram, green gram is sensitive to soil salinity. Crops are to be chosen based on the
soil salinity level.
2. Soil / cultural management
Growing crops in raised beds will reduce accumulation of salt a around root zone. Planting
seedlings / sowing seeds on sloppy ridges decreases accumulation of salts around root zone.
Mulching the soil prevents evaporation which reduces accumulation of salts due to capillary rise
of water at surface of soils. Providing drainage in water logged areas also helps to reduce salt
accumulation.
3. Fertilizer Management
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20 – 25% of recommended level will compensate
the low availability of N in these soils. Addition of organic manures like FYM, compost, etc
helps in reducing the ill effect of salinity due to release of organic acids produced during
decomposition. Green manuring (Sunhemp, Daincha) and / or green leaf manuring also
counteracts the effects of salinity.
4. Irrigation management

Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water and then using for
irrigation reduces effect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation system favors growth of plant than
flooding. Drip and sparkler irrigation systems aims at reduced use of water which is favorable for
growth of plant since slat accumulation also reduced with low usage of water.
All the above four management practices suitably integrated to reduce the soil salinity which is
favourable for better growth of plants and ultimately for better yields. Management of saline soils
becomes essential and unavoidable particularly in areas where both soil as well as irrigation water
are saline in nature.

2. Alkali soils

1. Black alkali/ solonctz

These soils have PH > 8.5 and ESP > 15 and with precipitated CaCO 3. Dispersed clay with
decomposed organic matter (humus) give black colour to these soils and hence these soils are
called as black alkali /solonetz (Russian term).
Brown alkali: Saline soils with high proportion of nitrate salts
Sodic soils: Two types
1. Black alkali/ solonctz
These soils have PH > 8.5 and ESP > 15 and with precipitated CaCO 3. Dispersed clay with
decomposed organic matter (humus) give black colour to these soils and hence these soils are
called as black alkali / solonetz (Russian term).

2. Degraded sodic / degraded alkali / solodi soils

These soils have exchangeable sodium percentage > 15. But the pH of surface horizon is acidic in
nature and there is no precipitate of CaCO . However, the sub surface horizon may have PH >8.5.
3
In the absence of CaCO and soluble salts the sodic clay with water degrades and Hydrogen clay
3
is formed in the surface. This process is known as solodization.
2. Alkali / Sodic soils
Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less than 4
dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is usually between 8.5 –
10.0. Most alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions, contain CaCO3 in the profile
in some form and constant hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains the release of OH- ions in soil solution.
The OH- ions so released result in the maintenance of higher pH in calcareous alkali soils than
that in non – calcareous alkali soils.

Formation
Soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs as a
consequence of the electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations
are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that occur
in the soil the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with the soil
colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that occur in the soil solution. Calcium and
magnesium are the principal cations found in the soil solution and on the exchange complex of
normal soils in arid regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in these soils, sodium
frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution resulting alkali or sodic soils.

Major production constraints: Excess exchangeable sodium in alkali soils affects both the
physical and chemical properties of soils.
a) Dispersion of soil colloids
b) Specific ion effect

Effect of soil Sodicity: Since these soils have high amount of CO3 and HCO3 and high pH.
Carbonate, bicarbonate and OH (hydroxyl) ion injuries on plants are observed. High sodium in
clay becomes reason for dispersed nature of clay under wet moisture regions. Dispersed nature of
clay leads to soapy feeling of soils, stagnation of water, poor infiltration/ percolation and poor
aeration. During dry periods these soils become hard mass. These soils have poor workability
both under wet and dry seasons, further hazardous effects of Na on plants are also seem. Sodium
- -
carbonate with water releases Na+, HCO 3 and OH ions which are harmful to growing plants in
these soils.
-
2 Na+ + CO32+ + H2O 2 Na+ + HCO3- + OH
→
High pH is also unfavourable for the growth of microorganisms. Low microbial activity causes
slow decomposition of organic matter and hence nutrient availability is also affected specifically
nitrogen, sulphur etc. Since these soils enriched with high Na at exchange complex Ca and Mg
availability are also less. High pH becomes reasons for non-availability of Fe and Zn, particularly
Zn availability is less and deficiency of Zn is common in this soils. Phosphorus availability is
also less due to conversion of phosphorus into insoluble calcium and Magnesium phosphates. All
the above effects on plants result in drying of plants in patches in a field. Under extreme
conditions no plants are seen in these soils.
Reclamation of alkali /sodic soils

(1) Physical Reclamation /Amelioration

This is not actually removes sodium from exchange complex but improve physical condition of
soil through improvement in infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical methods
include
Deep ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at subsurface due to sodium and
improving free-movement water. This also helps in improvement of aeration.
Providing drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove further accumulation
of salts at root zone.
Sand filling which reduces heaviness of the soil and increases capillary movements of water.
Profile inversion – Inverting the soil benefits in improvement of physical condition of soil as
that of deep ploughing.

(2) Biological Reclamation

Biological reclamation aims at improvement in physical condition of soils through addition of
organic matter and to some extent solubilizes native Ca for reclamation. Biological reclamation is
also not a complete reclamation which not reduces sodium from soil below 15 percentages.

 Addition of organic matter (Farm yard manure, press mud, Green manures, Green leaf
manures) improves general physical condition of these soils. Further decomposition of
organic matter releases organic acids and inorganic acids which are countracts the ill
effects of high pH of soils.
 Growing grasses like Cynodon dactylon, Brachiaria mutica, Chlon’s gayana, pai korai etc
which are remove sodium from the soils. But the removal is slow process.

 Afforestation i.e growing trees which are also behaves as grasses and add organic matter
through leaf fall.

(3) Chemical Amelioration: Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils requires neutralization of

alkalinity and replacement of most of the sodium ions from the soil – exchange complex by the
more favourable calcium ions. This can be accomplished by the application of chemical
amendments (the materials that directly or indirectly furnish or mobilize divalent cations, usually
Ca2+ for the replacement of sodium from the exchange complex of the soil) followed by leaching
to remove soluble salts and other reaction products. The chemical amendments can be broadly
grouped as follows:

Direct Ca suppliers: Gypsum, calcium carbonate, phospho-gypsum, etc.

Reactions

Na Ca
Micelle + CaSO4 Micelle + Na2SO4
Na Ca (leachable)

Indirect Ca suppliers: Elemental Sulphur, sulphuric acid, pyrites, FeSO4, etc

Sulphur and iron sulphate are converted into sulphuric acid which dissolves native
CaCO3. Thus Ca is made available for exchange reactions.
Reactions

Na Ca
Micelle + CaCl2 Micelle + 2NaCl
Na Ca (leachable)
Among them gypsum is, by far, the most commonly used chemical amendment. Calcium
carbonate is insoluble in nature which of no use in calcareous sodic soils (have already
precipitated CaCO3) but can be used in non calcareous sodic soils (do not have precipitated
CaCO3) since pH of this soils are low at surface and favouring solubilisation of CaCO 3. Some of
indirect suppliers of Ca viz. Elemental sulphur, sulphuric acid, iron sulphate are also used for
calcareous sodic soils. These materials on application solubilise the precipitated CaCO 3 in sodic
soils and releases Ca for reclamation.

