Makrin Integration For Calculus

INTEGRATION FOR CALCULUS,
ANALYSIS, AND DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS Techniques, Examples, and Exercises
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INTEGRATION FOR CALCULUS,
ANALYSIS, AND DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS Techniques, Examples, and Exercises
Marat V Markin
California State University, Fresno, USA
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
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Published by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Markin, Marat V., author.
Title: Integration for calculus, analysis, and differential equations : techniques, examples,
and exercises / by Marat V. Markin (California State University, Fresno, USA).
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018026833 | ISBN 9789813272033 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9789813275157 (pbk : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Calculus--Textbooks. | Mathematical analysis--Textbooks. |
Differential equations--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QA303.2 .M368 2018 | DDC 515--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018026833
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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May 17, 2018 12:7 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page v
To my mother, Svetlana A. Markina, fondly.
v
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June 21, 2018 10:23 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page vii
Preface
The calculus is the story this

world first told itself as it
became the modern world.
David Berlinski
Amply demonstrated by experience, integral calculus covered in Calculus I

and, mostly, in Calculus II appears to represent a serious challenge for
many students. Passing rates in these courses are often considered to be
indicative for the future graduation rates.
The main purpose of this book is to assist calculus students to gain
a better understanding and command of integration and its applications
and, thus, improving their performance in Calculus I and II courses. Its
writing stems out of my extensive experience of teaching calculus or its
equivalent to diverse groups of students at the California State University,
Fresno, Boston University, the University of North Carolina, Asheville, and
the National University of Food Technologies, Kiev, Ukraine.
The usefulness of the book as a concise and, at the same time, rather
comprehensive review of integration reaches beyond the scope of the fore-
going courses to students in more advanced courses such as Multivari-
able Calculus, Differential Equations, and Intermediate Analysis, where the
ability to effectively integrate is essential for their success, and also those,
who prepare for integration competitions such as the Fresno State Integra-
tion Bee.
Keeping the reader constantly focused on the three principal episte-
mological questions: What for? Why? How?, the book is designated as
a supplementary instructional tool treating the three kinds of integral:
indefinite, definite, and improper and covering various aspects of integral
vii
June 21, 2018 15:58 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page viii
viii Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations
calculus from abstract definitions and theorems (with complete proof when-
ever appropriate) through various integration techniques to applications.
It contains 143 Examples, including 112 Problems with complete step-by-
step solutions, the same problem occasionally solved in more than one way
while encouraging the reader to find the most efficient integration path,
6 Exercises, 162 Practice Problems, and 30 Mixed Integration Problems
“for dessert”, where the reader is expected to independently choose and
implement the best possible integration approach. The answers to all the
192 Problems are provided in the Answer Key. Three Appendices furnish a
table of basic integrals, reduction formulas, and basic identities of algebra
and trigonometry.
The book’s writing was supported by a Fresno State College of Science
and Mathematics Scholarly and Creative Activity Award 2015/16, for which
I would like to express my cordial gratitude.
My utmost appreciation goes to Dr. Maria Nogin (Department of Math-
ematics, CSU, Fresno) for her numerous invaluable contributions into im-
proving the manuscript and to Mr. Andres Zumba Quezada (CSU, Fresno),
the winner of the Fresno State Integration Bee 2015 and 2017, for pain-
stakingly reading the manuscript, solving every single problem in it, and
providing helpful suggestions. I am also very grateful to Dr. Przemyslaw
Kajetanowicz (Department of Mathematics, CSU, Fresno) for his kind
assistance with the figures.
My sincere acknowledgments are also due to the following associates
of World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.: Ms. Rochelle Kronzek for
discerning a value in my manuscript and making the authors, in particular
this one, her high priority; Ms. Lai Fun Kwong for her astounding efficiency
and great editorial work, and to Mr. Rajesh Babu for his expert and very
helpful technical assistance.
The book, my first one, is dedicated to my mother, Svetlana A. Markina,
with affection and appreciation inexpressible with any words.
Marat V. Markin
May 17, 2018 12:7 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page ix
Contents
Preface vii
1. Indefinite and Definite Integrals 1

1.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Validation of Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Which Functions Are Integrable? . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Properties of Indefinite Integral (Integration Rules) 5
1.2 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Which Functions Are Integrable? . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Properties of Definite Integral (Integration Rules) 9
1.2.4 Integration by Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Integral Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.6 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.7 Total Change Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.8 Integrals of Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . 16
2. Direct Integration 17
2.1 Table Integrals and Useful Integration Formula . . . . . . 17
2.2 What Is Direct Integration and How Does It Work? . . . . 20
2.2.1 By Integration Rules Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 Multiplication/Division Before Integration . . . . 21
2.2.3 Applying Minor Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.4 Using Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.5 Transforming Products into Sums . . . . . . . . . 26
ix
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x Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations
2.2.6 Using Conjugate Radical Expressions . . . . . . . 27

2.2.7 Square Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Direct Integration for Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3. Method of Substitution 35
3.1 Substitution for Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 What for? Why? How? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Perfect Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3 Introducing a Missing Constant . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.4 Trivial Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1.5 More Than a Missing Constant . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.6 More Than One Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.7 More Than One Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Substitution for Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.1 What for? Why? How? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4. Method of Integration by Parts 51

4.1 Partial Integration for Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.1 What for? Why? How? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.2 Three Special Types of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.3 Beyond Three Special Types . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1.4 Reduction Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Partial Integration for Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2.1 What for? Why? How? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Combining Substitution and Partial Integration . . . . . . 62
4.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5. Trigonometric Integrals 65
5.1 Direct Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Using Integration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.1 Integration via Reduction Z Formulas . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.2 Integrals of the Form sinm x cosn x dx . . . . . . 70
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Contents xi
Z
5.2.3 Integrals of the Form tanm x secn x dx . . . . . 76
5.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6. Trigonometric Substitutions 83
6.1 Reverse Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2 Integrals Containing a2 − x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Integrals Containing x2 + a2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4 Integrals Containing x2 − a2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7. Integration of Rational Functions 99

7.1 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.2.1 Integration of Type 1/Type 2 Partial Fractions . . 101
7.2.2 Integration of Type 3 Partial Fractions . . . . . . 101
7.2.3 Integration of Type 4 Partial Fractions . . . . . . 103
7.3 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.4 Partial Fraction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8. Rationalizing Substitutions 115

8.1 Integrals with Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !. . . . . . 115
Z r
ax + b
8.1.1 Integrals of the Form R x, n dx . . . 115
cx + d
8.1.2 Integrals
Z of the Form

R x, xm1 /n1 , . . . , xmk /nk dx . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2 Integrals with Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.3 Trigonometric Integrals . . . .Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3.1 Integrals of the Form R (tan x) dx . . . . . . . . 118
Z
8.3.2 Integrals of the Form R (sin x, cos x) dx . . . . . 119
8.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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xii Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations
Can We Integrate Them All Now? 125

9. Improper Integrals 127
9.1 Type 1 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Interval) . . . . . 127
9.1.1 Right-Sided Unboundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.1.2 Left-Sided Unboundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.1.3 Two-Sided Unboundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.2 Type 2 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Integrand) . . . . 134
9.2.1 Unboundedness at the Left Endpoint . . . . . . . 135
9.2.2 Unboundedness at the Right Endpoint . . . . . . 137
9.2.3 Unboundedness Inside the Interval . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Mixed Integration Problems 145
Answer Key 147

Appendix A Table of Basic Integrals 153
Appendix B Reduction Formulas 155
Appendix C Basic Identities of Algebra and Trigonometry 157
Bibliography 161
Index 163
May 17, 2018 12:7 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page 1
Chapter 1
Indefinite and Definite Integrals
1.1. Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integral
1.1.1. Definitions and Examples

Definition 1.1 (Antiderivative).
Let f be a function defined on an interval I. A function F is called an
antiderivative of f (x) on I if
F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
Examples 1.1 (Antiderivatives).

1. The function F (x) = 1 is an antiderivative of f (x) = 0 on (−∞, ∞) as
well as any function of the form F (x) = C, where C is an arbitrary real
constant (written henceforth as C ∈ R).
2. The function F (x) = x is an antiderivative of f (x) = 1 on (−∞, ∞) as
well as any function of the form F (x) = x + C, C ∈ R.
x2
3. The function F (x) = is an antiderivative of f (x) = x on (−∞, ∞)
2
x2
as well as any function of the form F (x) = + C, C ∈ R.
2
4. Any function of the form F (x) = ex + C, C ∈ R, is an antiderivative of
f (x) = ex on (−∞, ∞).
All the above examples have one thing in common: if F is an antiderivative

of f on I, then so is any function of the form
F (x) + C, x ∈ I, (1.1)
where C is an arbitrary real constant (C ∈ R).
The natural question is: are there antiderivatives of f on I not included in
this description? The answer is NO.
1
2 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations
As follows from the Mean Value Theorem (see, e.g., [1, 6]), functions with
the same derivative differ by a constant. Thus, if G is an arbitrary anti-
derivative of f on I, there is a C ∈ R such that
G(x) = F (x) + C, x ∈ I,
and hence, expression (1.1) describes all possible antiderivatives of f on I.

Definition 1.2 (Indefinite Integral).
Let a function f defined on an interval I have an antiderivative F on I.
The indefinite integral (or the general antiderivative) of f on I is the ex-
pression
Z
f (x) dx := F (x) + C, x ∈ I,
Z real constant (C ∈ R).

where C is an arbitrary Z
The integral notation f (x) dx, uses the integral symbol and differential
symbol dx. The function f is called the integrand and x the integration
variable.
The process of finding an indefinite integral is called integration (or anti-
differentiation).
Obviously, integration (antidifferentiation) is the process inverse to differ-

entiation, i.e.,
Z Z
d
f 0 (x) dx = f (x) + C and f (x) dx = f (x).
dx
Thus, the following examples are readily obtained by reversing the stan-
dard table of basic derivatives with some natural minor adjustments, when
required, and become a part of our Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A).
Examples 1.2 (Basic Indefinite Integrals).
Z
1. 0 dx = C on (−∞, ∞).
xn+1
Z
2. xn dx = + C (n 6= −1)
n+1
on interval(s) depending on the exponent n.
x2
Z Z Z
In particular, 1 dx = x0 dx = x + C, x dx = +C
2
on (−∞, ∞),
Indefinite and Definite Integrals 3
Z Z
1
dx = x−2 dx = −x−1 + C
x2
on each of the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, ∞),
√ x3/2
Z Z
2
x dx = x1/2 dx = = x3/2 + C on [0, ∞),
3/2 3
Z
1
3. dx = ln |x| + C on each of the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, ∞).
x
ax
Z
4. ax dx = + C (a > 0, a 6= 1) on (−∞, ∞).
ln a
Z
In particular, ex dx = ex + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
5. sin x dx = − cos x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
6. cos x dx = sin x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
7. sec2 x dx = tan x + C on each of the intervals
(−π/2 + nπ, π/2 + nπ), n ∈ Z := {0, ±1, ±2, . . . } .

Z
8. csc2 x dx = − cot x+C on each of the intervals (nπ, π + nπ), n ∈ Z.
Z
9. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C on the same intervals as in 7.
Z
10. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C on the same intervals as in 8.
Z
11. sinh x dx = cosh x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
12. cosh x dx = sinh x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
1
13. 2
dx = arctan x + C on (−∞, ∞).
x +1
Z
1
14. √ dx = arcsin x + C on (−1, 1).
1 − x2
Z
1
15. √ dx = arcsec |x| + C
x x2 − 1
on each of the intervals (−∞, −1), (1, ∞)
since, for x > 1,
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = √ dx = arcsec |x| + C
x x2 − 1 |x| x2 − 1
and, for x < −1,
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = − √ dx
x x2 − 1 |x| x2 − 1
= − arcsec x+B = arcsec |x|−π+B = arcsec |x|+C (C := −π+B).
1.1.2. Validation of Indefinite Integrals

To validate the equality
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C on I
is to show that
F 0 (x) = f (x) on I,
i.e., integration is validated via differentiation.
Examples 1.3 (Appendix A, integrals 11, 13, and 20).
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C = − ln | cos x| + C on each of the intervals
(−π/2 + nπ, π/2 + nπ), n ∈ Z, since, on each of these intervals,
0 sec0 x sec x tan x
[ln | sec x|] = = = tan x
sec x sec x
and
−1
ln | sec x| = ln [| cos x|] = − ln | cos x|.
Z
2. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C on the same intervals as in the prior
example since, on each of these intervals,
0 (sec x + tan x)0 sec x tan x + sec2 x
[ln | sec x + tan x|] = = = sec x.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
3. For a > 0,
Z
1 p
√ dx = ln |x + x2 ± a2 | + C
x2 ± a 2
on (−∞, ∞) for “+” and on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (a, ∞) for
“−” since, on each of these intervals,
2 0
√ x ± a2
0 1+ √
d p x + x2 ± a 2 2√ x2 ± a2
ln |x + x2 ± a2 | = √ =
dx x + x2 ± a2 x + x2 ± a2
√
2x x2 ± a 2 + x
1+ √ √
2√ x2 ± a2 2 2 1
= = √ ±a
x
=√ .
x+ x ±a 2 2 x+ x ±a 2 2 x ± a2
2
1.1.3. Which Functions Are Integrable?

As follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (see Sec. 1.2.6), each
function f continuous on an interval I has an antiderivative F on I (i.e., is
integrable on I). For a function f having discontinuities on an interval I,
this need not be true.
Exercise 1.1 (Sign Function).
Show that the sign function

−1 for x < 0


sgn(x) := 0 for x = 0


 1 for x > 0
has antiderivatives on (−∞, 0), (0, ∞), but has no antiderivative on any
open interval I containing 0.
1.1.4. Properties of Indefinite Integral (Integration Rules)

Integration is governed by the following rules readily proved via differenti-
ation.
Theorem 1.1 (Properties of Indefinite Integral (Integration
Rules)).
Z Z
If f (x) dx = F (x) + C and g(x) dx = G(x) + C on an interval I, then,
on I,
Z Z
1. for any c ∈ R, cf (x) dx = cF (x) + C = c f (x) dx (Constant
Factor
Z Rule) Z Z
2. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = F (x) ± G(x) + C = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
(Sum/Difference Rule)
Remark 1.1. For integration, unlike differentiation, the are NO Product/

Quotient Rules.
Exercise 1.2 (No Product/Quotient Rules for Integration).

Give an example of functions f and g having antiderivatives F and G on
an interval I, respectively, for which
Z Z
f (x) F (x)
f (x)g(x) dx 6= F (x)G(x) + C and dx 6= + C on I.
g(x) G(x)
Example 1.4 (Using Integration Rules).
Z
4 x
+ 3 sin x − e dx switching to the power form;
x2
Z
4x−2 + 3 sin x − ex dx

= by the integration rules;
Z Z Z
= 4 x−2 dx + 3 sin x dx − ex dx
using the basic integrals (see Examples 1.2 and Appendix A);
4
=− − 3 cos x − ex + C.
x
1.2. Definite Integral
1.2.1. Definitions
Definition 1.3 (Partition, Regular Partition).
A set of n + 1 points {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } (n = 1, 2, . . . ) in a closed and bounded
interval [a, b] such that
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b
is called a partition of [a, b].
The points x0 , x1 . . . , xn , called the grid points, partition [a, b] into n sub-
intervals
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ],
the length of the kth partition interval being
∆xk = xk − xk−1 , k = 1, . . . , n.
Remark 1.2. The partition intervals need not be of equal length.

The maximal length of the partition intervals
∆ := max(∆x1 , ∆x2 , . . . , ∆xn )
is called the diameter or norm of the partition.

If all the partition intervals are of equal length
b−a
∆x = ,
n
the partition {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } is called regular. In this case, the kth grid
point is expressed as follows:
xk = a + k∆x, k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
Definition 1.4 (Riemann Sum).

Let a function f (x) be defined on an interval [a, b]. Consider a partition
{x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } (n = 1, 2, . . . ) of [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞) into n subinter-
vals
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ],
(of not necessarily equal length), the length of the kth partition interval
being
∆xk = xk − xk−1 , k = 1, . . . , n.
Let x∗k be an arbitrary intermediate point in the kth partition interval

[xk−1 , xk ], k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
The Riemann1 sum for f corresponding to the partition and chosen inter-
mediate points is
n
X
f (x∗k )∆xk = f (x∗1 )∆x1 + f (x∗2 )∆x2 + · · · + f (x∗n )∆xn .
k=1
If the partition is regular,

b−a
∆xk = ∆x = , k = 1, . . . , n,
n
and we have:
n
X
f (x∗k )∆x = f (x∗1 )∆x + f (x∗2 )∆x + · · · + f (x∗n )∆x.
k=1
In particular,
1 Bernhard Riemann (1826 –1866)
• a left Riemann sum (x∗k = xk−1 = a + (k − 1)∆x, k = 1, 2, . . . , n) is

Xn n
X
f (xk−1 )∆x = f (a + (k − 1)∆x) ∆x;
k=1 k=1
• a right Riemann sum (x∗k = xk = a + k∆x, k = 1, 2, . . . , n) is
Xn n
X
f (xk )∆x = f (a + k∆x) ∆x;
k=1 k=1
• a midpoint Riemann sum (x∗k = (xk−1 + xk )/2 = a + (k − 1/2)∆x,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n) is
X n n
X
f ((xk−1 + xk )/2) ∆x = f (a + (k − 1/2)∆x) ∆x.
k=1 k=1
Definition 1.5 (Net Area).