(4) Other sources

Distillery spent wash

Distillery spent wash is acidic (pH 3.8-4.2) with considerable quantity of magnesium. About 2
lakh litres of distillery spent wash can be added to an acre of sodic soil in summer months.
Natural oxidation is induced for a period of six weeks with intermittent ploughing once in a
month. In the second month (after 45-60 days) fresh water may be irrigated and drained. Such a
treatment reduces the pH and exchangeable sodium percentage

Distillery effluent
Distillery effluent contains macro and micronutrients. Because of its high salt content, it can be
used for one time application to fallowlands, About 20 to 40 tonnes per ha of distillery effluent
can be sprayed uniformly on the fallow land. It should not be allowed for complete drying over a
period of 20 to 30 days. The effluent applied field has to be thoroughly ploughed two times for
the oxidation and mineralization of organic matter. Then the crops can be cultivated in the
effluent applied fields by conventional methods.
Pulp and paper mill effluents
Pulp and paper effluents contain lot of dissolved solids and stabilized organic matter and if
properly treated can safely be used for irrigation with amendments viz. pressmud @ 5 tonnes ha-1,
fortified pressmud @ 2.5 tonne ha-1 or daincha as in situ green manure.
Crop choice
Rice is preferred crop in alkali / sodic soil as it can grow under submergence, can tolerate fair
extent of ESP and can influence several microbial processes in the soil. Agroforestry systems like
silviculture, silvipasture etc. can improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil along
with additional return on long-term basis. Some grasses like Brachariamutica (Para grass) and
Cynodondactylon (Bermuda grass) etc. has been reported to produce 50% yield at ESP level
above 30.
3. Saline-alkali/ sodic soils
Saline-alkali / sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater
than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is variable and
usually above 8.5 depending on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts.
When soils dominated by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be more than 8.5 and when soils
dominated by soluble salts, the pH will be less than 8.5.
Formation
These soils form as a result of the combined processes of salinisation and alkalization. If the
excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change
markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil.
Acid soils

“Acid soil is a base unsaturated soil which has got enough of absorbed exchangeable
hydrogen ions (H+) so that to give a soil a pH of lower than 7.0”.
Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration of H+ in soil solution and at
exchange sites. They are characterized by low soil pH and with low base saturation. The
ranges in soil pH and associated degree of acidity are as follows:

Classification of acid soils based on magnitude of acidity

pH range Nature of acidity

3-4 Very strong

4-5 Strong

5-6 Moderate

6-7 Slight

Soil acidity is common in all regions where precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable
quantities of exchangeable base forming cations (Ca, Mg, etc.) from the soil layers of the soil.

Soil acidity is of two types. Those are as follow

1. Active acidity
2. Reserve acidity /Exchange acidity/potential acidity

Active acidity: Active acidity may be defined as the acidity developed due to hydrogen (H +) and
aluminium (Al3+) ions concentration of the soil solution. The magnitude of this acidity is limited

Reserve acidity: acidity may be defined as the acidity developed due to hydrogen (H +) and
aluminium (Al3+) ions on the soil colloids. The magnitude of this exchange acidity is very high
.

+
H
+ +
H H
+ +
H H

Soil solution Soil solid

(Active acidity) (Reserve acidity)
 Reserve acidity and activity are in equilibrium i.e. If H + concentration in soil solution
+
decreased H from soil solid moves to soil solution. If H+ in soil solution increased, some H+
moves to soil solid. The potential acidity is always high even more than 100 times than active
acidity in soils.

Sources of soil acidity

 Leaching of bases due to heavy rainfall
 Acidic parent material and alumina silicate minerals
 Acid forming fertilizers
 Humus and other organic acids
 Carbon dioxide and hydrous oxides
 Acid rain
Effect of acidity

1. Excess hydrogen in soil solution result in injury to the growing plants

2. In acid soils (low pH) Fe, Al and Mn are solublises and available excessively. This causes
toxicity effect on the growing plants
3. Growth of microorganisms is restricted in acid soils particularly bacteria multiplication
reduced
4. Nutrients availability in acid soils are reduced Calcium, Magnesium are in low levels
because acid soil do not have bases. Further, poor decomposition of organic matter due to
low microbes in acid soils leads to low availability of nitrogen and sulphur. Phosphorus is
converted into Al and Fe phosphates which are insoluble hence P is deficient in acid soils.
Molybdenum is another element available in low level in acid soils.

Reclamation
Acid soils can be reclaimed to normal soil by introducing suitable base cation and thereby
removing excess H+ and Al+3at exchange complex. The commonly used liming materials (supply
Ca to remove H+ + Al 3+) to reclaim acid soils are
a) Quick / Burnt / Oxide of lime (CaO)
b) Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2)
c) Lime / Calcite (CaCO3)
d) Dolomite [Ca.Mg (CO3)2]
e) Marl/Oyster shells/ Basic slag etc

Among the above calcite (Lime-CaCO3) and Dolomite [Ca.Mg (CO3)2] are mostly used
and for reclamation of acid soils.
Lime requirement
The quantity of lime required to reclaim acid soils is worked out by following standard
procedures in the laboratory (Shoemaker method (Details refer practicals) Hutchinson and
Macleann method) etc.

Lime requirement of an acid soil depends on the following

1) Change in pH required: Lower the pH more lime required

 2) Buffering capacity of soils: Higher clay and organic matter in soils more will be buffering
capacity of soil and more lime is required for reclamation
3) Finess of liming material: More finer lime materials quickly solubilize and react hence
less lime requirement
4) Texture of soil: Fine textured soils require more lime than coarse textured soils for
reclamation
5) Organic matter: Higher organic matter in soils more will be buffering capacity hence
higher the time requirement for reclamation.
6) Chemical composition of liming material: Lower the Ca content in lime material higher
will be the lime requirement. Purity of liming material also decides the lime requirement.
Reactions
All liming materials on addition to soil first they converted into calcium bicarbonate in
the presence of CO due to high partial pressure of CO which is hundred times more than
2 2
+
atmosphere. Secondly they involve in exchange reaction and replaces H from soil colloids.
CaO + H2O+ 2CO2 → Ca (HCO3)2
Ca (OH)2 + 2 CO2 → Ca (HCO3)2

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2

Finess of lime

Lime material at least 50 per cent should pass through 60 mesh sieve.Coarser particles
less effective than finer particles.
Acid sulphate soils

Soil with sufficient sulphides (FeS2) to become strongly acidic (pH<3) when drained and
aerated enough for cultivation are termed as acid sulphate soils. Sometimes it is called cat
clay. When allowed to develop acidity, these soils are usually more acidic than PH 4.0.
Before drainage, such soil may have normal soil PH and are only potential acid sulphate soil.
Generally acid sulphate soil is found in coastal area where the land is undulated by salt water.
In India, acid sulphate soil is, motely found in Kerala, Odisha , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu
and west Bengal.