The net area of the region R bounded by the graph of a continuous on an
interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞) function f and the x-axis is the sum of
the areas of the parts of R that lie above the x-axis minus the sum of the
areas of the parts of R that lie below the x-axis.
Definition 1.6 (Definite Integral).
We say that a function f defined on an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞)
is (Riemann-)integrable on [a, b] if the limit of Riemann sums
Xn
lim f (x∗k )∆xk ,
∆→0
k=1
where
∆ := max ∆xk
1≤k≤n
is the diameter (or norm) of the partition, exists (over all partitions of [a, b]
and all choices of the intermediate points x∗k ) and is finite.
The limit
Z b n
X
f (x) dx := lim f (x∗k )∆xk
a ∆→0
k=1
is called the definite (or Riemann) integral of f from a to b (or over [a, b]).
Z b Z
The integral notation f (x) dx, uses the integral symbol and differen-
a
tial symbol dx.
The function f is called the integrand, x the integration variable, and a and
b are called the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively.
The process of evaluation of a definite integral is called integration.
1.2.2. Which Functions Are Integrable?

A necessary, but not sufficient, condition of the Riemann integrability of a
function f on an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞) is its boundedness of on
[a, b] (see, e.g., [4]).
Theorem 1.2 (Integrable Functions).
A function f bounded and having a finite number of discontinuities on an
interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞) is integrable on [a, b].
Definition 1.7 (Piecewise Continuous Function).

A function f defined on an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞) is called
piecewise continuous on [a, b] if it is continuous everywhere on [a, b], except
at a finite number of jump discontinuities.
Remark 1.3. A function f continuous on [a, b] is trivially piecewise con-

tinuous.
Corollary 1.1 (Piecewise Continuous Functions Are Integrable).

A function f (x) piecewise continuous on [a, b] is integrable on [a, b].
For an integrable on [a, b] function f (x),

Z b
f (x) dx = Net Area.
a
1.2.3. Properties of Definite Integral (Integration Rules)

Theorem 1.3 (Properties of Definite Integral (Integration Rules)).
If functions f (x) and g(x) are integrable on an interval [a, b], then
Z b Z b
1. for any real c, cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx (Constant Factor Rule)
Z b a Z b a Z
b
2. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx (Sum/Difference Rule)
a Z b a Z c a Z b
3. for a < c < b, f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx (Additivity)
a a c
Remark 1.4. For definite integral, the are NO Product/Quotient Rules.
Definition 1.8 (More General Use of Integral Notation).

Z a
• For b = a, f (x) dx := 0.
a
Z b Z a
• For b < a, f (x) dx := − f (x) dx.
a b
Remark 1.5. These definitions preserve all the above properties of definite
integral. The generalized version of additivity
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
holds for any triple of numbers a, b, and c regardless of the order, provided
the function f is integrable between any two of the three points.
1.2.4. Integration by Definition

Example 1.5 (Integration by Definition).
Evaluate the integral
Z 4
(x2 + 3x − 2) dx
1
by the definition using regular partitions and right Riemann sums.

Solution: For the function f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2 on the interval [1, 4],
considering regular partitions of [1, 4] into n subintervals with
4−1 3
= ∆x =
n n
and choosing intermediate points x∗k to be the right endpoints:
3
x∗k = xk = 1 + k, k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
n
we have:
Z 4 n n
X X 3 3
(x2 + 3x − 2) dx = lim f (xk )∆x = lim f 1+ k
1 n→∞ n→∞ n n
k=1 k=1
n 2
X 3 3 3
= lim 1+ k +3 1+ k −2
n→∞ n n n
k=1
transforming and simplifying algebraically;

n n
X 3 9 9 3 X 9 2 15 3
= lim 1+2 k+ 2 k 2 +3+ k−2 = lim 2
k + k+2
n→∞ n n n n n→∞ n n n
k=1 k=1
n
X 27
45 6
= lim k2 + 2 k + by the summation rules;
n→∞ n3 n n
k=1
n n n
27 X 2 45 X 6X
= lim k + 2 k+ 1
n→∞ n3 n n
k=1 k=1 k=1
by the special summation formulas (see, e.g., [1, 6]);

27 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 45 n(n + 1) 6
= lim + 2 + n dividing termwise;
n→∞ n3 6 n 2 n

9 1 1 45 1
= lim 1+ 2+ + 1+ +6 by the limit laws;
n→∞ 2 n n 2 n
9 45 9 45 45 75
= (1 + 0)(2 + 0) + (1 + 0) + 6 = · 2 + · 1 + 6 = 15 + = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1.2.5. Integral Mean Value Theorem
Theorem 1.4 (Integral Mean Value Theorem).

If f is a continuous function on an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞), then
there exists a point c ∈ [a, b] such that
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx
b−a a
or
Z b
f (c)(b − a) = f (x) dx.
a
Proof. By the Extreme Value Theorem (see, e.g., [1, 6]), the continuous
function f attains its absolute minimum m and maximum M on [a, b]. Then
for an arbitrary Riemann sum
n
X n
X n
X
m(b − a) = m ∆xk ≤ f (x∗k )∆xk ≤ M ∆xk = M (b − a).
k=1 k=1 k=1
Passing to the limit as ∆ := max ∆xk → 0, we obtain

1≤k≤n
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
Whence,
Z b
1
m≤ f (x) dx ≤ M.
b−a a
Since, by the Intermediate Value Theorem (see, e.g., [1, 6]), the continu-
ous function f takes on every value between its absolute minimum m and
maximum M on [a,b], there exists a point c ∈ [a, b] such that
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx.
b−a a
Remarks 1.6 (Integral Mean Value Theorem).
• The Integral Mean Value Theorem has the following natural geometric
interpretation.
If f (x) is a continuous function on an interval [a, b], then there is a point
c ∈ [a, b] such that the net area of the region bounded by the graph of
f (x) and the x-axis over [a, b] is equal to the area of the rectangle with
base [a, b] and height f (c) provided f (c) ≥ 0 or the negative of the area
of the rectangle with base [a, b] and height −f (c) provided f (c) < 0.
If f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], the net area is the proper area.
• The Integral Mean Value Theorem remains valid for b < a, in which
case, f (x) is required to be continuous between a and b where the point
c is to be found as well.
1.2.6. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Definition 1.9 (Area Function).

Let f (x) be a function defined on an interval I and integrable on every
subinterval [a, b] ⊆ I. Fixing a point a in I, we can define the area function
for f (x) with lower limit a as follows:
Z x
A(x) := f (t) dt, x ∈ I.
a
For x ≥ a, A(x) represents the net area of the region bounded by the graph
of f (x) and the x-axis between a and x and, for x < a, considering that
Z x Z a
A(x) = f (t) dt = − f (t) dt,
a x
A(x) represents the negative of the net area of the region bounded by the
graph of f (x) and the x-axis between a and x.
Theorem 1.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 1)).

If f is a continuous function on an interval I containing a point a, then
the area function for f with lower limit a
Z x
A(x) := f (t) dt, x ∈ I,
a
is differentiable on I and
Z x
0 d
A (x) = f (t) dt = f (x), x ∈ I.
dx a
The derivatives at the endpoints (if any) are understood as one-sided.
Proof. For any x ∈ I and all sufficiently small increments h, such that
x + h ∈ I,
"Z #
x+h x
A(x + h) − A(x)
Z
1
= f (t) dt − f (t) dt
h h a a
by additivity (Theorem 1.3);

Z x+h
1
= f (t) dt
h x
by the Integral Mean Value Theorem, there is a c(h) between x and x + h;
= f (c(h)).
Hence, by the definition of derivative, for any x ∈ I,
A(x + h) − A(x)
A0 (x) = lim = lim f (c(h))
h→0 h h→0
since c(h) → x as h → 0, by the continuity of f (x);

= f (x).
Theorem 1.6 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2)).

If a function f is (Riemann-)integrable and has an antiderivative F (x) on
an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞), then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) (Newton-Leibniz Formula).
a
Proof. Consider an arbitrary partition {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] into n

subintervals (n = 1, 2, . . . ).
Since F (x) satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem on [a, b] (see,
e.g., [1, 6]), and thus, on each partition interval [xk−1 , xk ], k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
for each k = 1, 2, . . . , n, there is a point x∗k ∈ (xk−1 , xk ) such that
F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) = F 0 (x∗k )(xk − xk−1 ) = f (x∗k )∆xk .
Hence,
n
X n
X
F (b) − F (a) = [F (xk ) − F (xk−1 )] = f (x∗k )∆xk
k=1 k=1
and
n
X Z b
F (b) − F (a) = lim f (x∗k )∆xk = f (x) dx,
∆→0 a
k=1
where ∆ := max ∆xk .

1≤k≤n
Remarks 1.7 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2)).

b

• Using the shorthand F (x) for F (b)−F (a), we can rewrite the Newton2 -
a
Leibniz3 Formula as follows:
Z b b

f (x) dx = F (x) .
a a
• The Newton-Leibniz Formula also works when a ≥ b. Indeed, in this

case,
Z b Z a b

f (x) dx = − f (x) dx = −[F (a) − F (b)] = F (b) − F (a) = F (x) .
a b a
• For a continuous function f on an interval [a, b] both conditions of

the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2) are met, and thus, the
Newton-Leibniz Formula applies.
• Generally, a function f can be integrable without having an antideriva-
tive on [a, b] and need not be integrable while having an antiderivative
on [a, b].
2 Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
3 Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (1646 –1716)
For instance, the sign function


−1 if x < 0


sgn x := 0 if x = 0


 1 if x > 0
is integrable on [−1, 1], being piecewise continuous, but has no anti-
derivative on [−1, 1] (see Exercise 1.1).
Whereas, the function

2x sin 1 − 2 sin 1 if x 6= 0
f (x) = x2 x x2
0 if x = 0
is not integrable on [−1, 1], being unbounded, but has an antiderivative

x2 sin 1 if x 6= 0
F (x) = x2
0 if x = 0
(see [4]).
1.2.7. Total Change Theorem

An immediate consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part
2) is the following
Theorem 1.7 (Total Change Theorem).
If a function f is a continuously differentiable function on an interval [a, b]
(−∞ < a < b < ∞), then
Z b
f 0 (x) dx = f (b) − f (a) (Total Change Formula),
a
i.e., the integral of the instantaneous rate of change function f 0 over the
interval [a, b] is equal to the total change of f over [a, b].
Remark 1.8. The Total Change Theorem has the following physical inter-
pretation.
If v is the (continuous) velocity function of an object moving along the
x-axis with the position function x, then the displacement of the object
between the moments t = a and t = b is
Z b
x(b) − x(a) = v(t) dt,
a
which follows immediately from the prior theorem in view of v(t) = x0 (t),
a ≤ t ≤ b.
1.2.8. Integrals of Even and Odd Functions

Theorem 1.8 (Integrals of Symmetric Functions over Symmetric
Intervals).
Let a > 0 and f be an integrable function on the interval [−a, a].
Z a Z a
• If f is even (f (−x) = f (x)), f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
Z−aa 0
• If f is odd (f (−x) = −f (x)), f (x) dx = 0.

−a
Example 1.6 (Integrals of Symmetric Functions over Symmetric

Intervals).
Z 4
sin7 x
2 10
dx.
−4 (x + 1)
sin7 x
Solution: Since, the continuous function is odd and the in-
(x2 + 1)10
terval [−4, 4] is symmetric about 0,
Z 4
sin7 x
2 10
dx = 0.
−4 (x + 1)
Chapter 2
Direct Integration
Recall that the process of finding an indefinite integral is called integration.

Just like for differentiation, for integration purposes, along with the inte-
gration rules (see Theorem 1.1), we need a set of validated or established
basic integrals, called the table of basic integrals.
2.1. Table Integrals and Useful Integration Formula
For our integration purposes, we use the Table of Basic Integrals consisting
of twenty-one integrals (see Appendix A). We have already validated most
of them in the preceding examples. Observe that there exist much more
extensive tables of integrals.
Exercise 2.1 (Validating Table Integrals).
Validate integrals 12 and 14 of the Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A).
We are almost ready to integrate now. However, at the moment, we are

in the situation of an awkward deficiency demonstrated by the following
examples: knowing the table integrals
Z Z
ex dx = ex + C or sin x dx = − cos x + C,
we do not know how to evaluate their slightest variations such as

Z Z
e−x dx or sin(2x + 3) dx.
These are particular cases of the routine situation of evaluating the integral
of the form
Z
f (ax + b) dx,
17
Z
where a and b are real coefficients with a 6= 0, when f (x) dx is known,
which, as we shall see in Sec. 3.1.4, can be treated by the Method of
Substitution.
To deal with this very common situation, let us, however, not wait until the
Substitution Method is developed, but prove and start applying immediately
the following
Theorem 2.1 (Useful Integration Formula).
Let a and b be real coefficients with a 6= 0. If
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
then
Z
1
f (ax + b) dx = F (ax + b) + C.
a
Proof. Considering that F 0 (x) = f (x), by the Chain Rule (see, e.g., [1, 6]),
we have:

d 1 1 1
F (ax + b) = F 0 (ax + b)[ax + b]0 = f (ax + b)a = f (ax + b).
dx a a a
Remarks 2.1 (Useful Integration Formula).
• We intentionally do not indicate the intervals of integration not to ob-

scure the simplicity of the formulation and proof.
• As we see in Sec. 3.1.4, the Useful Integration Formula (Theorem 2.1)
is a special case of the so-called trivial substitution.
Examples 2.1 (Applying the Useful Integration Formula). Here-

after, the boxes contain explanatory formulas and/or text.
Z
1. e−x dx by the useful integration formula with a = −1 and b = 0;
1 −x
= e + C = −e−x + C.
(−1)
Z
2. sin(2x + 3) dx
by the useful integration formula with a = 2 and b = 3;

Direct Integration 19
1 1
= (− cos(2x + 3)) + C = − cos(2x + 3) + C.
2 2
√
Z
3
3. 4 − 10x dx switching to the power form;
Z
= (4 − 10x)1/3 dx
by the useful integration formula with a = −10 and b = 4;

1 1 3
= · (4 − 10x)4/3 + C = − (4 − 10x)4/3 + C.
(−10) 4/3 40
Z
1
4. dx
x/2 + π
by the useful integration formula with a = 1/2 and b = π;
1
= ln |x/2 + π| + C = 2 ln |x/2 + π| + C.
1/2
Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A), integrals 17 and 21.

For a > 0,
Z Z
1 1 1
5. dx = dx
x2 + a2 a2 (x/a)2 + 1
by the useful integration formula with a = 1/a and b = 0;
1 1 x 1 x
= 2 arctan + C = arctan + C on (−∞, ∞).
a 1/a a a a
Z Z
1 1 1
6. √ dx = dx + C
a2
p
x x2 − a2 (x/a) (x/a)2 − 1
by the useful integration formula with a = 1/a and b = 0;
1 1 x 1 x
= 2 arcsec + C = arcsec + C

a 1/a a a a
on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (a, ∞).
Exercise 2.2 (Deriving Table Integrals).

Apply the Useful Integration Formula (Theorem 2.1) to derive integral 19
of the Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A).
When evaluating an integral of the form

Z
(ax + b)n dx,
where a and b are real coefficients and n = 1, 2, 3, . . . is a natural number,

the Useful Integration Formula (Theorem 2.1) becomes especially handy
for large values of the exponent n, when the use of the binomial formula
leads to cumbersome computations.
Example 2.2 (Applying the Useful Integration Formula).
Z
(5x − 7)99 dx.
Solution: Using the binomial formula (see Appendix C) to expand (5x −

7)99 would result into 100 terms. Applying the Useful Integration Formula
(Theorem 2.1) “saves the day”:
Z
(5x − 7)99 dx
by the useful integration formula with a = 5 and b = −7;

1 1 1
= (5x − 7)100 + C = (5x − 7)100 + C.
5 100 500
2.2. What Is Direct Integration and How Does It Work?
What Is Direct Integration?

Definition 2.1 (Direct Integration).
By direct integration, we understand the process of integration, which, using
the integration rules (Theorem 1.1) alone, reduces the integral of a given
function to a combination of table integrals. Such integration makes no use
of any special integration techniques, but may employ the Useful Integration
Formula (Theorem 2.1) when appropriate.
Remark 2.2. When executing direct integration, before applying the in-
tegration rules, one may need to manipulate the integrand performing mul-
tiplication/division, applying relevant identities of algebra/trigonometry,
or using such tricks as transforming products into sums, multiplying and
dividing by the conjugate radical expression, or completing the square.
How Does Direct Integration Work?

In the following examples, we consider various scenarios of direct integration
explaining its execution step-by-step.
2.2.1. By Integration Rules Only

Example 2.3 (Integration by the Rules Only).
Z
(7x3 + 5e−x + 14) dx by the integration rules;
Z Z Z
= 7 x3 dx + 5 e−x dx + 14 1 dx
by the useful integration formula;

7
= x4 − 5e−x + 14x + C.
4
2.2.2. Multiplication/Division Before Integration

When evaluating an integral one is to be mindful of the absence of the
product and quotient rules for integration.
Thus, the following “solution”
Z Z
(x − 1) dx (x + 2) dx
(x − 1)(x + 2)
Z
√ dx = = ···
√
Z
x
x dx
is incorrect.
To solve correctly, we are to execute multiplication and division before
integration.
Examples 2.4 (Multiplication/Division Before Integration).
(x − 1)(x + 2)
Z
1. √ dx multiplying and switching to the power form;
x
Z 2
x +x−2
= dx dividing termwise;
x1/2
Z
= (x3/2 + x1/2 − 2x−1/2 ) dx by the integration rules;
Z Z Z
2 2
= x3/2 dx + x1/2 dx − 2 x−1/2 dx = x5/2 + x3/2 − 4x1/2 + C.
5 3
x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 5
Z
2. dx
x−1
x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 5 2
dividing = x2 − x + 3 − (verify);
x−1 x−1
Z
2
= x2 − x + 3 − dx by the integration rules;
x−1
Z Z Z Z
1
= x2 dx − x dx + 3 1 dx − 2 dx
x−1
x3 x2
= − + 3x − 2 ln |x − 1| + C.
3 2
The latter example represents a particular case of integration of rational

functions considered in detail in Chapter 7.
2.2.3. Applying Minor Adjustments
By “minor adjustments” to the integrand, we understand adding and sub-

tracting or multiplying and dividing by the same constant.
Example 2.5 (Applying Minor Adjustments).
√
Z
x 5 − 2x dx multiplying and dividing by −2;
Z
1
=− (−2x)(5 − 2x)1/2 dx adding and subtracting 5;
2
Z Z
1 1 h i
=− (5−2x−5)(5−2x)1/2 dx = − (5 − 2x)3/2 − 5(5 − 2x)1/2 dx
2 2
by the integration rules;
Z Z
1 5
=− (5 − 2x)3/2 dx + (5 − 2x)1/2 dx
2 2
1 1 2 5 1 2
=− (5 − 2x)5/2 + (5 − 2x)3/2 + C
2 (−2) 5 2 (−2) 3
1 5
= (5 − 2x)5/2 − (5 − 2x)3/2 + C.
10 6
June 21, 2018 10:23 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page 23
2.2.4. Using Identities

Certain identities of algebra and trigonometry useful for integration can be
found in Appendix C.
Examples 2.6 (Using Identities).
Z
1. 25x 3−x dx by the exponents laws (see Appendix C);
Z x
(32/3)x
Z
x 32
= 25 · 3−1 dx = dx = + C.
3 ln(32/3)
Z
cos x + 1
2. dx dividing termwise and rewriting equivalently;
sin2 x
Z Z " 2 #
cos x 1 1 cos x 1
= + dx = + dx
sin2 x sin2 x sin x sin x sin x
1 cos x
since = csc x, = cot x (see Appendix C);
sin x sin x
Z
csc x cot x + csc2 x dx

= by the integration rules;
Z Z
= csc x cot x dx + csc2 x dx = − csc x − cot x + C.
When evaluating the trigonometric integral

Z
cos2 x dx,
in the absence of the product rule for integration, we are to use power-
reduction identity
1 + cos 2θ
cos2 θ =
2
(see Appendix C) as follows:
Example 2.7 (Using Identities).
Z
cos2 x dx
1 + cos 2x
by the power-reduction identity with θ = x, cos2 x = ;
2
Z
1 + cos 2x
= dx by the integration rules;
2
Z Z
1
= 1 dx + cos 2x dx by the useful integration formula;
2

1 1 1 1
= x + sin 2x + C = x + sin 2x + C.
2 2 2 4
More generally, using a relevant power-reduction identity allows us to eval-

uate integrals of the form
Z Z
2
cos (ax + b) dx, sin2 (ax + b) dx,
where a and b are real coefficients with a 6= 0.
Similarly, the trigonometric integral

Z
sin 3x cos x dx
containing a product is found via the product-to-sum identity

1
sin α cos β = [sin(α − β) + sin(α + β)]
2

Z
sin 3x cos x dx
by the relevant product-to-sum identity with α = 3x and β = x,

1 1
sin 3x cos x = [sin(3x − x) + sin(3x + x)] = [sin 2x + sin 4x] ;
2 2
Z
1
= [sin 2x + sin 4x] dx by the integration rules;
2
Z Z
1
= sin 2x dx + sin 4x dx by the useful integration formula;
2

1 1 1 1 1
= (− cos 2x) + (− cos 4x) + C = − cos 2x − cos 4x + C.
2 2 4 4 8
More generally, this approach applies to the integrals of the form

Z
cos(ax + b) cos(cx + d) dx,
Z
sin(ax + b) sin(cx + d) dx,
Z
sin(ax + b) cos(cx + d) dx,
where a, b, c, and d are real coefficients with a, c 6= 0.
The following trigonometric integral

Z
tan2 5x dx
can be evaluated via the Pythagorean identity
tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1

Z
tan2 5x dx
by the latter identity with θ = 5x, tan2 5x = sec2 5x − 1 ;

Z
2
= sec 5x − 1 dx by the integration rules;
Z Z
= sec2 5x dx − 1 dx by the useful integration formula;
1
= tan 5x − x + C.
5
More generally, this approach applies to the integrals of the form

Z Z
2
tan (ax + b) dx, cot2 (ax + b) dx,
where a and b are real coefficients with a 6= 0.

2.2.5. Transforming Products into Sums

As is seen from Example 2.8, in the absence of the product rule for integra-
tion, one can attempt transforming a product into a sum. Let us use this
approach for the following problem.
Example 2.10 (Transforming Products into Sums).
Evaluate the integral Z
1
dx.
(2x − 1)(2x + 3)
Solution: The integrand is a product
1 1
· .
2x − 1 2x + 3
However, the simple fact that the polynomials 2x − 1 and 2x + 3 share the
same nonconstant term 2x allows us to rewrite it as follows:
1 1 1 1 1
· = −
2x − 1 2x + 3 4 2x − 1 2x + 3
by replacing the product with the difference
1 1
−
2x − 1 2x + 3
and scaling the latter by coefficient 1/4, where the denominator 4 is the
difference of the constant terms: 3 − (−1).
Thus,
Z
1
dx transforming product into sum:
(2x − 1)(2x + 3)

1 1 1 1
= − ;
(2x − 1)(2x + 3) 4 2x − 1 2x + 3
Z
1 1 1
= − dx by the integration rules;
4 2x − 1 2x + 3
Z Z
1 1 1
= dx − dx by the useful integration formula;
4 2x − 1 2x + 3

1 1 1 1
= ln |2x − 1| − ln |2x + 3| +C = [ln |2x − 1| − ln |2x + 3|]+C.
4 2 2 8
The prior problem, as well as problem 2 from Examples 2.4, is a special
case of integration of rational functions studied in Chapter 7.
Example 2.11 (Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A), integral 18).
For a > 0,
x − a
Z
1 1
dx = ln +C
x2 − a2 2a x + a
on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (−a, a), (a, ∞).

Z
1
dx transforming product into sum:
x2 − a2

1 1 1 1 1
= = − ;
x2 − a 2 (x − a)(x + a) 2a x − a x + a
Z
1 1 1
= − dx by the integration rules;
2a x − a x + a
Z Z
1 1 1
= dx − dx
2a x−a x+a
by the useful integration formula with a = 1 and b = ±a;
1
= [ln |x − a| − ln |x + a|] + C
2a
by the laws of logarithms (see Appendix C);

1 x − a

= ln + C.
2a x + a
2.2.6. Using Conjugate Radical Expressions

Example 2.12 (Using Conjugate Radical Expressions).
Z
1
√ √ dx
2x + 7 − 2x + 3
multiplying and dividing by the conjugate radical expression;
Z √ √
2x + 7 + 2x + 3
= √ √ √ √ dx simplifying;
( 2x + 7 − 2x + 3)( 2x + 7 + 2x + 3)
Z √ √
√
Z
2x + 7 + 2x + 3 1 √
= dx = 2x + 7 + 2x + 3 dx
2x + 7 − (2x + 3) 4
switching to the power form;
Z
1h i
= (2x + 7)1/2 + (2x + 3)1/2 dx by the integration rules;
4
Z Z
1 1/2 1/2
= (2x + 7) dx + (2x + 3) dx
4
112 112 (2x + 7)3/2 (2x + 3)3/2
= (2x+7)3/2 + (2x+3)3/2 +C = + +C.
423 423 12 12
2.2.7. Square Completion

The square completion technique is applied when evaluating integrals con-
taining quadratic polynomials of the following two types:
Z Z
1 1
dx or √ dx,
ax2 + bx + c 2
ax + bx + c
where a, b, and c are numeric coefficients with a 6= 0.
Example 2.13 (Square Completion).
Z
1
dx factoring out the leading coefficient;
3x2 − x + 4
Z
1 1
= 2
dx
3 x − x/3 + 4/3
completing the square:
2
1 4 1 1 1 4 1 47
x2 − x + = x2 − 2 x + − + = x− + ;
3 3 6 36 36 3 6 36
Z
1 1
= √ dx by the useful integration formula;
3
(x − 1/6)2
+ ( 47/6)2
1 1 x − 1/6 2 6x − 1
= √ arctan √ + C = √ arctan √ + C.
3 47/6 47/6 47 47
Remark 2.3. When evaluating an integral of the form

Z
1
dx,
ax2 + bx + c
after completing the square, we always arrive at one of the two possibilities
(up to a constant factor):
Z
1 1 x+h
• 2 + d2
dx = arctan + C (as above) or
(x + h) d d
(x + h) − d
Z
1 1
• dx = ln + C.
(x + h)2 − d2 2d (x + h) + d
Example 2.14 (Square Completion).
Z
1
√ dx completing the square:
1 + 5x − x2
2
2 2 5 25 25 29 5
1 + 5x − x = − x − 2 x + − −1 = − x− ;
2 4 4 4 2
Z
1
= q √ 2 dx by the useful integration formula;
29/2 − (x − 5/2)2
x − 5/2 2x − 5
= arcsin √ + C = arcsin √ + C.
29/2 29
Remark 2.4. When evaluating an integral of the form

Z
1
√ dx,
2
ax + bx + c
after completing the square, we always arrive at one of the two possibilities
(up to a constant factor):
Z
1 x+h
• p dx = arcsin + C (as above) or
2
d − (x + h) 2 d
Z
1 p
• p dx = ln |x + h + (x + h)2 ± d2 | + C.
(x + h)2 ± d2
2.3. Direct Integration for Definite Integral
Definition 2.2 (Direct Integration).

By direct integration for definite integral, we understand the process of inte-
gration, which is completely based on the integration rules (Theorem 1.3),
possibly, the Useful Integration Formula (Theorem 2.1), and the Newton-
Leibniz Formula (Theorem 1.6) and makes no use of special integration
methods.
Examples 2.15 (Direct Integration for Definite Integral).

Z 8 √
3
1. x dx switching to the power form;
1
Z 8
= x1/3 dx by Newton-Leibniz Formula;
1
8
3 4/3 3 3 45
= x = (84/3 − 14/3 ) = (16 − 1) = .
4 1 4 4 4
Z π
sin x − 3e−x dx

2. by the integration rules;
Z 0π Z π
= sin x dx − 3 e−x dx
0 0
by the useful integration formula and the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
π π
= − cos x + 3e−x = −(cos π − cos 0) + 3 e−π − e0

0 0
= −(−1 − 1) + 3(e−π − 1) = 3e−π − 1.
2
(x + 1)2
Z
3. dx squaring and dividing termwise;
1 x
Z 2 Z 2
x2 + 2x + 1

1
= dx = x+2+ dx
1 x 1 x
by the integration rules and the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
2
2
x 4 1 7
= + 2x + ln |x| = + 2 · 2 + ln 2 − − 2 − ln 1 = + ln 2.
2 1 2 2 2
(
−1, 0 ≤ x < 1,
4. For f (x) = , by additivity (Theorem 1.3),
1≤x≤3 2x ,
Z 3 Z 1 Z 3
f (x) dx = (−1) dx + 2x dx
0 0 1
1 x
3
2
= −(1 − 0) + (23 − 21 )/ ln 2 = −1 + 6/ ln 2.

= −x +

ln 2 0 1
Z 2
5. |2t − 1| dt
−1
(
−(2t − 1), −1 ≤ t ≤ 1/2,
since |2t − 1| = , by additivity (Theorem 1.3);
2t − 1, 1/2 ≤ t ≤ 2
Z 1/2 Z 2
= [−(2t − 1)] dt + (2t − 1) dt
−1 1/2

Z 1/2 Z 2 1/2 2
2 2

=− (2t − 1) dt + (2t − 1) dt = −(t − t) + (t − t)

−1 1/2 −1 1/2
= − [(1/4 − 1/2) − (1 − (−1))] + [(4 − 2) − (1/4 − 1/2)]

= 1/4 + 2 + 2 + 1/4 = 9/2.
2.4. Applications
Examples 2.16 (Applications).
1. Find the solution of the initial value problem

1
y0 = x − , y(−1) = 1.
x
Solution: Integrating by the rules only, we find:
x2
Z Z Z
1 1
y= x− dx = x dx − dx = − ln |x| + C
x x 2
on each of the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, ∞), where C is an arbitrary real
constant. Since the initial condition is given at x = −1, the interval of
interest for us is (−∞, 0).
Hence, all possible solutions (the general solution) of the differential
equation on (−∞, 0) are given by the formula
x2
y= − ln |x| + C
2
with an arbitrary real C.
We find the solution of the initial value problem by plugging in x = −1
and solving the obtained equation for C:
(−1)2
y(−1) = − ln | − 1| + C = 1 ⇔ 1/2 + C = 1 ⇔ C = 1/2.
2
Hence, the desired solution is
y = x2 /2 − ln |x| + 1/2, x < 0.
2. Find the volume of the solid of generated by revolving the region
bounded by
√
y = x and y = x3
(a) about the x-axis,
(b) about the y-axis.
Solution: Let us first find where the graphs intersect by solving the
equation
√
x = x3 ⇔ x3 − x1/2 = 0 ⇔ x1/2 (x5/2 − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 1.
√
Remark 2.5. Had we divided through by x, we would have lost the
solution x = 0.
√
Hence, the region is bounded by the graphs of y = x and y = x3 over
the interval [0, 1]. Observe that
√
x ≥ x3 on [0, 1].
(a) Since the rotation axis is the axis of definition, we apply the washer
method (see, e.g., [1, 6]):
Z 1 √
Z 1
π ( x)2 − (x3 )2 dx = π x − x6 dx

V =
0 0
Z 1 2 1
x7
2
17

x 1 5π
x − x6 dx = π un.3 .

=π − = π − =
0 2 7
0 2 7 14
(b) Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of definition, we

apply the shell method (see, e.g., [1, 6]):
Z 1
x − x3 dx
√
V = 2πx
0
switching to the power form and multiplying;
Z 1 h i Z 1 h i
1/2 3
= 2πx x − x dx = 2π x3/2 − x4 dx
0 0
Z 1h 1
x5 2 5/2 15

i 2
= 2π x3/2 − x4 dx = 2π x5/2 − = 2π 1 −
0 5 5 0 5 5
2π
= un.3 .
5
2.5. Practice Problems
Evaluate the integrals.

Z Z
1 1
1. √ dx 16. dx
5x − 6 x2 + 2x − 3
Z
1
Z
10 17. dx
2. (2 − 3x) dx
4x2 + 4x + 3
Z
1
Z
1 √
3. 3x2 + 2x − dx 18. dx
x Z 5 − 4x − x2
Z
e−x
1
4. ex 1 − 2 dx 19. √ dx
x 3x2 − 2x − 1
1 − cos3 x
Z 2 Z
x +2 20. dx
5. dx cos2 x
x4 Z
Z
2x2 + x + 1 cos 2x
6. dx 21. 2 dx
x−1 sin x cos2 x
Z √
Z
( x − 1)3 22. (cos x + sin x)2 dx
7. dx
x Z
√ sin2 (x/2 + 1) dx
Z
23.
8. x 3 2x − 1 dx
Z
Z
3x + 2 24. cos 5x cos 3x dx
9. dx
2x + 3 Z
1
x4
Z
25. dx
10. dx 1 + cos x
x2 + 2 Z
√
3x3 − 5x + 2 26. 1 + sin 2x dx
Z
11. dx
x+2 Z 2
(x − 1)6 dx
Z
27.
12. (2x + 3x )2 dx 1
√
Z √ 4
Z 4
1− x
x + x−4 + 2 28. dx
13. dx 1 x
x3
√ √ Z 1 3
x +1
1 + x2 + 1 − x2
Z
29. dx
14. √ dx 0 x+1
Z 1 − x4 Z π/2
1 30. cot2 x dx
15. √ √ dx
x+4+ x π/4
b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Chapter 3
Method of Substitution
3.1. Substitution for Indefinite Integral
3.1.1. What for? Why? How?