These soils are extremely acid soils (PH below 4.0). The acidity is due to presence of sulphuric
acid and iron and aluminum sulphates. They are derived from marine sediments high in pyrites
and poor in bases.

Table 1: Global distribution of acid sulphate soils

Source: Attanandana et al., 1986; Angeloni et al., 2004

Formation of Acid Sulphate Soils Land inundated with waters that contain sulphates,
particularly salt waters, accumulate sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are
bacterially reduced to sulphates. Such soils are not usually very acidic when first drained in
water.

When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S2-) is oxidized to sulphate (SO42-) by
a combination of chemical and bacterial actions, forming sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The
magnitude of acid development depends on the amount of sulphide present in the soil and the
conditions and time of oxidation. If iron pyrite (FeS2) is present, the oxidized iron accentuates
the acidity but not as much as aluminium in normal acid soils because the iron oxides are less
soluble than aluminium oxides and so hydrolyze less.

Characteristics of acid sulphate soil

Acid sulphate soils contain a sulphuric horizon which has a pH of the 1 : 1 soil : water ratio
of less than 3.5,plus some other evidences of sulphide content (Yellow colour).

Such strong acidity in acid sulphate soils results toxicities of aluminium and iron, soluble
salts (unless leached), manganese and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
often formed in lowland rice soils causing akiochi disease that prevents rice plant roots from
absorbing nutrients.

Management of Acid Sulphate Soils

Management techniques are extremely variable and depend on many specific factors viz, the
extent of acid formation, the thickness of the sulphide layer, possibilities of leaching or
draining the land etc. The general approaches for reclamation are suggested bellow:

(i) Keeping the area flooded. Maintaining the reduced (anaerobic). Soil inhibits acid
development, the use of the area to rice growing. Unfortunately, droughts occur and
can in short time periods cause acidification of these soils. The water used to flood the
potential acid sulphate soils often develop acidity and injure crops.
(ii) Controlling water table. If a non-acidifying layer covers the sulphuric horizon,
drainage to keep only the sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is possible.
(iii)Liming and leaching. Liming is the primary way to reclaim any type of acid soil. If
these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime requirements are
lowered. Leaching, however, is difficult because of the high water table commonly
found in this type of soil and low permeability of the clay. Sea water is sometimes
available for preliminary leaching.
(iv) Avoidance: The best technique for managing acid sulfate soils is to avoid disturbing
or draining the iron sulfide layer in the first place. Iron sulfides are harmless while
covered by water. To avoid disturbing the iron sulfide layer, it is important to know
where it is likely to be found. It is necessary to take soil cores to find out the exact
location and depth of the iron sulfide layer on a particular site.
Eroded soils

Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil mass from one place to
another through the action of wind, water in motion or by the beating action of rain drops.
Erosion extensively occurs in poorly aggregated soils (low humus) and in a higher percentage
of silt and very fine sand. Erosion increases when soil remains bare or without vegetation. In
India about 86.9% soil erosion is caused by water and 17.7% soil erosion is caused by wind.
Out of the total 173.6 Mha of total degraded land in India, soil erosion by wind and water
accounts for 144.1 Mha (Govt. of India, 1990). The surface soil is taken away by the runoff
causing loss of valuable topsoil along with nutrients, both native and applied. In India about
5334 million tones (16.35 tonnes/ha/year) of soil is being eroded annually due to agriculture
and associated activities and 29% of the eroded materials are permanently lost into the sea.

Types of erosion

Natural or geologic erosion ranges from very little in undisturbed lands to extensive in steep
arid lands. Geological erosion takes place, as a result of the action of water, wind, gravity and
glaciers and it takes place, at such slow rates that the loss of soil is compensated for the
formation of new soil under natural weathering processes. It is sometimes referred to as
normal erosion.

Accelerated erosion caused by the disturbances of people (cutting forests, cultivating lands,
constructing roads and buildings etc.) and is increasing as the population increases. In this
erosion, the removal of soil takes place at a much faster rate than that of soil formation. It is
also referred to as abnormal erosion.

Causes of Water Erosion: Water erosion is due to the dispersive action, and transporting
power of water. Water erosion of soil starts when raindrops strike bare soil peds and clods,
resulting the finer particles to move with the flowing water as suspended sediments. The soil
along with water moves downhill, scouring channels along the way. Each subsequent rain
erodes further amounts of soil until erosion has transformed the area into barren soil. Water
erosion may occur due to the removal of protective plant covers by tillage operation, burning
crop residues, overgrazing, overcutting forests etc. inducing loss of soil.

Raindrop / Splash Erosion: Rain drop splash erosion results from soil splash caused by the
impact of falling rain drops. The continued impact of raindrops compacts the soil and further
seals the surface-so that water cannot penetrate into the soil and as a result causing more
surface run off.
Sheet Erosion: Sheet erosion is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of surface soil by the
action of rainfall and runoff water on lands having a gentle or mild slope, and results in the
uniform "skimming off of the cream" of the top soil with every hard rain, In this erosion,
shallow soils suffer greater reduction in productivity than deep soils. It is slow process but
dangerous. Movement of soil by rain drop splash is the primary cause of sheet erosion.

Rill Erosion: Rill erosion is the removal of surface soil by running water, with the formation
of narrow shallow channels that can be levelled or smoothed out completely by normal
cultivation. Rill erosion is more apparent than sheet erosion. Rill erosion is more serious in
soils having a loose shallow top soil. This type of soil erosion may he regarded as a transition
stage between sheet and gully erosion.

Gully Erosion: Gully erosion is the removal of soil by running water, with the formation of
channels that cannot be smoothed out completely by normal agricultural operation or
cultivation. Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion. Unattended rills get" deepened
"and widened every year and begin to attain the form 'of "gullies. During every rain, the rain
water rushes down these gullies, increasing their width, depth and length.(Fig :8)

Stream Channel Erosion: stream channel erosion is the scouring of material from the water
channel and the cutting of banks by flowing or running water. This erosion occurs at the
lower end of stream tributaries. Stream bank erodes either by runoff flowing over the side of
the stream bank, or by scouring or undercutting. Scouring is influenced by the velocity and
direction of flow, depth and width of the channel and soil texture.

Harmful Effects of Water Erosion/Constraints

Water erosion causes various damages to the lands as follows:

(i) Loss of top fertile soil. The surface soil lost as runoff consists of fertile soils and fresh or
active organic matter.

(ii) Accumulation of sand or other unproductive coarse soil materials on other productive
lands. In the plains, fertile lands have been made unproductive by the deposition or
accumulation of soil material brought down from the hills by streams and rivers.