What Is the Method for?
The Method of Substitution for indefinite integral is used for finding inte-
grals of the form:
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,
e.g.,
Z
10sin x cos x dx
with f (u) = 10u and g(x) = sin x.
Why Does the Method Work?

The method is based on the following
Theorem 3.1 (Substitution Rule for Indefinite Integral).
Let
• a function f have an antiderivative F on an interval I and
• a function g be differentiable on an interval J and take values in I.
Then on the interval J, with the substitution u = g(x),
Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
Proof. Since
Z
f (u) du = F (u) + C on I,
35
with the substitution u = g(x), we are to show that

Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C on J,
which is readily verified by the Chain Rule:

d
F (g(x)) = F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) = f (g(x))g 0 (x) on J.
dx
Remark 3.1. Thus, the Substitution Rule for Indefinite Integral is the
integral form of the Chain Rule for differentiation (see, e.g., [1, 6]).
How Does the Method Work?

An integral of the form
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,
with functions f and g satisfying the conditions of the Substitution Rule, is

found in the following three steps:
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx
Step 1. Substitute u = g(x), du = g 0 (x) dx

Z
obtaining an integral relative to the new variable: = f (u) du
Step 2. Integrate relative to the new variable u: = F (u) + C

Step 3. Substitute back returning to the old variable x: = F (g(x)) + C.
3.1.2. Perfect Substitution

When the Substitution Method can be applied directly, without manipulat-
ing the integrand, we have the case of a perfect substitution.
Examples 3.1 (Perfect Substitution).
Z
1. 10sin x cos x dx substituting: u = sin x, du = cos x dx ;
Z
= 10u du integrating relative to the new variable;
Method of Substitution 37
10u
= +C substituting back ;
ln 10
10sin x
= + C.
ln 10
Z
cos x
2. cot x dx by the trigonometric identity, cot x = ;
sin x
Z
cos x
= dx substituting: u = sin x, du = cos x dx ;
sin x
Z
1
= du integrating relative to the new variable;
u
= ln |u| + C substituting back ;
= ln | sin x| + C (Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A), integral 12).
ex
Z Z
1
3. 2x
dx = 2 ex dx substituting: u = ex , u = ex dx ;
e +1 (ex ) + 1
Z
1
u2 + 1
= arctan u + C substituting back ;
x
= arctan e + C.
Z
ln x 1
4. dx substituting: u = ln x, du = dx ;
x x
Z
= u du integrating relative to the new variable;
u2
= +C substituting back ;
2
2
ln x
= + C.
2
3.1.3. Introducing a Missing Constant
Sometimes, an integral falls short of being the case of a perfect substitution

by a missing constant factor in the integrand only.
This can be easily fixed: the missing constant can be introduced via mul-
tiplying and dividing by it. After such a minor adjustment, we arrive at a

perfect substitution.
Examples 3.2 (Introducing a Missing Constant).
Z
sin x
1. tan x dx since tan x = ;
cos x
Z
1
= sin x dx
cos x
since cos0 x = − sin x, introducing the missing constant −1;
Z
1
=− (− sin x) dx substituting: u = cos x, du = − sin x dx ;
cos x
Z
1
=− du integrating relative to the new variable;
u
= − ln |u| + C substituting back ;
= − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C
(Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A), integral 11).
31/x
Z
2. dx
x2
0
1 1
since = − 2 , introducing the missing constant −1;
x x
Z
1 1 1
= − 31/x − 2 dx substituting: u = , du = − 2 dx ;
x x x
Z
= − 3u du integrating relative to the new variable;
3u
=− +C substituting back ;
ln 3
31/x
=− + C.
ln 3
Z Z
x
3. √
3
dx = (x2 − 1)−1/3 x dx
x2 − 1
since (x2 − 1)0 = 2x, introducing the missing constant 2;
Z
1
= (x2 − 1)−1/3 2x dx substituting: u = x2 − 1, du = 2x dx ;
2
Z
1
= u−1/3 du integrating relative to the new variable;
2
1 3 2/3 3
= u + C = u2/3 + C substituting back ;
22 4
3 2 2/3
= (x − 1) + C.
4
Z
4. sin(1 − 5x4 )x3 dx
since (1 − 5x4 )0 = −20x3 , introducing the missing constant −20;

Z
1
− sin(1 − 5x4 ) (−20x3 ) dx

=
20
substituting: u = 1 − 5x4 , du = −20x3 dx ;
Z
1
= [− sin u] du integrating relative to the new variable;
20
1
= cos u + C substituting back ;
20
1
= cos(1 − 5x4 ) + C.
20
√
Z Z
5. 3x + 14 dx = (3x + 14)1/2 dx
since (3x + 14)0 = 3, introducing the missing constant 3;

Z
1
= (3x + 14)1/2 3 dx substituting: u = 3x + 14, du = 3 dx ;
3
Z
1
= u1/2 du integrating relative to the new variable;
3
1 2 3/2 2
= u + C = u3/2 + C substituting back ;
33 9
2 3/2
= (3x + 14) + C.
9
3.1.4. Trivial Substitution

The last problem is a typical example of an integral of the form
Z
f (ax + b) dx,
where a, b are real coefficients with a 6= 0.

In such a case, a perfect substitution is readily attained by introducing the

missing constant a:
Z
f (ax + b) dx introducing the missing constant a;
Z
1
= f (ax + b)a dx substituting: u = ax + b, du = a dx ;
a
Z
1
= f (u) du integrating relative to the new variable;
a
1
= F (u) + C substituting back ;
a
1
= F (ax + b) + C.
a
We call such a routine substitution trivial. It is recommended to bypass a

trivial substitution by applying the Useful Integration Formula instead:
Z
1
f (ax + b) dx = F (ax + b) + C
a
(see Theorem 2.1 and accompanying Examples 2.1).
For instance, the last problem in the preceding examples can be solved as
follows:
√
Z Z
12 2
3x + 14 dx = (3x+14)1/2 dx = (3x+14)3/2 +C = (3x+14)3/2 +C.
33 9
3.1.5. More Than a Missing Constant

Sometimes, conducting a substitution calls for more than just noticing and
introducing a missing constant factor in the integrand.
Examples 3.3 (More Than a Missing Constant).
x5
Z
1. 3
dx splitting x2 off x5 ;
x +4
x3
Z
= 3
x2 dx
x +4
since (x3 + 4)0 = 3x2 , introducing the missing constant 3;
x3
Z
1
= 3
3x2 dx
3 x +4
substituting: u = x3 + 4, x3 = u − 4, du = 3x2 dx ;
u−4
Z
1
= du dividing termwise;
3 u
Z
1 4
= 1− du integrating relative to the new variable;
3 u
Z Z
1 1 1
= 1 du − 4 du = [u − 4 ln |u|] + B substituting back ;
3 u 3
1 3 1 4
x + 4 − 4 ln |x3 + 4| +B = x3 − ln |x3 +4|+C (C = B +4/3).

=
3 3 3
√
Z Z
2
2. x 3
x + 1 dx = x2 (x + 1)1/3 dx
substituting: u = x + 1, x = u − 1, dx = du ;
Z
= (u − 1)2 u1/3 du multiplying;
Z Z h i
= (u2 − 2u + 1)u1/3 du = u7/3 − 2u4/3 + u1/3 du
integrating relative to the new variable;

Z Z Z
3 10/3 6 7/3 3 4/3
= u7/3 du − 2 u4/3 du + u1/3 du = u − u + u +C
10 7 4
substituting back ;
3 6 3
= (x + 1)10/3 − (x + 1)7/3 + (x + 1)4/3 + C
10 7 4
3 4/3
2

= (x + 1) 14(x + 1) − 40(x + 1) + 35 + C
140
3
(x + 1)4/3 14x2 − 12x + 9 + C.

=
140
Z
1
3. dx multiplying and dividing by ex ;
ex − 2
ex
Z
= dx substituting: u = ex , du = ex dx ;
ex (ex
− 2)
Z
1
= du transforming product into sum:
u(u − 2)

1 1 1 1
= − (cf. Examples 2.10);
u(u − 2) 2 u−2 u
Z
1 1 1
= − du integrating relative to the new variable;
2 u−2 u
Z Z
1 1 1 1
= du − du = [ln |u − 2| − ln |u|] + C
2 u−2 u 2
substituting back ;
1 1
= [ln |ex − 2| − ln ex ] + C = [ln |ex − 2| − x] + C.
2 2
Z
4. sec x dx multiplying and dividing by sec x + tan x;
Z Z
sec x(sec x + tan x) 1
= dx = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
substituting: u = sec x + tan x, du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx ;
Z
1
u
= ln |u| + C substituting back ;
= ln | sec x + tan x| + C
(Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A), integral 13).
Exercise 3.1 (Deriving Table Integrals).

In the similar manner, obtain integral 14 of the Table of Basic Integrals
(Appendix A).
3.1.6. More Than One Way
There may exist multiple approaches to finding an indefinite integral, some

of which involve substitution as in the following case.
Example 3.4 (More Than One Way).

√
Z
x 5 − 2x dx.
Approach 1 (Direct Integration): This approach steers clear of using

substitution. A complete solution is given in Examples 2.5.
Approach 2 (Substitution):
√ 5−u
Z
1
x 5 − 2x dx substituting: u = 5 − 2x, x = , dx = − du ;
2 2

5 − u 1/2
Z
1
= u − du multiplying;
2 2
Z Z
1 1 3/2
= (u − 5)u1/2 du = (u − 5u1/2 ) du
4 4
Z Z Z
1 1
= (u3/2 − 5u1/2 ) du = u3/2 du − 5 u1/2 du
4 4

1 2 5/2 10 3/2
= u − u +C substituting back ;
4 5 3
1 5
= (5 − 2x)5/2 − (5 − 2x)3/2 + C.
10 6
Approach 3 (Another Substitution): Let us use the substitution u =

√
5 − 2x now.
√
Z
x 5 − 2x dx
√ 5 − u2
substituting: u= 5 − 2x, x = , dx = −udu ;
2
5 − u2
Z
= u(−u) du multiplying;
2
Z
1 4
= (u − 5u2 ) du integrating relative to the new variable;
2
Z Z
1 4 2 1 1 5 5 3
= u du − 5 u du = u − u +C substituting back ;
2 2 5 3
1 5
= (5 − 2x)5/2 − (5 − 2x)3/2 + C.
10 6
3.1.7. More Than One Substitution

Substitutions may be applied repeatedly.
Examples 3.5 (More Than One Substitution).
Z
1. x sin3 (x2 ) cos(x2 ) dx introducing the missing constant 2;
Z
1
= sin3 (x2 ) cos(x2 )2x dx substituting: u = x2 , du = 2xdx ;
2
Z
1
= sin3 u cos u du substituting again: v = sin u, dv = cos u du ;
2
Z
1
= v 3 dv integrating relative to the new variable;
2
1 4
= v +C substituting back ;
8
1 1
= sin4 u + C = sin4 (x2 ) + C
8 8
sin3 x cos x
Z
2. dx substituting: u = sin x, du = cos xdx ;
sin2 x + 1
u3 u3
Z
u
= 2
du by long division, 2
=u− 2 (verify);
u +1 u +1 u +1
Z Z
u
= u du − du introducing the missing constant 2;
u2 + 1
u2
Z
1 2u
= − 2
du substituting again: v = u2 + 1, dv = 2u du ;
2 2 u +1
u2
Z
1 1
= − dv integrating relative to the new variable;
2 2 v
u2 1
= − ln |v| + C substituting back ;
2 2
sin2 x 1
= − ln(sin2 x + 1) + C.
2 2
Remark 3.2. When two or more consecutive substitutions can be applied,
a single substitution, perhaps a bulkier one, can always be applied instead.
Thus, the second integral in the prior examples can also be evaluated via a
single substitution as follows:
Example 3.6 (Last Integral Revisited).
sin3 x cos x
Z
dx splitting sin x off sin3 x;
sin2 x + 1
sin2 x
Z
= sin x cos x dx introducing the missing constant 2;
sin2 x + 1
sin2 x
Z
1
= 2 sin x cos x dx
2 sin2 x + 1
substituting: u = sin2 x + 1, sin2 x = u − 1, du = 2 sin x cos x dx ;

u−1
Z
1
= du dividing termwise;
2 u
Z
1 1
= 1− du integrating relative to the new variable;
2 u
Z Z
1 1 1
= 1 du − du = [u − ln |u|] + C substituting back ;
2 u 2
1 2 1 1
sin x + 1 − ln(sin2 x + 1) + C = sin2 x − ln(sin2 x + 1) + B

=
2 2 2
(B = C + 1/2).
Exercise 3.2 (Alternate Approach).

Evaluate the first integral in the prior examples via the single substitution
u = sin(x2 ).
3.2. Substitution for Definite Integral

The Method of Substitution for definite integral is used for finding integrals
of the form:
Z b
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,
a
e.g.,
Z e
√
ln x + 1
dx
1 x
√
with f (u) = u and g(x) = ln x + 1.

Theorem 3.2 (Substitution Rule for Definite Integral).

Let
• a function f be continuous on an interval I and

• a function g be continuously differentiable on an interval [a, b] and take

values in I.
Then, with the substitution u = g(x),
Z b Z g(b)
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)
Proof. Observe that the integrals on both sides of the equality exist since
the integrands are functions continuous on the corresponding intervals.
Since f is continuous on I, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(Part 1) (Theorem 1.5), it has an antiderivative F (x) on I.
By the Substitution Rule for Indefinite Integral (Theorem 3.1),
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.
Hence, by the Newton-Leibniz Formula (Theorem 1.6),

Z b b g(b)
0

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)) = F (u)

a a g(a)
Z g(b)
= f (u) du.
g(a)

Z b
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,
a
with functions f (x) and g(x) satisfying the conditions of the Substitution
Rule, is found in the following three steps:
Z b
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx
a
Step 1. Substitute and change the integration limits
x u
0
u = g(x), du = g (x) dx a g(a) :
b g(b)
Z g(b)
= f (u) du
g(a)
Step 2. Integrate (antidifferentiate) relative to the new variable u.
Step 3. Use the Newton-Leibniz Formula:

g(b)

= F (u) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)).
g(a)
Remark 3.3. The Substitution Method for definite integral
• does not require back substitution, but

• requires the change of the integration limits.
Basically, when executing substitution for a definite integral, we act as if we

have an indefinite integral, not forgetting to change the integration limits,
up to the step of back substitution, instead of which, we find the numeric
value of the obtained definite integral relative to the new integration vari-
able and new integration limits by the Newton-Leibniz Formula.
Examples 3.7 (Substitution for Definite Integral).

Z e
√ Z e
ln x + 1 1
1. dx = (ln x + 1)1/2 dx
1 x 1 x
substituting and changing the integration limits:
x u
1
u = ln x + 1, du = dx 1 1 ;
x
e 2
Z 2
= u1/2 du by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
1
2
2 3/2 2 4√ 2
= u = [23/2 − 1] = 2− .
3 1 3 3 3
Z 1
2
2. xe−x dx introducing the missing constant −2;
0
Z 1
1 2
=− e−x (−2x) dx
2 0
x u
u = −x2 , du = −2x dx 0 0 ;
1 −1
Z −1
1
=− eu du by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
2 0
−1
1 u 1 −1 0 1 1
= − e = − (e − e ) = 1− .
2 0 2 2 e
3.3. Applications
Example 3.8 (Application).

Find√the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis on the interval [1, 2] about the y-axis.
Solution: Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of definition,
by the shell method ,
Z 2 p
V = 2πx 4 − x2 dx
1
factoring out π and switching to the power form;
Z 2
=π (4 − x2 )1/2 2x dx introducing the missing constant −1;
1
Z 2
= −π (4 − x2 )1/2 (−2x) dx
1
x u
u = 4 − x2 , du = (−2x) dx 1 3 ;
2 0
Z 0
= −π u1/2 du by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
3
0
2 3/2 2 √
= −π u = −π [03/2 − 33/2 ] = 2π 3 un.3 .
3 3 3
2x − 3
Z Z p
1 − 2x6 x5 dx
3
1. √ dx 14.
2
x − 3x + 4
ex
Z Z
2. √ dx 15. x3 (1 − 3x2 )10 dx
e2x − 1
x2
Z Z
arcsin x
3. √ dx 16. dx
1 − x2 x6 +4
x3
Z
1
Z
4. dx 17. √ dx
x(ln x − 3) x8 − 1
Z
1
Z
x
5. dx 18. dx
x ln x ln | ln x| x2 + x + 1
x−1
Z Z
x
6. 2
dx 19. √ dx
x +2 1 − x2
Z
3x + 2 x5
Z
7. dx 20. √ dx
x2 − 5 1 − x2
Z Z
8. sin x cos x dx 1
21. √ dx
x x 2+1
Z
sin x Z
1
9. dx 22. dx
cos3 x 2
sin x + 2 cos2 x
Z
sin x + cos x Z
sin(1/x)
10. √3
dx 23. dx
sin x − cos x x2
Z
sin x Z
1
11. √ dx 24. √ x dx
Z cos 2x e +1
3 Z 1
12. ex x2 dx arctan x
25. dx
Z √x 0 x2 + 1
5 Z ln 2
13. √ dx 1
x 26. x
dx
0 e +1
b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Chapter 4
Method of Integration by Parts
4.1. Partial Integration for Indefinite Integral

The Method of Integration by Parts (or Partial Integration) for indefinite
integral is used for finding integrals of the form:
Z
u(x)v 0 (x) dx,
where u and v are continuously differentiable functions (i.e., functions with

continuous derivatives) on an interval I, e.g.,
Z
ex cos x dx
with u(x) = ex and v(x) = sin x.

Theorem 4.1 (Integration by Parts Formula for Indefinite
Integral).
Let u and v be continuously differentiable functions on an interval I. Then,
on I,
Z Z
u(x)v 0 (x) dx = u(x)v(x) − v(x)u0 (x) dx.
Proof. Since the functions u and v are continuously differentiable on I,

then so is their product uv and, by the differentiation product rule (see,
e.g., [1, 6]),
0
[u(x)v(x)] = u0 (x)v(x) + u(x)v 0 (x) on I,
51
which implies that uv is an antiderivative of the function u0 v + uv 0 on I.

Thus,
Z
0
u (x)v(x) + u(x)v 0 (x) dx = u(x)v(x) + C on I.

Since the functions u0 v and uv 0 are continuous on I, by the Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus (Part 1) (Theorem 1.5), they are integrable on I and,
by the integration rules (Theorem 1.1),
Z Z
u0 (x)v(x) dx + u(x)v 0 (x) dx = u(x)v(x) + C on I.
Whence, the partial integration formula follows immediately.
Remarks 4.1 (Partial Integration Formula).

• Thus, the Partial Integration Formula is the integral form of the Prod-
uct Rule for differentiation.
• Using the differential notation dv = v 0 (x)dx, du = u0 (x)dx, we can
informally rewrite the partial integration formula in the following easy-
to-remember shorthand fashion:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

Partial integration for indefinite integral consists in applying the integra-
tions by parts formula and works nicely for the following three special types
of integrals (and not only for them).
4.1.2. Three Special Types of Integrals

Type 1 Integrals
Type 1 integrals are of the form
Z Z Z
Pn (x)eax+b dx, Pn (x) sin(ax + b) dx, or Pn (x) cos(ax + b) dx
where
Pn (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
is a polynomial of degree n = 1, 2, . . . with real coefficients an , . . . , a0 ,
an 6= 0, a and b are real coefficients, a 6= 0.
Method of Integration by Parts 53
To such integrals, we apply partial integration precisely n times setting on

each step
u = polynomial factor and dv = [exponential/trigonometric factor ] dx.
Example 4.1 (Type 1 Integrals).
Z
(x2 + 3x)e2x dx
u = x2 + 3x, du = (2x + 3) dx
integrating by parts: 1 ;
dv = e2x dx, v = e2x dx = e2x
R
2
Z
1 1
= (x + 3x) e2x −
2
(2x + 3)e2x dx
2 2
u = 2x + 3, du = 2 dx
integrating by parts once more: 1 ;
dv = e2x dx, v = e2x
2
Z
1 2 1 1
= (x + 3x)e2x − (2x + 3)e2x − e2x dx
2 2 2

1 1 1 1
= (x2 + 3x)e2x − (2x + 3)e2x − e2x + C simplifying;
2 2 2 2

1 2 1 1 2x 1 2
x + 2x − 1 e2x + C.

= x + 3x − (2x + 3) + e +C =
2 2 2 2
Type 2 Integrals
Z
Pn (x) ln(ax + b) dx,
Z Z
Pn (x) arcsin(ax + b) dx, Pn (x) arccos(ax + b) dx,
Z Z
Pn (x) arctan(ax + b) dx, or Pn (x) arccot(ax + b) dx,
where
Pn (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
is a polynomial of degree n = 0, 1, 2, . . . with real coefficients an , . . . , a0 ,
an 6= 0, a and b are real coefficients, a 6= 0.
To such integrals, we apply partial integration once setting

u = transcendental factor and dv = Pn (x) dx.
1
Z u = ln x, du = dx
x ln x dx integrating by parts: x
R x2 ;
dv = xdx, v = x dx =
2
x2 x2 x2 x2
Z Z
1 21 1
= ln x − x dx = ln x − x dx = ln x − +C
2 2 x 2 2 2 4
x2
= (2 ln x − 1) + C.
4
Type 3 Integrals
Z Z
eax+b sin(cx + d) dx or eax+b cos(cx + d) dx
where a, b, c, and d are real coefficients, a, c 6= 0.

To such integrals, we apply partial integration twice setting on each step
u = exponential factor and dv = [trigonometric factor ] dx
or vice versa and arrive at a linear algebraic equation relative to the un-
known integral, solving which we find the integral.
Z
e−x sin x dx
u = e−x , du =R −e−x dx
integrating by parts: ;
dv = sin x dx, v = sin x dx = − cos x
Z
= −e−x cos x − e−x cos x dx
u = e−x , du =R −e−x dx
integrating by parts once more: ;
dv = cos x dx, v = cos x dx = sin x
Z
= −e−x cos x − e−x sin x + e−x sin x dx .
Thus, we arrive at the following equation for the unknown integral:

Z Z
e−x sin x dx = −e−x (cos x + sin x) − e−x sin x dx,
solving which, we obtain

Z
1
e−x sin x dx = − e−x (cos x + sin x) + C.
2
4.1.3. Beyond Three Special Types

As the following examples demonstrate, the applicability of partial integra-
tion extends beyond the three considered types of integrals.
Examples 4.4 (Beyond Three Special Types).
Z
1. ln(x2 + 1) dx applying type 2 partial integration scenario:
2x
u = ln(x2 + 1), du = dx
x2 + 1 ;
dv = dx, v=x
Z 2
x
= x ln(x2 + 1) − 2 2
dx integrating directly;
x +1
Z 2 Z
2 x +1−1 2 1
= x ln(x + 1) − 2 dx = x ln(x + 1) − 2 1− 2 dx
x2 + 1 x +1
Z Z
1
= x ln(x2 + 1) − 2 1 dx − 2
dx
x +1
= x ln(x2 + 1) − 2 [x − arctan x] + C.
Z
arcsin x
2. √ dx applying type 2 partial integration scenario:
1+x
1
u = arcsin x, du = √ dx
1 − x2 ;
1
dx, v = (1 + x)−1/2 dx = 2(1 + x)1/2
R
dv = √
1+x
Z √
√ √
Z
1+x 1
= 2 1 + x arcsin x−2 √ dx = 2 1 + x arcsin x−2 √ dx
1−x 2 1−x
√ √ √
Z
= 2 1 + x arcsin x−2 (1−x)−1/2 dx = 2 1 + x arcsin x+4 1 − x+C.
Z
3. x tan2 x dx
using the relevant trigonometric identity: tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 ;

Z Z Z
= x(sec2 x − 1) dx = x sec2 x dx − x dx
u = x, du =R dx
integrating by parts: ;
dv = sec2 x dx, v = sec2 x dx = tan x
x2 x2
Z
= x tan x − tan x dx − = x tan x − ln | sec x| − + C.
2 2
4. For a > 0,
Z p
x2 ± a2 dx
√ x
u= x2 ± a2 , du = √ dx
integrating by parts: x2 ± a2 ;
dv = dx, v=x
x2
p Z
=x x2 ± a2 − √ dx
x2 ± a2
adding/subtracting and subtracting/adding a2 ;
x2 ± a2 ∓ a2
p Z
=x x2 ± √ a2 − dx dividing termwise;
x2 ± a2
a2
p Z p
= x x2 ± a2 − x2 ± a2 ∓ √ dx
x2 ± a2
Z Z
p p 1
= x x2 ± a2 − x2 ± a2 dx ± a2 √ dx
x ± a2
2
p Z p p
= x x2 ± a2 − x2 ± a2 dx ± a2 ln |x + x2 ± a2 |.

Z p p Z p p
x2 ± a2 dx = x x2 ± a2 − x2 ± a2 dx ± a2 ln |x + x2 ± a2 |,

a2
Z p
xp 2 p
x2 ± a2 dx = x ± a2 ± ln |x + x2 ± a2 | + C.
2 2
4.1.4. Reduction Formulas

When integrating
Z
x3 ex dx,
we apply partial integration repeatedly, progressively reducing the power of

x until we arrive at the easy-to-evaluate integral
Z
ex dx = ex + C.
Each step in this process is executed under the same pattern, which can be
described by a corresponding reduction formula, i.e., an integral identity,
in which the power in the integrand is reduced. When applied repeatedly,
such formula progressively simplifies the integral until it can be evaluated
directly.
Reduction formulas become really handy when dealing with integrals con-
taining a high power. Some of them can be found in Appendix B. Let us
establish a few here.
Example 4.5 (Reduction Formulas).
Appendix B, formula 8. For a 6= 0 and n = 1, 2, . . . ,
Z
xn eax dx applying type 1 partial integrating scenario:
u = xn , du = nxn−1 dx
1 ;
dv = eax dx, v = eax dx = eax
R
a
xn eax
Z
n
= − xn−1 eax dx.
a a
Applying the obtained reduction formula threefold to the integral

Z
x3 ex dx
(a = 1 and n = 3), we have:

Z Z Z
x3 ex dx = x3 ex − 3 x2 ex dx = x3 ex − 3 x2 ex − 2 xex dx
Z
= x3 ex − 3x2 ex + 6 xex − ex dx = x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 6 ex + C.

Exercise 4.1 (Reduction Formulas).

Prove reduction formulas 9 and 10 of Appendix B.
Examples 4.6 (Reduction Formulas).
1. Appendix B, formula 7. For n = 1, 2, . . . ,

Z
lnn x dx
applying type 2 partial integrating scenario:

1
u = lnn x, du = n lnn−1 x dx
x ;
dv = dx, v = x
Z
= x lnn x − n lnn−1 x dx.
2. Appendix B, formula 11. For a > 0 and n = 2, 3, . . . ,

Z
1
n−1 dx integrating by parts:
(x + a2 )
2
1 −(n−1) x
u= n−1 = (x2 + a2 ) , du = −2(n − 1) n dx
(x2+ a2 ) (x2 + a2 ) ;
dv = dx, v=x
x2
Z
x
= n−1 + (2n − 2) n dx
(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 )
adding and subtracting a2 in the numerator;
Z 2
x x + a2 − a2
= n−1 + (2n − 2) n dx
(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 )
"Z Z #
x 1 2 1
= n−1 + (2n − 2) n−1 dx − a n dx .
(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 )
Z
1
Thus, we arrive at the following equation for n dx:
(x2 + a2 )
Z Z
1 x 1
n−1 dx = n−1 + (2n − 2) n−1 dx
(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 ) (x2 + a2 )
Z
1
− (2n − 2)a2 n dx,
(x2 + a2 )
solving which, we obtain formula 11 of Appendix B:
Z
1
n dx
(x + a2 )
2
" Z #
1 x 1
= + (2n − 3) n−1 dx + C.
(2n − 2)a2 (x2 + a2 )n−1 (x2 + a2 )
Remark 4.2. The latter formula is useful for the integration of rational
functions (see Sec. 7.2.3). Integration via reduction formulas is also utilized
for trigonometric integrals (see Sec. 5.2.1).
4.2. Partial Integration for Definite Integral

The Method of Integration by Parts (or Partial Integration) for definite
integral is used for evaluation of integrals of the form:
Z b
u(x)v 0 (x) dx,
a
where u and v are continuously differentiable functions on an interval [a, b]

(−∞ < a < b < ∞), e.g.,
Z π
x2 ex dx
0
2 x
with u(x) = x and v(x) = e .

Theorem 4.2 (Integration by Parts Formula for Definite Integral).
Let u and v be continuously differentiable functions on an interval [a, b]
(−∞ < a < b < ∞). Then
Z b b Z b
u(x)v 0 (x) dx = u(x)v(x) − v(x)u0 (x) dx.

a a a
Proof. Since the functions u and v are continuously differentiable on [a, b],
then so is their product uv and, by the differentiation Product Rule (see,
e.g., [1, 6]), uv is an antiderivative of the function u0 v + uv 0 on [a, b] (cf.
the proof of Theorem 4.1).
Hence, by the Newton-Leibniz Formula (Theorem 1.6), we have:
Z b b
0
u (x)v(x) + u(x)v 0 (x) dx = u(x)v(x) .

a a
Since the functions u0 v and uv 0 are continuous on [a, b], they are (Riemann-)
integrable on [a, b] (Corollary 1.1) and, by the integration rules (Theorem
1.3),
Z b Z b b
0 0

u (x)v(x) dx + u(x)v (x) dx = u(x)v(x) .
a a a
Whence, the partial integration formula follows immediately.
Remark 4.3. Informally, the partial integration formula can be written as

follows:
Z b b Z b

u dv = uv − v du.
a a a

Partial integration for definite integral, as well as for indefinite one, consists
in applying the formula of integrations by parts.
Partial integration works for definite integral whenever and in the same
manner it does for indefinite integral, in particular, for the three special
types of integrals.
Remark 4.4. When applying partial integration to a definite integral, as

opposed to the substitution method, we do not change the integration limits.
Examples 4.7 (Partial Integration for Definite Integral).

Z π
1. (x − π) sin(7x + π) dx
0
applying type 1 partial integration scenario:
u = x − π, du = dx
R 1 ;
dv = sin(7x + π) dx, v = sin(7x + π) dx = − cos(7x + π)
7
π Z π
1 1
= − (x − π) cos(7x + π) + cos(7x + π) dx
7 7 0
0π π
1 1 1
= − (x − π) cos(7x + π) + sin(7x + π) = − π cos π
7 0 49 0 7
1 π
+ (sin 8π − sin π) = .
49 7
Z 1
2. x arctan x dx applying type 2 partial integration scenario:
0
1
u = arctan x, du = 2 dx
x +1 ;
R x2
dv = x dx, v = x dx =
2
1
x2 arctan x 1 1 x2
Z
= − dx integrating directly;
2
0 2 0 x2 + 1
arctan 1 1 1 x2 + 1 − 1 π 1 1
Z Z
1
= − dx = − 1 − dx
2 2 0 x2 + 1 8 2 0 x2 + 1
" 1 #
Z 1 Z 1 1
π 1 1 π 1
= − 1 dx − 2
dx = − x − arctan x
8 2 0 0 x +1 8 2 0 0
π 1 π 1 h πi π 1 π π 1
= − [1 − arctan 1 + arctan 0] = − 1 − = − + = − .
8 2 8 2 4 8 2 8 4 2
Z π
3. ex cos x dx applying type 3 partial integration scenario:
0
u = ex , du =R ex dx
;
π Z π
x u = ex , du =R ex dx
ex sin x dx

= e sin x − ;
0 0 dv = sin x dx, v = sin x dx = − cos x
π Z π Z π
= 0 − −ex cos x + ex cos x dx = −eπ − 1 − ex cos x dx.

0 0 0

Z π Z π
x π
e cos x dx = −e − 1 − ex cos x dx,
0 0

Z π
1
ex cos x dx = − (eπ + 1).
0 2
4.3. Combining Substitution and Partial Integration
Integration often requires combining the methods of substitution and partial

integration.
Examples 4.8 (Combining Substitution and Partial Integration).
Z
1. x3 sin x2 dx splitting x off x3 ;
Z
= x2 sin x2 · x dx introducing the missing constant 2;
Z
1
= x2 sin x2 · 2x dx substituting: y = x2 , dy = 2x dx ;
2
Z
1
= y sin y dy applying type 1 partial integration scenario:
2
u = y, du =R dy
;
dv = sin y dy, v = sin y dy = − cos y
Z
1 1
= −y cos y + cos y dy = (−y cos y + sin y) + C
2 2
substituting back ;
1
= (−x2 cos x2 + sin x2 ) + C.
2
√ √
Z
x
2. e dx substituting: y= x, x = y2 , dx = 2ydy ;
Z
=2 yey dy
u = y, du = dy
applying type 1 partial integration scenario: ;
dv = ey dy, v = ey
Z
= 2 yey − ey dy = 2 [yey − ey ] + C substituting back ;
√ √ √ √ √
= 2( xe x − e x ) + C = 2( x − 1)e x + C.
Z
3. arcsin x dx applying type 2 partial integration scenario:
1
u = arcsin x, du = √ dx
1 − x2 ;
dv = dx, v=x
Z
x
= x arcsin x − √ dx introducing the missing constant −2;
1 − x2
Z
1 1
= x arcsin x + √ (−2x) dx
2 1 − x2
substituting: y = 1 − x2 , dy = −2x dx ;
Z
1
= x arcsin x + y −1/2 dy = x arcsin x + y 1/2 substituting back ;
2
p
= x arcsin x + 1 − x2 + C.
4.4. Applications
Example 4.9 (Application).