(iii) Silting of lakes and reservoirs. Soil erosion from the catchment areas of reservoirs results
in the deposition of soil, thus reducing their storage capacity

(iv) Silting of drainage and water channels. Deposition of silt in drainage ditches in natural
streams and rivers reduces their depth and capacity and overflows and flooding of
downstream areas increase with damage to agricultural crops and also man-made structures.
(v) Decreases water table. With the increase in runoff, the amount of water available for
entering the soil is decreased. This reduces the supply of water to replenish the ground water
in wells, the yield of well is reduced.

(vi) Fragmentation of land. Water erosion especially gully erosion may divide the land into
several valleys and ridges and thus fields become smaller and more numerous. Crop rows are
shortened, movement from field to field is obstructed and a result the value of land is
decreased.
Wind erosion

Soil erosion by wind has caused an accumulation of eroded particles in loess, a type of soil which
makes up some of the world's most fertile and productive regions. Soil conditions conducive to
wind erosion are most commonly found in arid and semi-arid areas where rainfall is insufficient
and no vegetative cover on the land. The most serious damage caused by wind erosion is the
change in soil texture. Since the finer soil particles are subject to movement by wind, wind
erosion gradually removes silt, clay and organic matter from the top soil, leaving the coarser soil
material.

Wind erodes the soil in three steps

The soil particles are carried by the wind in three ways namely saltation, suspension and surface
creep.

Saltation: It is a process of soil movement in a series of bounces or jumps. Soil particles having
sizes ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 mm generally move in this process. Saltation movement is caused
by the pressure of the wind on the soil particle, and collision of a particle with other particles. The
height of the jumps varies with the size and density of the soil particles, the roughness of the soil
surface, and the velocity of the wind.

Suspension. Suspension represents the floating of small sized particles in the air stream.
Movement of such fine particles in suspension is usually started by the impact of particles in
saltation. Once these fine particles are picked up by the particles in saltation and enter the
turbulent air layers, they can be lifted upward in the air and .they are often carried for several
miles before being redeposit elsewhere. Dust particles will fall on the surface only when the wind
subsides or the rain washes them down.

Surface Creep. Surface creep is the rolling or sliding of large soil particles along the ground
surface. They are too heavy to be lifted by the wind and are moved primarily by the impact of the
particles in saltation rather than by direct force of the wind. The coarse particles tend to move
closer to the ground than the fine ones.

Threshold Velocity. Threshold velocity is the minimum wind velocity required to initiate the
movement of soil particles. Threshold velocity varies with the soil conditions and nature of
ground surface.

Impact of erosion on crop yield

 Erosion reduces the capacity of the soil to hold water leading to severe water stress.
 Erosion contributes to losses of plant nutrients, which wash away with the soil particles.
Because sub-soils generally contain fewer nutrients than top-soils, more fertilizer is
needed to maintain crop yields. This, in turn, increases production costs. Moreover, the
 addition of fertilizer alone cannot compensate for all the nutrients lost when topsoil
erodes.
 Erosion reduces yields by degrading soil structure, increasing soil erodibility, surface
sealing
 and crusting. Water infiltration is reduced, and seedlings have a harder time breaking
through the soil crust. Erosion reduces productivity because it does not remove topsoil
uniformly over the surface of a field. Typically, parts of an eroded field still have several
inches of topsoil left; other parts may be eroded down to the subsoil. This makes it
practically impossible for a farmer to manage the field properly, to apply fertilizers and
chemicals uniformly and obtain uniform results. He is also unable to time his planting,
since an eroded part of the field may be too wet when the rest of the field is dry and
ready.

Best Management Practices: that are used to control erosion factors of both wind and water
are

 Crop rotation- improves the overall efficiency of nitrogen uptake and utilization in the
soil. If certain cover crops are planted in the winter, erosion and runoff is prevented when
the ground thaws, and nutrients are trapped in the soil and released to the spring crops.
 Contour cultivation- On gently sloping land, a special tillage practice carried out on the
contour of the field can reduce the velocity of overland flow. Contour cultivation should
not be carried out on steep slopes because it will merely make the erosion situation worse.
 Strip cropping- It is a technique in which alternate strips of different crops are planted in
the same field. There are three main types: contour strip cropping, field strip cropping,
and buffer strip cropping. If the strips are planted along the contour, water damage can be
minimized; in dry regions, if the strips are planted crosswise to the contour, wind damage
is also minimized.
 Terraces- Constructing bench-like channels is otherwise known as terraces, enables
water to be stored temporarily on slopes to allow sediment deposition and water
infiltration. There are three types of terraces: bench terraces contour terraces, and parallel
terraces. It will control erosion in wetter areas by reducing the length of the slope.
 Grassed Waterways - They force storm runoff water to flow down the center of an
established grass strip and can carry very large quantities of storm water across a field
without erosion. Grass waterways are also used as filters to remove sediment, but may
sometimes lose their effectiveness when too much sediment builds up in the waterways.
To prevent this, it is important that crop residues, buffer strips, and other erosion control
practices and structures be used along with grass waterways for maximum effectiveness.
 Diversion structures- These are channels that are constructed across slopes that cause
water to flow to a desired outlet. They are similar to grass waterways and are used most
often for gully control.
 Drop structures - Are small dams used to stabilize steep waterways and other channels.
They can handle large amounts of runoff water and are effective where falls are less than
2.5 meters
 Riparian strips - These are merely buffer strips of grass, shrubbery, plants, and other
vegetation that grow on the banks of rivers and streams and areas with water conservation
problems. The strips slow runoff and catch sediment. In shallow water flow, they can
reduce sediment and the nutrients and herbicides attached to it by 30% to 50%.
 No-till planting- This planting system prepares a seedbed 2 inches wide or less, leaving
most of the surface undisturbed and still covered with crop residues. The result is a
wetter, colder environment that protects the seed and soil with its insulating effect of the
surface residue.
 Strip Rotary- Tillage A strip four to eight inches wide and two to four inches deep is
prepared by a rotary tiller, while the rest of the soil is left undisturbed. The soil is
conserved because of the crop residues between the tillage strips
 Till Planting -This plowing technique sweeps the crop residues into the area between the
rows of crops. Soil density between these rows remains relatively high because of the
absence of tillage. This soil is difficult for raindrops to detach and runoff to move.
 Annual Ridges - Also known as permanent ridges or ridge tillage, the annual ridges are
formed by using a rolling disk bedder, and planting is done after only minor spring
seedbed preparation. The extent of soil conservation depends on the amount of residue
left and the row direction. Planting on the contour plus increased surface residues greatly
reduce soil loss.
 Chiseling- This system does not turn the soil over, but rather leaves it rough and cloddy
with plenty of crop residue remaining. The soil density and amount of covering depends
on the depth, size, shape, spacing, and so on of the chisel blades. The residue and rough,
cloddy surface of the soil reduces raindrops impact and reduces runoff velocities thus
reducing erosion.
 Disking- This system pulverizes the soil and gives great soil density The effect is similar
to that of chiseling with results also depending on the depth, size, spacing, and so on of
the disk blades. The deeper the disking, the fewer the residues that remain on the surface.
Lesson: 4
POLLUTED SOIL

What is pollution?

Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of

air, water and soil that may harmfully affect the life or create a potential health hazard of any
living organism.

What is pollutant? Any substance which causes pollution is called a pollutant. (Pollutants –
solid, liquid or gaseous substances).

Environmental Pollutants

The various principal pollutants which pollute our air, water, land are as follows :
(1) Deposited matter – soot, smoke, tar, dust, grit etc.
(2) Gases – Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2), sulphur (SO2), carbon monoxide, halogens,
(chlorine, bromine, iodine),
(3) Acids droplets – sulphruric, acid nitric acid etc.
(4) Fluorides
(5) Metals – Mercury, lead, iron, zinc, nickel, tin, cadmium, chromium etc
(6) Agrochemicals – Biocides (pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides, bactericides,
weedicides etc), and fertilizers.
(7) Complex organic substances – Benzene, ether, acetic acid, benzopyrenes etc.
(8) Photochemical oxidants – Photochemical smog, ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
peroxybenzoil nitrate (PBzN), nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, ethylene etc.
(9) Solid wastes
(10) Radioactive waste
(11) Noise
Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution

Arsenic Mercury Lead

Antimony Zinc Nickel

Cadmium Selenium Beryllium

Thallium Chromium Copper

Soil Pollution

Soil pollution refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and degrades the soil quality.

Causes of Soil Pollution

1. Residues from the factories.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides.
3. Addition of non-degradable domestic waste like plastic
4. Erosion
5. Excessive use of fertilizers
6. Excessive salts
7. Deforestation

1. Minimizing the usage of pesticides.

2. Periodic change of crops to increase the soil fertility.

3. Disposal of unwanted garbage created by clinics and hospitals properly either by

burning or by burying into the soil.

4. Following the rules and regulations laid down by pollution control board.
5. Minimizing the usage of plastics.

6. Adopting sustainable forming practices

7. Prevent soil from erosion

Lesson: 5

LAND CAPABILITY & SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION

 Land capability classification (LCC) may be defined as a system of grouping land in

to various classes based on inherent limitations imposed on sustained use by soil
attributes, topography, drainage and climate.
 The guiding principle underlying LCC is “use land according to its capability and
treat it as per its need”. The capability classes falls in two groups, one suited for
cultivation and other not suited for cultivation.
 Each group is further sub-divided in to four capability based on intensity of hazards
and limitations of use. The subclasses are further divides in to unit based on a specific
management practice.
 Thus land is classified in to eight land capability classes under two broad groups as:
(a) Land suitable for agriculture and other uses which include class I to class IV
lands.
(b) Land not suitable for agriculture but very well suited for forestry, grass land and
wild life which include class V to class VIII lands.
The capability classification consists of three categories, namely:

i. Capability classes
ii. Capability subclasses, and
iii. Capability units.

CAPABILITY CLASSES

In all eight capability classes are recognized. The soils having greatest capabilities for
response to management and least limitations are grouped in Class-I and those having least
capability and greatest limitations are grouped in Class-VIII in below Table. An attempt has
been made to correlate each capability class with the cropping system as conditioned by the
length of growing period. The criteria used to group soils into different capability clashes

Salient features of land capability classes

LAND SUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION

C1ass-I Very good cultivable, deep, nearly level, productive land with almost no
(green) limitation (or very slight hazard). Soils in this class are suited for a variety of
crops, including wheat, barley, cotton, maize, tomato and bean. Need no special
management practices for cultivation; shown as green on maps.
Class-II Good cultivable land on almost level plain or on gentle slopes that have slight
(yellow) limitations of soil depth, salinity, texture, drainage or erosion that reduce the
choice of plants. In general, these soils are suitable for wheat, barley, cotton;
moderately suitable for maize, alfalfa, tomato; and slightly-suitable for beans.
Recommendation is to cultivate with precaution; need simple management
practices; shown as yellow on maps.
Class-III Moderately-good cultivable land on almost level plain or on moderate slope.
(brown) These soils have limitation(s) of moderate erosion, soil depth, soil salinity, soil
texture. They have vcrtic characteristics or drainage problem that reduces the
choice of crop. In general, these areas have varying suitability for different crops.
They are unsuitable for growing vegetable crops. Recommendation is to cultivate
with careful management practices; need intensive care; shown as brown on
maps.
Class-IV Fairly-good land on almost level plains or moderately-steep slopes. Suitable for
(pink) occasional or limited cultivation; generally unsuitable for growing a variety of
crops because of strong or very strong soil salinity (S3/S4), shallow depth,
erosion, fine texture or poor or excessive drainage. Suitable for selected crops and
for pasture. Such soils may not be economical to cultivate as they need intensive
soil conservation and management practices; shown as pink on maps.
LAND UNSUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION BUT SUITABLE FOR PERMANENT
VEGETATION (GRAZING)
Class-V Land not suitable for arable farming, but very suitable for grazing; have
(dark grey) limitations for use of implements due to stony or rocky and marshyness;
shown as dark grey on maps.
Class-VI Non-arable land, well suited for grazing or forestry use. Have moderate
(orange) limitations, such as steep slope, severe erosion, limited soil depth, strongly
gypsiferous, stony or sand-dune areas. For instance, the dense forest lands
of the Himalayas (India) or gypsiferous and dunal areas of SW Iraq;
shown as orange on maps.
Class-VII Fairly-well suited for grazing or forestry; not cultivable. Have severe
(red) limitation, such as very steep land subjected to erosion or very shallow,
stony soils having not enough available moisture for cultivation. Need
careful management for grazing and forestry; shown as red on maps.
Class-VIII Non-arable, extremely rough, rocky, arid, wet or extremely saline land,
(purple) suited only for wild life or recreation. Have very severe limitation, for
instance highly eroded land, barren mountain tops (as in the Himalayas) or
rocky undulating surfaces (as in desert of south-western Iraq), shown as
purple on maps.

is qualitative and works well for new areas being brought under agricultural use. However,
it may not be satisfactory for traditionally-cultivated areas, such as Indo- Gangetic and
Mesopotamian Plains.

CAPABILITY SUBCLASSES

The capability subclasses are based on kinds of dominant limitation, such as wetness or
excess water (w), climate, (c) soil (s) and erosion (e). The subclasses are mapped by adding
limitation symbols to the capability class number subscripts, for example IIe, IIIw, Therefore,
the subclass (es) indicate both the degree and kind of limitations. The capability subclasses
provide information as to the kind of conservation problem or limitation involved. There are
no subclasses (es) in capability class-I land, since there is no limitation in this class.
CAPABILITY UNITS

These are further subdivisions of capability subclasses. A capability unit includes soils
which are sufficiently uniform in their characteristics, potential and limitations and require
fairly uniform conservation treatments and management practices.