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
y = cos x and the x-axis on the interval [0, π/2] about the y-axis.
Solution: Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of definition,
by the shell method ,
Z π/2 Z π/2
V = 2πx cos x dx = 2π x cos x dx
0 0
applying type 1 partial integration scenario:
u = x, du =R dx
;
" π/2 Z π/2 #

= 2π x sin x − sin x dx by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
0 0
" π/2 #

= 2π (π/2) sin(π/2) + cos x = 2π [π/2 + cos(π/2) − cos 0]
0
= 2π [π/2 − 1] un.3 .

Z Z
3 −x x
1. x e dx 11. 2 dx
Z Z sin x
2
2. x2 cos x dx 12. x3 e−x dx
Z Z
3. ln x dx 13. x(arctan x)2 dx
Z Z
arcsin x
4. x arcsec x dx 14. dx
x2
Z Z ln 3
5. e2x sin 3x dx 15. xex dx
Z 0
ln x Z π/2
6. dx
x2 16. x cos 2x dx
Z0 π
Z
7. x sin x cos x dx
17. ex sin x dx
0
Z
8. arctan x dx Z e2 √
Z 18. x ln x dx
1
9. cos(ln x) dx Z π/2
x cos x
Z 19. dx
10. 2
(ln x) dx π/6 sin3 x
Z 2
20. √ x arccsc x dx
2/ 3
Chapter 5
Trigonometric Integrals
Here, we are to consider certain approaches to finding trigonometric inte-

grals, i.e., integrals containing trigonometric functions, e.g.,
√
Z
sin5 x cos x dx.
5.1. Direct Integration
There are many trigonometric integrals, whose evaluation rests exclusively

upon the integration rules and relevant trigonometric identities (see Ap-
pendix C) and makes no use of substitution and partial integration. Several
such examples and types are considered in Chapter 2 (see Examples 2.6,
2.7, 2.8, and 2.9) and here is one more instance of direct integration.
Example 5.1 (Direct Integration).
Z
1
dx
1 − sin x
multiplying and dividing by the conjugate expression 1 + sin x;
Z Z
1 + sin x 1 + sin x
= dx = dx
(1 − sin x)(1 + sin x) 1 − sin2 x
using the trigonometric identity: 1 − sin2 x = cos2 x ;
Z
1 + sin x
= dx dividing termwise and rewriting equivalently;
cos2 x
Z Z " 2 #
1 sin x 1 1 sin x
= + dx = + · dx
cos2 x cos2 x cos x cos x cos x
1 sin x
using the trigonometric identities again: = sec x, = tan x ;
cos x cos x
65
Z
2
= sec x + sec x tan x dx by the integration rules;
Z Z
= sec2 x dx + sec x tan x dx = tan x + sec x + C.
5.2. Using Integration Methods
Not all trigonometric integrals can be evaluated directly. There are many
relying on the use of substitution and partial integration. Several such
examples and types are considered in Chapter 3 (see Examples 3.1, 3.2,
3.3, 3.5, and 3.6) and Chapter 4 (see Examples 4.3, 4.4, 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9)
and more are to be considered here.
5.2.1. Integration via Reduction Formulas

Z
As shown in Example 2.7, the trigonometric integral cos2 x dx can be
evaluated directly via an appropriate power-reduction identity (see Ap-
pendix C).
What should we do if we are to evaluate
Z
cosn x dx,
where the exponent n is a sufficiently large positive integer?

Such integrals can be evaluated by special reduction formulas obtained via
partial integration or substitution.
Theorem 5.1 (Reduction Formulas for Trigonometric Integrals).
For n = 2, 3, . . . ,
cosn−1 x sin x n − 1
Z Z
1. cosn x dx = + cosn−2 x dx
n n
sinn−1 x cos x n − 1
Z Z
2. sinn x dx = − + sinn−2 x dx
n n
secn−2 x tan x n − 2
Z Z
3. secn x dx = + secn−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
cscn−2 x cot x n − 2
Z Z
n
4. csc x dx = − + cscn−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
tann−1 x
Z Z
n
5. tan x dx = − tann−2 x dx
n−1
Trigonometric Integrals 67
cotn−1 x
Z Z
6. cotn x dx = − − cotn−2 x dx
n−1
Proof. Here, we prove the reduction formulas for

Z Z Z
n n
cos x dx, sec x dx, and tann x dx.
Similar proofs of the remaining ones are left as an exercise to the reader.
Z
cosn x dx splitting cos x off cosn x;
Z
= cosn−1 x cos x dx integrating by parts:
u = cosn−1 x, du =R (n − 1) cosn−2 x(− sin x)dx

;
dv = cos xdx, v = cos x dx = sin x
Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 x dx
by the trigonometric identity: sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x ;

Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x(1 − cos2 x) dx multiplying;
Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1)
n−2
x − cosn x dx

cos

Z Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x dx − (n − 1) cosn x dx.
Thus, we arrive at the following equation for the initial integral:

Z Z Z
cosn x dx = cosn−1 x sin x+(n−1) cosn−2 x dx−(n−1) cosn x dx,
solving which we obtain the reduction formula

Z Z
cosn x dx = + cosn−2 x dx.
n n
Similarly,
Z
secn x dx splitting sec2 x off secn x;
Z
= secn−2 x sec2 x dx integrating by parts:
u = secn−2 x, du =R (n − 2) secn−3 x sec x tan x dx

;
dv = sec2 x dx, v = sec2 x dx = tan x
Z
n−2
= sec x tan x − (n − 2) secn−2 x tan2 x dx
by the trigonometric identity: tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 ;

Z
= secn−2 x tan x − (n − 2) secn−2 x(sec2 x − 1) dx

Z Z
= secn−2 x tan x − (n − 2) secn x dx + (n − 2) secn−2 x dx.
Thus, we arrive at the following equation for the initial integral:

Z Z Z
n n−2
sec x dx = sec x tan x−(n−2) sec x dx+(n−2) secn−2 x dx,
n
solving which we obtain the reduction formula

Z Z
secn x dx = + secn−2 x dx.
n−1 n−1
The next reduction formula is obtained via substitution:

Z
tann x dx splitting tan2 x off tann x;
Z
= tann−2 x tan2 x dx
by the trigonometric identity: tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 ;

Z
= tann−2 x(sec2 x − 1) dx by the integration rules;
Z Z
= tann−2 x sec2 x dx − tann−2 x dx
substituting for the first integral: u = tan x, du = sec2 x dx ;

un−1
Z Z Z
= un−2 du − tann−2 x dx = − tann−2 x dx
n−1
substituting back ;
June 21, 2018 10:23 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page 69
tann−1 x
Z
= − tann−2 x dx.
n−1
Remarks 5.1 (Reduction Formulas).

• If the exponent n = 2k is a positive even integer, applying the corre-
sponding reduction formula precisely k times, we arrive at
Z Z Z Z
0
cos x dx = sin x dx = sec x dx = csc0 x dx
0 0
Z Z Z
= tan0 x dx = cot0 x dx = 1 dx = x + C.
• If the exponent n = 2k + 1 is a positive odd integer, applying the

corresponding reduction formula precisely k times, we arrive at
Z Z
cos x dx = sin x + C, sin x dx = − cos x + C,
Z Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x+tan x|+C, csc x dx = ln | csc x−cot x|+C,
Z Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C, or cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C.
• Observe that, whenever the reduction formulas for

Z Z Z Z
n n
cos x dx, sin x dx, secn x dx, or cscn x dx
are used, partial integration is implicitly executed and, whenever the

reduction formulas for
Z Z
n
tan x dx, or cotn x dx
are used, substitution is implicitly executed.
Examples 5.2 (Using Reduction Formulas).

Z
1. cos5 x dx applying the appropriate reduction formula twice;
cos4 x sin x 4 cos4 x sin x 4 cos2 x sin x

Z
= + cos3 x dx = +
5 5 5 5 3
Z
2 1 4 8
+ cos x dx = cos4 x sin x + cos2 x sin x + sin x + C.
3 5 15 15
Z
2. tan6 x dx applying the appropriate reduction formula threefold ;
tan5 x tan5 x tan3 x

Z Z
= − tan4 x dx = − − tan2 x dx
5 5 3
5 3
tan5 x tan3 x
Z
tan x tan x
= − + tan x − 1 dx = − + tan x − x + C.
5 3 5 3
Z
5.2.2. Integrals of the Form sinm x cosn x dx
When evaluating a trigonometric integral of the form

Z
sinm x cosn x dx,
where m and n are real exponents, we may encounter three special cases
allowing clear-cut integration strategies. They, however, do not encompass
all the possibilities and do not apply to, say,
√
Z
sin 2 x cosπ x dx.
The three special cases are as follows.

• Case 1: m is an odd positive integer, i.e., m = 2k + 1 with some
k = 0, 1, . . . and n is an arbitrary real number. In this case, we use the
following integration strategy:
Step 1: split sin x off sin2k+1 x;
Step 2: express the remaining even power sin2k x in terms of
2 2
cos x via the identity sin x = 1 − cos x :
sin2k x = [sin2 x]k = [1 − cos2 x]k ;
Step 3: integrate via the substitution u = cos x.
Example 5.3.
√
Z
sin5 x cos x dx switching to the power form;
Z
= sin5 x cos1/2 x dx (m = 5, n = 1/2) splitting sin x off sin5 x;
Z
= sin4 x cos1/2 x sin x dx
expressing sin4 x in terms of cos x via sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x ;

Z
= (1 − cos2 x)2 cos1/2 x sin x dx
introducing the missing constant −1;

Z
=− (1 − cos2 x)2 cos1/2 x(− sin x) dx
substituting: u = cos x, du = − sin x dx ;

Z
=− (1 − u2 )2 u1/2 du
integrating directly relative to the new variable;

Z Z
= − (1 − 2u + u )u du = − (u1/2 − 2u5/2 + u9/2 ) du
2 4 1/2
Z Z Z
=− u1/2 du − 2 u5/2 du + u9/2 du

2 4 2
= − u3/2 − u7/2 + u11/2 + C
3 7 11
substituting back and distributing;
2 4 2
= − cos3/2 x + cos7/2 x − cos11/2 x + C.
3 7 11
• Case 2: n is an odd positive integer, i.e., n = 2k + 1 with some

k = 0, 1, . . . and m is an arbitrary real number. In this case, we use the
Step 1: split cos x off cos2k+1 x;
Step 2: express the remaining even power cos2k x in terms of
2 2
sin x via the identity cos x = 1 − sin x :
cos2k x = [cos2 x]k = [1 − sin2 x]k ;
Step 3: integrate via the substitution u = sin x.
Example 5.4.
Z
sin4 x cos3 x dx (m = 4, n = 3) splitting cos x off cos3 x;
Z
= sin4 x cos2 x cos x dx
expressing cos2 x in terms of sin x via cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x ;

Z
= sin4 x(1 − sin2 x) cos x dx
substituting: u = sin x, du = cos x dx

Z
= u4 (1 − u2 ) du
multiplying and integrating relative to the new variable;

u5 u7
Z Z Z
= (u4 − u6 ) du = u4 du − u6 du = − +C
5 7
substituting back ;
sin5 x sin7 x
= − + C.
5 7
In Examples 5.2, the integral

Z
cos5 x dx
is evaluated via the appropriate reduction formula. Now, let us apply

the described new strategy to it.
Example 5.5 (Alternate Approach).
Z
cos5 x dx (m = 0, n = 5) splitting cos x off cos5 x;
Z
= cos4 x cos x dx
expressing cos4 x in terms of sin x via cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x ;

Z
= (1 − sin2 x)2 cos x dx
substituting: u = sin x, du = cos x dx ;

Z
= (1 − u2 )2 du
expanding and integrating relative to the new variable;

Z Z Z Z
= (1 − 2u + u ) du = 1 du − 2 u du + u4 du
2 4 2
u3 u5
=u−2 + +C substituting back ;
3 5
2 1
= sin x − sin3 x + sin5 x + C.
3 5
Remark 5.2. Although the answers afforded by the two different ap-
proaches look very different (cf. Examples 5.2), they actually differ by
a constant only.
• Case 3: both exponents m and n are even nonnegative integers, i.e.,

m = 2k and n = 2l with k, l = 0, 1, . . . . In this case, we use the
Step 1: use the power reduction identities
1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
cos2 x = , sin2 x =
2 2
to transform the integrand into a polynomial in cos 2x;
Step 2: substitute u = 2x and apply the appropriate reduction
formula to the powers of cos u greater than 1 or use the preceding
strategies, i.e., repeatedly apply the power reduction identity to the
even powers of cos 2x and substitution to the odd ones.
Example 5.6 (Via Power Reduction and Reduction Formula).
Z
sin4 x cos2 x dx (m = 4, n = 2)
by the power reduction identities:

1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
cos2 x = , sin2 x = ;
2 2
Z 2
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
Z
1
= dx = (1 − cos 2x)2 (1 + cos 2x) dx
2 2 8
multiplying and simplifying;
Z
1
= (1 − 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x)(1 + cos 2x) dx
8
Z
1
= (1 − cos 2x − cos2 2x + cos3 2x) dx
8
Z Z Z Z
1
= 1 dx − cos 2x dx − cos2 2x dx + cos3 2x dx
8
Z Z
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − cos2 2x dx + cos3 2x dx
8 16 8 8
1
substituting: u = 2x, du = 2dx, dx = du ;
2
Z Z
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − cos2 u du + cos3 u du
8 16 16 16
applying the appropriate reduction formula to cos2 u and cos3 u;
Z
1 1 1 cos u sin u 1
= x− sin 2x − + 1 du
8 16 16 2 2
2 Z
1 cos u sin u 2
+ + cos u du
16 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x− cos u sin u− u+ cos2 u sin u+ sin u+C
8 16 32 32 48 24
substituting back ;
1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − cos 2x sin 2x − x + cos2 2x sin 2x
8 16 32 16 48
1
+ sin 2x + C simplifying;
24
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − cos 2x sin 2x + cos2 2x sin 2x + C.
16 48 32 48
Example 5.7 (Via Power Reduction and Substitution).

Z
sin4 x cos2 x dx by the power reduction identities:
1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
cos2 x = , sin2 x = ;
2 2
Z 2
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
Z
1
= dx = (1 − cos 2x)2 (1 + cos 2x) dx
2 2 8
multiplying and simplifying;
Z
1
= (1 − 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x)(1 + cos 2x) dx
8
Z
1
= (1 − cos 2x − cos2 2x + cos3 2x) dx
8
Z Z Z Z
1
= 1 dx − cos 2x dx − cos2 2x dx + cos3 2x dx
8
Z Z
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − cos2 2x dx + cos3 2x dx
8 16 8 8
applying the power reduction identity
and splitting cos 2x off cos3 2x;
Z Z
1 1 1 1 + cos 4x 1
= x− sin 2x − dx + cos2 2x cos 2x dx
8 16 8 2 8
expressing cos2 2x in terms of sin 2x;
Z Z
1 1 1 1 + cos 4x 1
= x− sin 2x − dx + [1 − sin2 2x] cos 2x dx
8 16 8 2 8
by the integration rules and introducing the missing constant 2;
Z Z
1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − 1 dx + cos 4x dx
8 16 16
Z
1 1
+ · [1 − sin2 2x](2 cos 2x) dx
8 2
substituting:
u = sin 2x, du = 2 cos 2x dx ;
Z
1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − x − sin 4x + [1 − u2 ] du
8 16 16 64 16
u3

1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + u− +C
16 16 64 16 3
substituting back ;

1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + sin 2x − sin3 2x + C
16 16 64 16 3
simplifying;
1 1 1
= x− sin 4x − sin3 2x + C.
16 64 48
Remark 5.3. There may also exist an approach based exclusively on

trigonometric identities.
Example 5.8 (Via Trigonometric Identities Only).

Z
sin4 x cos2 x dx
splitting sin2 x off sin4 x and combining with cos2 x;

Z
= sin2 x[sin x cos x]2 dx
1
by the double-angle identity: sin x cos x = sin 2x ;
2
Z
1
= sin2 x sin2 2x dx
4
1 − cos 2θ
by the power reduction identity: sin2 θ = ;
2
Z
1
= (1 − cos 2x)(1 − cos 4x) dx multiplying;
16
Z
1
= (1−cos 2x−cos 4x+cos 2x cos 4x) dxby the integration rules;
16
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
= 1 dx− cos 2x dx− cos 4x dx+ cos 4x cos 2x dx
16 16 16 16
by the product-to-sum identity:
1
cos α cos β = [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)] ;
2
Z
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + (cos 2x + cos 6x) dx
16 32 64 32
Z Z
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + cos 2x dx + cos 6x dx
16 32 64 32
1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + sin 2x + sin 6x + C
16 32 64 64 192
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2x − sin 4x + sin 6x + C.
16 64 64 192
Remark 5.4. Although the answers afforded by the three different

approaches look very different, they essentially differ from each other
by a constant only.
Z
5.2.3. Integrals of the Form tanm x secn x dx
When evaluating a trigonometric integral of the form

Z
tanm x secn x dx,
where m and n are real exponents, similarly to

Z
sinm x cosn x dx,
we may encounter three special cases allowing clear-cut integration strate-
gies. They do not encompass all the possibilities and do not apply to,
say,
√
Z
tanπ x sec 2 x dx.
The three special cases are as follows.
• Case 1: n is an even positive integer, i.e., n = 2k + 2 with k = 0, 1, . . .
and m is an arbitrary real number. In this case, we use the following
integration strategy:
Step 1: split sec2 x off sec2k+2 x;
Step 2: express the remaining even power sec2k x in terms of
tan x via the identity sec2 x = tan2 x + 1 :
sec2k x = [sec2 x]k = [tan2 x + 1]k ;
Step 3: integrate via the substitution u = tan x.
Example 5.9.
Z
tan3 x sec4 x dx (m = 3, n = 4) splitting sec2 x off sec4 x;
Z
= tan3 x sec2 x sec2 x dx
expressing sec2 x in terms of tan x via sec2 x = tan2 x + 1 ;

Z
= tan3 x(tan2 x + 1) sec2 x dx
substituting: u = tan x, du = sec2 x dx ;

Z
= u3 (u2 + 1) du

u6 u4
Z Z Z
= (u + u ) du = u du + u3 du =
5 3 5
+ +C
6 4
substituting back ;
tan6 x tan4 x
= + + C.
6 4
• Case 2: m is an odd positive integer, i.e., m = 2k + 1 with k = 0, 1, . . .

and n is an arbitrary real number. In this case, we use the following
integration strategy:
Step 1: split sec x tan x off tan2k+1 x secn x;
Step 2: express the remaining even power tan2k x in terms of
sec x via the identity tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 :
tan2k x = [tan2 x]k = [sec2 x − 1]k ;
Step 3: integrate via the substitution u = sec x.
Example 5.10.
Z
tan3 x sec5 x dx(m = 3, n = 5) splitting sec x tan x off tan3 x sec5 x;
Z
= tan2 x sec4 (sec x tan x) dx
expressing tan2 x in terms of sec x via tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 ;

Z
= (sec2 x − 1) sec4 x(sec x tan x) dx
substituting: u = sec x, du = sec x tan x dx ;

Z
= (u2 − 1)u4 du

u7 u5
Z Z
= u6 du − u4 du = − +C substituting back ;
7 5
sec7 x sec5 x
= − + C.
7 5
• Case 3: m is an even nonnegative integer, i.e., m = 2k with k =

0, 1, . . . , and n is an odd positive integer, i.e., n = 2l +1 with l = 0, 1, . . . .
In this case, we use the following integration strategy:
Step 1: express the even power tan2k x in terms of sec x via
the identity tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 :
tan2k x = [tan2 x]k = [sec2 x − 1]k ,
to transform the integrand into a polynomial in sec x;

Step 2: apply the appropriate reduction formula to the powers of

sec x greater than 1.
Example 5.11.
Z
tan2 x sec x dx (m = 2, n = 1)
expressing tan2 x in terms of sec x via tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 ;

Z
= (sec2 x − 1) sec x dx multiplying;
Z Z Z
= (sec3 x − sec x) dx = sec3 x dx − sec x dx
applying the appropriate reduction formula to the first integral;

Z Z
sec x tan x 1
= + sec x dx − sec x dx
2 2
sec x tan x 1
= − ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
2 2
Remark 5.5. Similar strategies, in the corresponding cases, apply to inte-

grals of the form
Z
cotm x cscn x dx.
5.3. Applications

1. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded
by y = sin2 x and the x-axis on the interval [0, π/2] about the x-axis.
Solution: Applying the disk method (see, e.g., [1, 6]), we have:
Z π/2
2
π sin2 x dx

V =
0
1 − cos 2x
by the power-reduction identity: sin2 x = ;
2
π/2 2
1 − cos 2x
Z
= π dx squaring;
0 2
Z π/2
π
1 − 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx

=
0 4
1 + cos 4x
by the power-reduction identity: cos2 2x = ;
2

Z π/2
π 1 + cos 4x
= 1 − 2 cos 2x + dx by the integration rules;
4
0 2
" Z #
π 3 π/2
Z π/2
1 π/2
Z
= 1 dx − 2 cos 2x + cos 4x dx
4 2 0 0 2 0
by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;

" π/2 π/2 π/2 #
π 3 1 1
= x − sin 2x
+ · sin 4x
4 2 0 0 2 4 0
3π 2

π 3 π 1
= − 0 − (sin π − sin 0) + (sin 2π − sin 0) = un.3 .
4 2 2 8 16
2. Find the length of the curve y = ln(sin x), π/4 ≤ x ≤ π/2.

Solution: By the arc length formula,
π/2
sin0 x
Z
cos x
q
2
L= 1 + [y 0 (x)] dx since y0 = = = cot x;
π/4 sin x sin x
Z π/2 p
= 1 + cot2 x dx
π/4
by the trigonometric identity: 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x ;

Z π/2 √
= csc2 x dx considering that
π/4
√
csc2 x = | csc x| = csc x since csc x > 0 on [π/4, π/2];
Z π/2
= csc x dx by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
π/4
π/2

= ln | csc x−cot x| = ln | csc(π/2)−cot(π/2)|−ln | csc(π/4)−cot(π/4)|
π/4
√ √ 1 √
= ln |1−0|−ln | 2−1| = − ln( 2−1) = − ln √ = ln( 2+1) un.
2+1

Z
sin3 x
Z
1. sin 5x cos 2x dx 11. dx
Z cos2 x
cos3 x
Z
2. cos2 3x dx 12. √ dx
3 2
Z sin x
(1 + 2 sin x)2 dx sec4 x
Z
3.
13. dx
Z tan3 x
(1 − cos 2x)2 dx
Z
4.
14. cot3 x csc5 x dx
Z
sin2 x cos2 x dx
Z
5.
15. tan5 x dx
Z
sin2 x cos4 x dx sec3 (ln x)
Z
6.
16. dx
Z x
7. sin3 x cos2 x dx Z π/3
Z 17. cot4 x dx
π/6
8. sin2 x cos3 x dx Z √π/2
Z 18. x cos3 (x2 ) dx
9. sin7 x dx 0
Z
Z π/2 √
4 19. 1 + cos 2x dx
10. cos x dx
Z0 π
20. sin2n x dx for n = 1, 2, . . .
0
b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Chapter 6
Trigonometric Substitutions
6.1. Reverse Substitutions
Frequently, an integral
Z Z b
f (x) dx or f (x) dx
a
can be simplified if we substitute a suitably chosen continuously differen-
tiable function g(t) for x:
Z
f (x) dx with x = g(t), dx = g 0 (t) dt ;
Z
= f (g(t))g 0 (t) dt,
in which case, we use the Substitution Rule for Indefinite/Definite Integral

(Theorem 3.1/Theorem 3.2) backwards. Thus, we call such a substitution
reverse.
For the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx,
a
we also change the integration limits:
Z b x t
f (x) dx with x = g(t), dx = g 0 (t) dt a c ;
a
b d
Z d
= f (g(t))g 0 (t) dt,
c
83
Requirements to Reverse Substitution

A suitable choice of a reverse substitution x = g(t) is based on the following
natural criteria:
1. The substitution should simplify the initial integral, i.e., transform it
into an integral, which can be evaluated via known integration strate-
gies.
2. The function g(t) must be continuously differentiable on some interval.
3. The function g(t) must also be one-to-one on its interval of definition
so that there exist an inverse g −1 (x) for us to be able to substitute
back :
t = g −1 (x)
for indefinite integral or have a unique choice for the new integration
limits:
x t
a c = g −1 (a)
b d = g −1 (b)
Trigonometric Substitutions
Trigonometric substitutions, we are about to consider, are reverse by nature
and used to transform integrals containing the terms
a2 − x2 , x2 + a2 , or x2 − a2 ,
where a > 0, into trigonometric integrals.
6.2. Integrals Containing a2 − x2

2 2
√ containing the term a − x , where a > 0, especially in the
For an integral
2 2
radical form a − x , we use the sine substitution:
x = a sin θ, −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.
Remark 6.1. The range for the new variable θ is purposely chosen to be
[−π/2, π/2], since
• on [−π/2, π/2], the function a sin θ is one-to-one, and thus, we can
substitute back:
x
θ = arcsin ,
a
and has the largest range of values: the entire interval [−a, a];
Trigonometric Substitutions 85
• also, on [−π/2,√π/2], cos θ ≥ 0, which is instrumental for the elimination

of the radical a2 − x2 (see below).
By the Pythagorean trigonometric identity

1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
(see Appendix C), we have:
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a2 (1 − sin2 θ) = a2 cos2 θ.
√
Hence, the substitution eliminates the radical a2 − x2 :
p √
a2 − x2 = a2 cos2 θ = |a|| cos θ|
considering that a > 0 and cos θ ≥ 0 for −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2;
= a cos θ.
The substitution transforms the initial integral into a trigonometric integral
relative to the new variable θ.
Example 6.1 (Integrals Containing a2 − x2 ).
Z √2 √ Z √2 √ 2
q
2 − x2 2 − x2
dx = dx
1 x2 1 x2
√
x= √ 2 sin θ
dx = 2 cos√θ dθ x θ
√
2
2 − x = 2 cos θ 1 π/4 ;
√
x 2 π/2
θ = arcsin √
2
√ 2
π/2
2 cos θ √
Z π/2 Z π/2
cos2 θ
Z
cos θ
= 2 cos θ dθ = dθ = dθ
π/4 2 sin2 θ 2
π/4 sin θ π/4 sin θ
cos θ
by the trigonometric identity: = cot θ ;
sin θ
Z
= cot2 θ dθ by the trigonometric identity: cot2 θ = csc2 θ − 1 ;
Z π/2
= (csc2 θ − 1) dθ by the integration rules;
π/4
Z π/2 Z π/2
= csc2 θ dθ − 1 dθ by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
π/4 π/4
π/2 π/2

= − cot θ
− θ = − [cot(π/2) − cot(π/4)] − [π/2 − π/4]
π/4 π/4
= −[0 − 1] − π/4 = 1 − π/4.
What If the Integral Is Indefinite?

If the initial integral is indefinite, after having substituted and evaluated
the integral relative to the new variable θ, we obtain an answer in terms of
θ and/or some trigonometric functions of θ. Thus, when substituting back :
x
θ = arcsin ,
a
x
we are to encounter expressions containing arcsin inside trigonometric
a
functions, which should be equivalently transformed into algebraic expres-
x
sions in x not containing the trigonometric functions of arcsin .
a
This can be done based on cancellation and trigonometric identities (taking
π x π
into account that − ≤ arcsin ≤ ):
2 a 2
x x
1. sin arcsin = ,
a a r
x p h x i2
2. cos arcsin = 1 − [sin(arcsin(x/a))] = 1 −2
a a
r √
2
a −x 2 2
a −x 2
= = ,
a2 a
x x
x sin arcsin x
3. tan arcsin = a = √ a =√ ,
a
x 2
a −x 2 a − x2
2
cos arcsin
a a √
x 1 1 a2 − x2
4. cot arcsin = x = x = ,
a tan arcsin √ x
a a2 − x2
x 1 1 a
5. csc arcsin = x = x = ,
a sin arcsin x
a a
x 1 1 a
6. sec arcsin
a
= x = √a2 − x2 = √a2 − x2 .
cos arcsin
a a
In respect that
x
sin θ = ,
a
it may be easier, however, to use the reference triangle approach for the
same purposes, i.e., consider θ to be an acute angle in a right triangle with
p
hypotenuse = a, opposite leg = x, and adjacent leg = a2 − x2 .
Example 6.2 (Integrals Containing a2 − x2 ).

For a > 0,
Z p x = a sin θ
a2 − x2 dx substituting: dx
√ = a cos θ dθ ;
a2 − x2 = a cos θ
Z Z
= a cos θa cos θ dθ = a2 cos2 θ dθ
1 + cos 2θ
by the power-reduction identity: cos2 θ = ;
2
a2
Z
= [1 + cos 2θ] dθ by the integration rules;
2
a2 a2
Z Z
1
= 1 dθ + cos 2θ dθ = θ + sin 2θ + C
2 2 2
1
by the double-angle identity: sin 2θ = sin θ cos θ ;
2
a2
= [θ + sin θ cos θ] + C
2
substituting back and using the reference triangle:
√
x x a2 − x2
θ = arcsin , sin θ = , cos θ = ;
a a a
" √ #
a2 x x a2 − x2 xp 2 a2 x
= arcsin + +C = a − x2 + arcsin + C.
2 a a a 2 2 a
6.3. Integrals Containing x2 + a2

2 2
For an integral
√ containing the term x + a , where a > 0, especially in the
2 2
radical form x + a , we use the tangent substitution:
x = a tan θ, −π/2 < θ < π/2.
(−π/2, π/2), since
• on (−π/2, π/2), the function a tan θ is one-to-one, and thus, we can

substitute back:
x
θ = arctan ,
a
and has the largest range of values: the entire real axis (−∞, ∞);
• also, on (−π/2, π/2),
√ sec θ ≥ 1, which is instrumental for the elimina-
tion of the radical x2 + a2 (see below).

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
x2 + a2 = a2 tan2 θ + a2 = a2 (tan2 θ + 1) = a2 sec2 θ.
√
Hence, the substitution eliminates the radical x2 + a2 :
p √
x2 + a2 = a2 sec2 θ = |a|| sec θ|
considering that a > 0 and sec θ ≥ 1 for −π/2 < θ < π/2
= a sec θ.

As the following example shows, completing the square may be a necessary

preliminary step before making the required substitution.
Example 6.3 (Integrals Containing x2 + a2 ).
Z 2√3−1 √ 2
x + 2x + 5
dx completing the square:
1 (x + 1)4
x2 + 2x + 5 = x2 + 2x + 1 + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 22 ;
√
2 3−1
p
(x + 1)2 + 22
Z
= dx
1 (x + 1)4
x + 1 = 2 tan θ
dx 2 x θ
p = 2 sec θ dθ
(x + 1)2 + 22 = 2 sec θ √1 π/4 ;
x+1 2 3−1 π/3
θ = arctan
2
π/3 Z π/3
1 sec3 θ
Z
2 sec θ 2
= 4 2 sec θ dθ = 4 dθ
π/4 16 tan θ π/4 4 tan θ
1 sin θ
by the trigonometric identities: sec θ = , tan θ = ;
cos θ cos θ
1
Z π/3
1 cos3 θ
= dθ simplifying;
π/4 4 sin4 θ
cos4 θ
Z π/3
1 cos θ
= dθ by the integration rules;
π/4 4 sin4 θ
Z π/3
1 cos θ
= dθ
4 π/4 sin4 θ
θ u
√
substituting again: u = sin θ, du = cos θ dθ π/4 2/2 ;
√
π/3 3/2
√
Z 3/2
1
= √ u−4 du by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
4 2/2
√3/2 " √ #
√

1 1 −3 1 8 8 1 8 3
= · u √ =− √ − √ =− −2 2
4 (−3) 2/2 12 3 3 2 2 12 9
√ √
2 2 3
= − .
6 27
x
θ = arctan ,
a
x
we are to encounter expressions containing arctan inside trigonometric
a
x
sions in x not containing the trigonometric functions of arctan .
a
π x π
into account that − < arctan < ):
2 a 2
x x
1. tan arctan = ,
a a
x 1 1 a
2. cot arctan = x = x = ,
a tan arctan x
a a
rh i
x p x 2
3. sec arctan = [tan(arctan(x/a))]2 + 1 = +1
a a
r √
x2 + a2 x2 + a2
= 2
= ,
a a
x 1 1 a
4. cos arctan
a
= x = √x2 + a2 = √x2 + a2 ,
sec arctan
a
x x a x x a
5. sin arctan = tan arctan cos arctan = ·√
a a a a x + a2
2
x
=√ ,
x2 + a2
√
x 1 1 x2 + a2
6. csc arctan = x = x = .
a sin arctan √ x
a x2 + a2
In respect that
x
tan θ = ,
a
p
opposite leg = x, adjacent leg = a, and hypotenuse = x2 + a2 .
Example 6.4 (Integrals Containing x2 + a2 ).
x = tan θ
x3 x3
Z Z
√ √ 2
dx = dx substituting: √ = sec θ dθ ;
dx
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 2
x2 + 1 = sec θ
tan3 θ
Z Z
= sec2 θ dθ = tan3 θ sec θ dθ
sec θ
applying the appropriate integration strategy,
we split sec x tan x off tan3 θ sec θ;
Z
= tan2 θ(sec θ tan θ) dθ
expressing tan2 x in terms of sec x via tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1 ;

Z
= (sec2 θ − 1)(sec θ tan θ) dθ
substituting again: u = sec θ, du = sec θ tan θ dθ ;

Z
= (u2 − 1) du by the integration rules;
u3
Z Z
= u2 du − 1 du = −u+C substituting back ;
3
sec3 θ
= − sec θ + C
3
substituting back again and using the reference triangle:
p
θ = arctan x, sec θ = x2 + 1 ;
√
(x2 + 1)3/2 p 2 x2 + 1 2
= − x +1+C = (x − 2) + C.
3 3
6.4. Integrals Containing x2 − a2

2 2
√ containing the term x − a , where a > 0, especially in the
For an integral
2 2
radical form x − a , we use the secant substitution:
x = a sec θ, 0 ≤ θ < π/2 or π/2 < θ ≤ π.
[0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π], since on [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π], the function a sec θ is one-to-
one and thus, we can substitute back:
x
θ = arcsec ,
a
and has the largest range of values (−∞, a] ∪ [a, ∞).

sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ
x2 − a2 = a2 sec2 θ − a2 = a2 (sec2 θ − 1) = a2 tan2 θ.
√
Hence, the substitution eliminates the radical x2 − a2 :
p p
x2 − a2 = a2 tan2 θ = |a|| tan θ| considering that a > 0;
(
a tan θ for 0 ≤ θ < π/2 (x ≥ a)
= = sgn x · a tan θ,
−a tan θ for π/2 < θ ≤ π (x ≤ −a)
(
1 for x ≥ a
where sgn x = .
−1 for x ≤ −a

Example 6.5 (Integrals Containing x2 − a2 ).