If the existing limitations can be permanently removed or reduced in extent by proper

conservation measures or management practices, such as provision of irrigation, drainage,
control of gullies, and construction of flood-retarding irrigation structures, then the land
capability class can be changed towards a better class. A further deterioration in existing
conditions will shift the capability to a worse class.
Land suitability classification

Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The land may be
considered in its present condition or after improvements. The process of land suitability
classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their suitability for
defined uses.
There may be certain parts of the area considered, for which particular kinds of use are not
relevant, e.g. irrigated agriculture beyond a limit of water availability. In these circumstances,
suitability need not be assessed. Such parts are shown on maps or tables by the symbol NR: Not
Relevant.
STRUCTURE OF THE SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION
The framework has the same structure, i.e. recognizes the same categories, in all of the kinds of
interpretative classification (see below). Each category retains its basic meaning within the
context of the different classifications and as applied to different kinds of land use. Pour
categories of decreasing generalization are recognized:
i. Land Suitability Orders: Reflecting kinds of suitability.
ii. Land Suitability Classes: Reflecting degrees of suitability within Orders
iii. Land Suitability Subclasses: Reflecting kinds of limitation, or main kinds of improvement
measures required, within Classes
iv. Land Suitability Units: Reflecting minor differences in required management within
Subclasses.

Land Suitability Orders

Land suitability Orders indicate whether land is assessed as suitable or not suitable for the use
under consideration. There are two orders represented in maps, tables, etc. by the symbols S and
N respectively.
Order S Suitable: Land on which sustained use of the kind under consideration is expected to
yield benefits which justify the inputs, without unacceptable risk of damage
to land resources.

Order N Not Suitable: Land which has qualities that appear to preclude sustained use of the
kind under consideration.

Land may be classed as Not Suitable for a given use for a number of reasons. It may be that the
proposed use is technically impracticable, such as the irrigation of rocky steep land, or that it
would cause severe environmental degradation, such as the cultivation of steep slopes.
Frequently, however, the reason is economic: that the value of the expected benefits does not
justify the expected costs of the inputs that would be required.
Land Suitability Classes
Land suitability Classes reflect degrees of suitability. The classes are numbered consecutively, by
arabic numbers, in sequence of decreasing degrees of suitability within the Order. Within the
Order Suitable the number of classes is not specified. There might, for example, be only two, S1
and S2. The number of classes recognized should be kept to the minimum necessary to meet
interpretative aims; five should probably be the most ever used.
If three Classes are recognized within the Order Suitable, as can often be recommended, the
following names and definitions may be appropriate in a qualitative classification:

Class S1 Highly Suitable: Land having no significant limitations to sustained application

of a given use, or only minor limitations that will not
significantly reduce productivity or benefits and will not raise
inputs above an acceptable level.

Class S2 Moderately Suitable:
Land having limitations which in aggregate are moderately
severe for sustained application of a given use; the limitations
will reduce productivity or benefits and increase required inputs
to the extent that the overall advantage to be gained from the
use, although still attractive, will be appreciably inferior to that
expected on Class S1 land.

Class S3 Marginally Suitable: Land having limitations which in aggregate are severe for
sustained application of a given use and will so reduce
productivity or benefits, or increase required inputs, that this
expenditure will be only marginally justified.

In a quantitative classification, both inputs and benefits must be expressed in common

measurable terms, normally economic. In different circumstances different variables may express
most clearly the degree of suitability, e.g. the range of expected net income per unit area or per
standard management unit, or the net return per unit of irrigation water applied to different types
of land for a given use.
Where additional refinement is necessary it is recommended that this should be achieved by
adding classes, e.g. S4, and not by subdividing classes, since the latter procedure would
contradict the principle that degrees of suitability are represented by only one level of the
classification structure, that of the suitability class. This necessarily change e the meanings of
class numbers, e.g. if four classes were employed for classifying land with respect to arable use
and only three with respect to forestry, Marginally Suitable could refer to S4 in the former case
but S3 in the latter.
An alternative practice has been adopted in some countries. In order to give a constant numbering
to the lowest Suitable class, classes have been subdivided as, e.g. S2.1, S2.2. This practice is
permitted within the Framework, although for the reason given in the preceding paragraph it is
not recommended.
Suitability Class S1, Highly Suitable, may sometimes not appear on a map of a limited area, but
could still be included in the classification if such land is known or believed to occur in other
areas relevant to the study.
Differences in degrees of suitability are determined mainly by the relationship between benefits
and inputs. The benefits may consist of goods, e.g. crops, livestock products or timber, or
services, e.g. recreational facilities. The inputs needed to obtain such benefits comprise such
things as capital investment, labour, fertilizers and power. Thus an area of land might be classed
as Highly Suitable for rainfed agriculture, because the value of crops produced substantially
exceeds the costs of farming, but only Marginally Suitable for forestry, on grounds that the value
of timber only slightly exceeds the costs of obtaining it.

It should be expected that boundaries between suitability classes will need review and revision
with time in the light of technical developments and economic and social changes.Within the
Order Not Suitable, there are normally two Classes:

Class N1 Currently Not Suitable:
Land having limitations which may be surmountable in
time but which cannot be corrected with existing
knowledge at currently acceptable cost; the limitations
are so severe as to preclude successful sustained use of
the land in the given manner.

Class N2 Permanently Not Land having limitations which appear so severe as to

Suitable: preclude any possibilities Of successful sustained use of
the land in the given manner.

Quantitative definition of these classes is normally unnecessary, since by definition both are
uneconomic for the given use. The upper limit of Class N1 is already defined by the lower limit
of the roast suitable class in Order S.
The boundary of Class N2, Permanently Not Suitable, is normally physical and permanent. In
contrast, the boundary between the two orders, Suitable and Not Suitable is likely to be variable
over time through changes in the economic and social context.

Land Suitability Subclasses

Land Suitability Subclasses reflect kinds of limitations, e.g. moisture deficiency, erosion hazard.
Subclasses are indicated by lower-case letters with mnemonic significance, e.g. S2m, S2e, S3me.
Examples are given in Table 5. There are no subclasses in Class S1.
The number of Subclasses recognized and the limitations chosen to distinguish them will
differ in classifications for different purposes. There are two guidelines:
 The number of subclasses should be kept to a minimum that will satisfactorily distinguish
lands within a class likely to differ significantly in their management requirements or
potential for improvement due to differing limitations.
 As few limitations as possible should be used in the symbol for any subclass. One, rarely
two, letters should normally suffice. The dominant symbol (i.e. that which determines the
 class) should be used alone if possible. If two limitations are equally severe, both may be
given.
Land within the Order Not Suitable may be divided into suitability subclasses according to kinds
of limitation, e.g. N1m, N1me, N1m although this is not essential. As this land will not be placed
under management for the use concerned it should not be subdivided into suitability units.
Land Suitability Units
Land suitability units are subdivisions of a subclass. All the units within a subclass have the same
degree of suitability at the class level and similar kinds of limitations at the subclass level. The
units differ from each other in their production characteristics or in minor aspects of their
management requirement e (often definable as differences in detail of their limitations). Their
recognition permits detailed interpretation at the farm planning level. Suitability units are
distinguished by arabic numbers following a hyphen, e.g. S2e-1, S2e-2. There is no limit to the
number of units recognized within a subclass.
Conditional Suitability
The designation Conditionally Suitable may be added in certain instances to condense and
simplify presentation. This is necessary to cater for circumstances where small areas of land,
within the survey area, may be unsuitable or poorly suitable for a particular use under the
management specified for that use, but suitable given that certain conditions are fulfilled.
The possible nature of the conditions is varied and might relate to modifications to the
management practices or the input e of the defined land use (occasioned, for example, by
localized phenomena of poor soil drainage, soil salinity); or to restrictions in the choice of crops
(limited, for example, to crops with an especially high market value, or resistant to frost). In such
instances, the indication "conditional" can avoid the need for additional classifications to account
for local modifications of land use or local major improvements.
Conditionally Suitable is a phase of the Order Suitable. It is indicated by a lower case letter
c between the order symbol and the class number, e.g. Sc2. The conditionally suitable phase,
subdivided into classes if necessary, is always placed at the bottom of the listing of S classes. The
phase indicates suitability after the condition (e) have been met.
Employment of the Conditionally Suitable phase should be avoided wherever possible. It
may only be employed if all of the following stipulations are met:
i. Without the condition(s) satisfied, the land is either not suitable or belongs to the lowest
suitable class.
ii. Suitability with the condition(s) satisfied is significantly higher (usually at least two classes).
iii. The extent of the conditionally suitable land is very small with respect to the total study area.
If the first or second stipulation is not met, it may still be useful to mention the possible
improvement or modification in an appropriate section of the text. If the third stipulation is not
met, then the area over which the condition is relevant is sufficiently extensive to warrant either a
new land utilization type or a potential suitability classification, as appropriate.
As the area of land classed as Conditionally Suitable is necessarily small, it will not normally be
necessary to subdivide it at the unit level.
It is important to note that the indication "conditional" is not intended to be applied to land for
which the interpretation is uncertain, either in the sense that its suitability is marginal or because
factors relevant to suitability are not understood. Use of "conditional" may seem convenient to
the evaluator, but its excessive use would greatly complicate understanding by users and must be
avoided.
Lesson: 6

IRRIGATION WATER -QUALITY AND STANDARD

Quality irrigation water is an essential resource for better growth of plants and to get better yields.
Poor quality water often results in water losing salinity and sodicity problems in soils. Following
are the characteristics on which irrigation water quality is judged.
1. Presence of total soluble salts in irrigation waters.
2. Proportion of carbonates and bicarbonates in relation to calcium and Magnesium in
irrigation waters.
3. Proportion of sodium in relation to other cations in irrigation waters.
4. Concentration of specific ions in irrigation waters.
Several parameters are employed to judge the quality of irrigation waters. No parameter in
complete in judging the quality of irrigation waters. Further the quality of water, should be judged
by considering the crop and soil factors. Any judgement without considering the above factors
may not be useful. Following are the parameters commonly adopted in judging the quality of
irrigation waters.
1. Electrical conductivity
It is a measure of total soluble salts in waters. Based on EC following classification of waters are
made as given by USDA.

Water Class EC dSm-1 Remarks

Low saline → 0.250 dSm-1 : Good
can be used for irrigation
Medium saline → 0.250 to 0.750 dSm -1
: Fair

High saline → 0.750 to 2.250 dsm-1 : Poor

Cannot be use for irrigation
Very high saline → 2.250 dSm -1
: Very poor

2. Potential salinity

This refers to judging quality of irrigation waters considering chloride and sulphate ion
concentration in waters.
Salt Index (SI): salt index given by puri
This explains the relationship between sodium and calcium concentration in waters.
PSI = (Total Na+ - 24.5 ) - { (Total Ca2+ - Ca in CaCO3) x 4.85}

If negative: Good quality water.

Positive: Poor quality water.

3. Sodium Adsorption Ration (SAR)

This refers to proportion of sodium in relation to calcium and Magnesium in a water. Sodium
Adsorption Ratio = Na+ .
√Ca + Mg
2
If SAR
<10 = Low sodic water
10 -18 = Medium sodic water
18-26 = High sodic water
>26 = Very high sodic water
4. Soluble sodium percentage :This explains proportion of sodium in relation to total cations in
water

Na
SSP =
Ca + Mg + K + Na

It SSP 60 = unsuitable for irrigation.

5. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)
This refers to proportion of carbonates and bicarbonates in relation calcium and Magnesium in
waters.
Residual sodium carbonate = (CO3 + HCO3 ) - (Ca + Mg)
If RSC Remarks
<1.25 meq/L - Good
1.25 – 2.5 meq/L - Fair
>2.5 meq/L - unsuitable
6. Permeability Index
This refers to proportion of sodium and bicarbonate in relation to cations in water.
Na+HCO3
Permeability Index (PI) = X 100
Ca + Mg + Na
If PI 60 - unsuitable for irrigation.
Besides above parameter, concentration of specific ion if exceeds certain limits in water then that
water may not be suitable for irrigation. Excess of any ion (CO3 HCO3 Cl, SO4, No3, B, Na, Fl)
including heavy metal like Nickel, lead cadmium etc. is injurious to plants. Boron is excessively
available is some locations which makes the water quality poor.

7. Boron concentration: Boron is the essential for normal growth of plant , but the amount
required in small amount the permissible limts of boron in irrigation water is given below.

Boron class Born Concentration Remarks

sensitive crops Semi – tolerant crops Tolerant crops
Very Low < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.00 Can be used safely
Low 0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1.00-2.00 Can be used with
management
Medium 0.67-1.00 1.33-2.00 2.00-3.00 Unsuitable for
High 1.00-1.25 2.00-2.50 3.00-3.75 irrigation purposes
Very high >1.25 >2.50 >3.75
8. Chloride concentration: The chloride ion has no effect on the physical properties of soil
and not absorbed on the soil complexes and so it has generally not included in morden
classification system

Cl-
- -1
Chloride (Cl )Concentration (mel ) =
CO32- + HCO3-+SO42- +Cl- +NO3-

Chloride (Cl-)Concentration (mel-1) Water Quality

<4 Excellent water
4-7 Moderately goog water
7-12 Slightly usable
12-20 Not suitable for irrigation
>20

Magnesium hazards : Magnesium hazards is important qualitative criteria in judging the

irrigation water is it Magnesium content in relation to total divalent cation, since high
Magnesium adsorption by soil affect their physical properties. A harmful effect on soil appear
when Ca:Mg ratio decline below50

Mg2+
Mg adsorption ratio=
Ca2+ +Mg2+

Magnesium hazards in irrigation water is expected having Ca: Mg ratio is more than 1

Nitrate concentration : very frequently ground waters contain high amount of nitrate . when
such type of irrigation water applied o soil continuously various physical properties will be
affected very badly which causes poor plant growth.

Lithium concentration: lithum is an important trace element which may be found in most
saline ground waters and irrigated soils. Small concentarion of (0.05-0.1ppm) of lithum in
irrigation waterproduced toxic effect on growth of citrus crops. Saline soil of varying degrees
found India contain lithium upto 2.5 ppm
Lesson: 7

REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about an objects or areas from
a distance, typically from aircraft or satellites. Parker (1962) defined remote sensing as
covering the collection of data about an object which are not in contact with the collecting
device.
The International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) defined Remote
Sensing (RS) as: “The art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment, through the process of recording, measuring and
interpreting imagery and digital representation of energy patterns derived from non contact
sensor system “.
Types of remote sensing

1. Active remote sensing: Remote sensing systems, which provide their own source of
energy for illumination, are known as active sensors. These sensors have the
advantage of obtaining data at any time of day or season. Radio detection and ranging
(RADAR), Sound navigation and ranging (SONAR), Synthetic aperture Radar (SAR),
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (LASER), Light detection and
ranging (LIDAR) and X-ray are the examples of active remote sensing.
2. Passive remote sensing: Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is
naturally available are called as passive sensors. This can only take place when the
sun is illuminating the earth. There is no reflected energy available from the sun at
night. For all reflected energy, this can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth. Energy that is naturally emitted can be detected day or night
provided that the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded. Eyes, Camera,
Multi-spectral scanner (MSS), Thermal Infrared (TIR), Film photography, charge-
coupled devices, and radiometers are the example of passive remote sensing.
Active remote sensing Passive remote sensing

Components/elements of remote sensing

1. Illumination
2. Radiation
3. Interaction of the object
4. Sensing (Sensor)
5. Capturing, receiving
6. Processing
7. Interpreting
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A): The first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of
interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B): As the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C): Once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect
and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to
be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data
are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process. Apply the
information we have been able to extract from the imagery in order to better understand the
target we are studying.

USE OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Natural resource management- inventory of natural resource like, soil, water, forestry.

2. Exploration of mineral reserve with reference to fertilizer industry, oil, coal reserve.

3. Plant protection estimation (i) infestation (ii) control measures

4. Forecasting of flood, (sea water intrusion), drought

5. Marketing management through yield estimation.

6. Water storage/distribution and recharge capacity.

7. Help in crop production forecasting, land use or cover mapping

8. Mapping of waste land

9. Soil mapping

10. Drought monitoring and its assessment

11. Monitoring of surface water bodies

12. Ground water exploration

13. Flood mapping and damage assessments

Lesson: 8

MULTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES

Multipurpose Trees (MPTs)

The term "multipurpose tree” refers to all woody perennials that are purposely grown so as to
provide more than one significant contribution to the production or service functions (food,
fodder, fuel, timber, shelter, shade, land sustainability) of the land use system they
implement.

Multi-purpose tree species refers to the species of plants which have more than one
economic/sustenance value. Such species are highly important in the context of achieving the
goal of sustainable production and consumption.

List of suitable multipurpose tree and shrub species for alley farming systems in the
humid and subhumid zone

Environment Humid Zone Subhumid Zone

Non-acid Soils
Lowlands Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena leucocephala
(0-750m) Gliricidia sepium Leucaena diversifolia
Flemingia macrophylla Flemingia macrophylla
Cajanus cajan Acacia auriculiformis
Tephrosia candida
Acioa barteri
Milletia sp.
Middle Alt. Sesbania sesban Leucaena leucocephala
(750-1500m) Leucaena leucocephala Gliricidia sepium
Leucaena diversifolia Cajanus cajan
Flemingia congesta Cassia floribunda
Tephrosia candida
Highland Leucaena species and hybrids.
Calliandra callothyrsus
Highlands Albizia species Albizia species
(>1500m) Erythrina poeppigiana Erythrina species
Inga juniciul Sesbania sesban
Sesbania sesban
Acid Soils
Lowlands Acioa barteri Cajanus cajan
(0-750m) Cassia siamea Acacia auriculiformis
Cassia spectabilis.
Flemingia congesta
Tephrosia candida
Acacia auriculiformis
Paraserianthes falcataria
Middle Alt. Cassia floribunda Cassia floribunda
(750- 1500m) Flemingia macrophylla Flemingia macrophylla
Calliandra callothyrsus Calliandra callothyrsus
Sesbania sesban
Highlands Albizia species Albizia species
(> 1500m) Erythrina species Erythrina species
Sesbania sesban Sesbania sesban

Characteristics of MPTs suitable for Agroforestry

1. Adaptability to local climatic conditions.

2. Ease of establishment from seeds and seedlings.
3. They should have a low crown diameter to bole diameter ratio.
4. They should be light branching in their habit.
5. They should tolerate relatively high incidence of pruning.
6. Deep thrusting tap root system and few and shallow lateral roots (or prunable).
7. Their phyllotaxies should permit penetration of the light of the ground.
8. Good Coppicing ability.
9. Effective nutrient recycling.
10. Multiple uses: food, feed, firewood, construction materials and other products and
service (shade, shelter etc.)
11. Minimal competition with shallowly rooted annual crops.
12. Small leaflets readily detached when dried and quickly decomposed when used as
fertilizer.
13. A high proportion of leaves to secondary branches.
14. Good tolerance for drought, low fertility and others.
15. Freedom from pests and diseases.
16. Not compete for moisture, space and air.
17. Ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
18. Supply nitrogen in the soil.
19. Have thin and erect leaves.
20. Maintain proper ecosystem.
21. Non-allelopathic effects on arable crops.
22. Easy to propagates and prolific seed producer.
Benefits of MPTs

Domestic and Industrial Uses:

1. Fuel wood for cooking foods and warming houses.

2. Timber, posts and poles
3. Paper cardboards, and construction boards.
4. Vegetables, fruits and nuts, seeds and firewood.
5. Edible leaves and shoots for sauces, curries, salads and beverages.
6. Fodder for livestock
7. Host plant for silk worms and lac insects.
8. Green manure for incorporating into soil.
9. Medicines and Pharmaceuticals.
10. Extractives such as a gums, resins, rubber and dyes.
11. Oil (edible) and non-edible for illumination, lubrication and soap making
12. Cake obtained after oil extraction for the use of animal feed, if edible and non-edible
types are for the use as manure.
13. The fruit of anola, bahera are used as soap substitutes.
14. Essential oil, perfumes are for cosmetics.

Environmental Protection and Other Uses:

1. Shade and support for plantation crops.

2. Aid to the soil improvement by controlling soil erosion and sand dunes stabilization.

3. Improvement in soil structure, chemical properties, water balance and weed control.

4. Useful in hedges, windbreaks, shelterbelts, and fire breaks.

5. Ornamental, aesthetic or recreational value.