Z 2 Z 2
1 1
√ dx = √ √ 3 dx
2 (x − 1)3/2
2
2 ( x2 − 1)
x = sec θ
x θ
dx = sec θ tan θ dθ √
substituting: √ 2 π/4 ;
x2 − 1 = tan θ
2 π/3
θ = arcsec x
Z π/3 Z π/3
1 sec x
= sec x tan x dθ = dθ
π/4 tan3 x π/4 tan2 x
1 sin θ
by the trigonometric identities: sec θ = , tan θ = ;
cos θ cos θ
1
Z π/3
= cos θ dθ simplifying and regrouping;
π/4 sin2 θ
cos2 θ
Z π/3 Z π/3
cos θ 1 cos θ
= dθ = dθ
π/4 sin2 θ π/4 sin θ sin θ
1 cos θ
by the trigonometric identities: = csc θ, = cot θ ;
sin θ sin θ
Z π/3
= csc θ cot θ dθ by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
π/4
π/3 √
√ √

2 2 3
= − csc θ = −[csc(π/3) − csc(π/4)] = − √ − 2 = 2 − .
π/4 3 3

x
θ = arcsec ,
a
x
we are to encounter expressions containing arcsec inside trigonometric
a
x
sions in x not containing the trigonometric functions of arcsec .
a
x π π x
into account that 0 ≤ arcsec < or < arcsec ≤ π):
a 2 2 a
x x
1. sec arcsec = ,
a a
x 1 1 a
2. cos arcsec = x = x = ,
a sec arcsec x
a a
r r
x h x i2 h a i2
3. sin arcsec = 1 − cos arcsec = 1−
a a x
r √
2
x −a 2 2
x −a 2
= = ,
x2 |x|
x 1 1 |x|
4. csc arcsec
a
= x = √x2 − a2 = √x2 − a2 ,
sin arcsec
a |x|
√
x x2 − a2 √
x sin arcsec |x| x x2 − a2
5. tan arcsec = a
a
x = a =
|x| a
cos arcsec
a x
√
x2 − a2
= sgn x ,
a
x 1 1 a
6. cot arcsec = x = √ = sgn x √ .
a tan arcsec
2
x −a 2 x − a2
2
a sgn x
a
In respect that
x
sec θ = ,
a
p
hypotenuse = x, adjacent leg = a, and opposite leg = x2 − a 2 .
π x
Remark 6.4. To include the case of < arcsec ≤ π, when the
2 a
hypotenuse x = a sec θ of the reference triangle is negative, we need
x
to multiply all trigonometric functions of arcsec obtained from it, ex-
a
x x
cept sec arcsec and cos arcsec , by sgn x taking into account that
a a
|x| = sgn x · x, x = sgn x|x|, and sgn2 x = 1. For instance,
√ √
x x2 − a2 x2 − a2
sin arcsec = sgn x = .
a x |x|
Example 6.6 (Integrals Containing x2 − a2 ).
For x < −1/2 or x > 1/2,
Z Z Z
1 1 1
√ dx = p dx = p dx
2 2
x 4x − 1 2 2
2x x − 1/4 2x x − (1/2)2
2 2
1
x= sec θ
2
1
substituting: dx = sec θ tan θ dθ ;
2
p 1
x2 − 1/4 = sgn x tan θ
2
Z
1 1
= sec θ tan θ dθ simplifying;
1 1 2
2 sec2 θ sgn x tan θ
Z 4 2
2 sgn x
= dθ
sec θ
1
by the trigonometric identity = cos θ and the integration rules;
sec θ
Z Z
= 2 sgn x cos θ dθ = 2 sgn x cos θ dθ = 2 sgn x sin θ + C
substituting back and using the reference triangle:

p
x2 − 1/4
sin θ = sgn x ;
x
p
2 x2 − 1/4
= 2 sgn x +C considering that sgn2 x = 1;
√ x
4x2 − 1
= + C.
x
6.5. Applications

x2 y2
1. Find the area of the ellipse 2
+ 2 = 1 (a, b > 0).
a b
Solution: The quarter of the ellipse in the first quadrant is explicitly
defined as follows:
bp 2
y= a − x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ a.
a
Hence, by the symmetry,
Z a p
b
A=4 a2 − x2 dx
0 a
x = a sin θ
dx x θ
√ = a cos θ dθ 0 0 ;
a2 − x2 = a cos θ
x a π/2
θ = arcsin
a
Z π/2
b 2
=4 a cos2 θ dθ
0 a
1 + cos 2θ
by the power-reduction identity: cos2 θ = ;
2
Z π/2
ab
=4 [1 + cos 2θ] dθ by the integration rules;
0 2
"Z #
π/2 Z π/2
= 2ab 1 dθ + cos 2θ dθ
0 0

" #
π/2 1 π/2

π 1
= 2ab θ
+ sin 2θ
= 2ab + (sin π − sin 0) = πab un.2
0 2 0 2 2
(cf. Examples 6.2).
Remark 6.5. When a = b = r, we obtain the well-known circle (of
radius r) area formula A = πr2 .
1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = and
(x2 + 4)2
the x-axis on the interval [−2, 2].
Solution:
Z 2
1
A= dx by the evenness of the integrand ;
−2 (x2 + 4)2
Z 2 Z 2
1 1
=2 dx = 2 dx
0 (x2 + 4)2 0 (x2 + 22 )2
x = 2 tan θ
dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ x θ
x2 + 22 = 4 sec2 θ 0 0 ;
x 2 π/4
θ = arctan
2
Z π/4
1
=2 2 sec2 θ dθ simplifying;
0 42 sec4 θ
Z π/4
1
=2 dθ
0 8 sec2 θ
1
by the trigonometric identity: = cos θ ;
sec θ
Z π/4
1
=2 cos2 θ dθ
0 8
1 + cos 2θ
by the trigonometric identity: cos2 θ = ;
2
Z π/4 Z π/4
1 1
=2 cos2 θ dθ = 2 [1 + cos 2θ] dθ
0 8 0 16

"Z # " π/4 #
π/4 Z π/4 π/4
1 1 1
= 1 dθ + cos 2θ dθ = θ + sin 2θ
8 0 0 8 0 2 0

1 π 1 π 1
= + = + un.2 .
8 4 2 32 16
Exercise 6.1 (Alternate Approach).

Solve the last problem using reduction formula 11 of Appendix B.
1
x2
Z Z
1
1. dx 7. √ dx
0 (4 − x2 )3/2 x2 − 9
√ √
9 − 4x2
Z
3 3
x2
Z
2. dx 8. dx
(x2 + 9)2 x2
3 √
9x2 − 16
Z 2 Z
1 9. dx
3. √
√ dx x3
3 x2 − 1
2/ 3 x Z
Z 0p 1
10. √ dx
4. x2 + 2x + 2 dx (x − 1) x2 − 2
−1
x2 + 2x + 1
Z
x5 √
Z
11. dx
5. √ dx x2 + 2x + 10
1 − x2 Z
1
x2 12. √ dx
Z
6. √ dx (x + 1) x2 + 2x − 5
2
x2 + 2
x2 + 1
Z
13. √ dx
x x4 + 1
14. Prove that, for a > 0,
a2
Z p
xp 2 p
x2 ± a2 dx = x ± a2 ± ln |x+ x2 ± a2 |+C (cf. Examples 4.4).
2 2
Using the results of Examples 6.2 and the prior problem, evaluate the in-
tegrals.
Z p Z p
15. 2 + x − x2 dx 16. x x4 + 2x2 − 1 dx
Chapter 7
Integration of Rational Functions
7.1. Rational Functions
Definition 7.1 (Rational Function (Fraction)).

A rational function (or fraction) is a ratio
P (x)
,
Q(x)
of two polynomials
P (x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
and
Q(x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0
with degrees m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . and real coefficients am , . . . , a0 , bn , . . . , b0 ,
am , bn 6= 0.
A fraction is said to be in reduced form if the numerator and denominator
have no common factors. By canceling all common factors, any fraction
can be equivalently written in reduced form.
A fraction is said to be proper if the degree of the numerator is less than
the degree of the denominator (m < n) and improper otherwise (m ≥ n).
Remark 7.1. Any polynomial P (x) is trivially a fraction with the denom-
inator Q(x) = 1.
Examples 7.1 (Rational Functions).

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1. = is an improper fraction not in reduced form.
x+1 x+1
Canceling the common factor x + 1, we have:
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= x − 1, x 6= −1.
x+1
99
x4 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
2. 2
= is an improper fraction in reduced
x + 2x x(x + 2)
form (nothing to cancel).
x−2 x−2
3. 2 = is a proper fraction not in reduced form.
x − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
Canceling the common factor x − 2, we have:
x−2 1
= , x 6= 2.
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1
x−1
4. 2 is a proper fraction in reduced form.
x +x+1
Observe that the quadratic polynomial x2 + x + 1 cannot be factored into
two linear polynomials unlike x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2).
The integration of rational functions is executed via the Partial Fraction

Method reducing such to the integration of so-called partial fractions of
rather simple structure.
7.2. Partial Fractions
Definition 7.2 (Partial Fractions).

A partial fraction is a proper fraction of one of the following four types:
A
Type 1: ,
ax + b
A
Type 2: , k = 2, 3, . . . ,
(ax + b)k
Ax + B
Type 3: ,
ax2 + bx + c
Ax + B
Type 4: , l = 2, 3, . . . ,
(ax + bx + c)l
2
where,
• a, b, and c are real coefficients with a 6= 0,
• A and B are real coefficients not simultaneously equal to 0 (i.e., A2 +
B 2 6= 0), and
• ax2 + bx + c is an irreducible quadratic polynomial, i.e., such that cannot
be further factored into two linear polynomials with real coefficients,
which is the case iff D = b2 − 4ac < 0.
Examples 7.2 (Partial Fractions).

2
1. is a type 1 partial fraction (A = 2, a = 3, and b = −1).
3x − 1
Integration of Rational Functions 101
1
2. is a type 2 partial fraction (A = 1, a = 2, and b = 5).
(2x + 5)4
x−1
3. 2 is a type 3 partial fraction (A = 1, B = −1, a = b = c = 1).
x +x+1
x−1
4. is a type 4 partial fraction (A = 1, B = −1, a = b = c =
(x2 + x + 1)2
1).
2x + 1
5. 2 is a not a partial fraction, since x2 − 3x + 2 is not irre-
x − 3x + 2
ducible: x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2).
7.2.1. Integration of Type 1/Type 2 Partial Fractions
A type 1/type 2 partial fraction is integrated via the trivial substitution (see
Sec. 3.1.4) or, which is the same, the Useful Integration Formula (Theorem
2.1) as follows:
Z Z
A 1 A
dx = A dx = ln |ax + b| + C,
ax + b ax + b a
Z Z
A A 1
dx = A (ax + b)−k dx = · (ax + b)−k+1 + C,
(ax + b)k a −k + 1
k = 2, 3, . . . .
Examples 7.3 (Integration of Type 1/Type 2 Partial Fractions).

Z Z
2 1 2
1. dx = 2 dx = ln |3x − 1| + C.
3x − 1 3x − 1 3
Z Z
1 1 1
2. 4
dx = (2x + 5)−4 dx = · (2x + 5)−3 + C
(2x + 5) 2 −3
1 1
=− + C.
6 (2x + 5)3
7.2.2. Integration of Type 3 Partial Fractions
Generally, a type 3 partial fraction

Z
Ax + B
dx
ax2 + bx + c
is integrated via two procedures: substitution and completing the square
(see Sec. 2.2.7).
Example 7.4 (Integration of Type 3 Partial Fractions).

x−1
Z
2
dx
x +x+1
since [x2 + x + 1]0 = 2x + 1, multiplying and dividing by 2;
2x − 2
Z
1
= dx adding and subtracting 1;
2 x2 + x + 1
2x + 1 − 3
Z
1
= dx by the integration rules;
2 x2 + x + 1
Z Z
1 2x + 1 3 1
= 2
dx − 2
dx
2 x +x+1 2 x +x+1
substituting for the first integral: u = x2 + x + 1, du = (2x + 1)dx
and completing the square for the second one:
√
x2 + x + 1 = x2 + 2(1/2)x + 1/4 − 1/4 + 1 = (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 ;
Z Z
1 1 3 1
= du − √ dx
2 u 2 (x + 1/2) + ( 3/2)2
2
1 3 1 x + 1/2
= ln |u| − √ arctan √ +C substituting back ;
2 2 3/2 3/2
1 √ 2x + 1
= ln |x2 + x + 1| − 3 arctan √ +C since x2 + x + 1 > 0;
2 3
1 √ 2x + 1
= ln(x2 + x + 1) − 3 arctan √ + C.
2 3
Observations
When integrating a type 3 partial fraction,
• In certain cases, only one of the two procedures is involved: substitution,
asZis the case for Z
2x + 1 1
dx = du with u = x2 + x + 1, du = (2x + 1)dx ,
x2 + x + 1 u
or completing Z the square, as is the
Z case for
1 1
dx = √ dx.
x2 + x + 1 (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2
• If substitution is involved, it is always of the form
u = ax2 + bx + c, du = (2ax + b)dx
and leads to the integral of
Z the form
1
du = ln |u| + C.
u
• If completing the square is involved, due to the fact that the quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c is irreducible, it always leads to the integral of
the form (up to a constant factor)
Z
1 1 x+h
dx = arctan + C.
(x + h)2 + d2 d d
7.2.3. Integration of Type 4 Partial Fractions

Just as in the case of a type 3 partial fraction, when integrating a type 4
partial fraction
Z
Ax + B
dx, l = 2, 3, . . . ,
(ax + bx + c)l
2
we apply substitution and completing the square. However, when the latter
is involved, we also use reduction formula 11 of Appendix B (see Examples
4.6), i.e., partial integration implicitly.
Example 7.5 (Integration of Type 4 Partial Fractions).
x−1
Z
dx in the same manner as in the prior example;
(x2 + x + 1)2
Z Z
1 2x + 1 3 1
= dx − dx
2 (x2 + x + 1)2 2 (x2 + x + 1)2
substituting for the first integral: u = x2 + x + 1, du = (2x + 1)dx
and completing the square for the second one (see the prior example);
Z Z
1 −2 3 1
= u du − √ 2 dx
2 2
(x + 1/2) + ( 3/2)2
2
integrating and using reduction formula 11 of Appendix B

√
with x + 1/2 for x, a = 3/2, and n = 2 for the second integral;

1 1 3 1 x + 1/2
= − − √ √
2 u 2 2( 3/2)2 (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2
Z
1
+ √ dx
(x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2
substituting back, integrating, and simplifying;
1 1 x + 1/2 2 2x + 1
=− 2
− 2 − √ arctan √ +C
2x +x+1 x +x+1 3 3
x+1 2 2x + 1
=− 2 − √ arctan √ + C.
x +x+1 3 3
Observations
When integrating a type 4 partial fraction,
• In certain cases, only one of the two procedures is involved: substitution,
as is the case for
Z Z
2x + 1
dx = u−2 du
(x2 + x + 1)2
with u = x2 + x + 1, du = (2x + 1)dx ,
or completing the square, as is the case for
Z Z
1 1
dx = √ 2 dx.
(x2 + x + 1)2
(x + 1/2) + ( 3/2)2
2
• If substitution is involved, it is always of the form
u = ax2 + bx + c, du = (2ax + b)dx

and leads to the integral of the form
Z
1
u−l du = u−l+1 + C, l = 2, 3, . . . .
−l + 1
• If completing the square is involved, due to the fact that the quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c is irreducible, it always leads to the integral of
the form (up to a constant factor)
Z
1
l
dx, l = 2, 3, . . . ,
[(x + h)2 + d2 ]
to which we apply reduction formula 11 of Appendix B l − 1 times.
7.3. Partial Fraction Decomposition
Observe that, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (see, e.g., [1, 6]),
any polynomial Q(x) with real coefficient of degree n = 1, 2, . . . can be
factored into factors of the form
(ax + b)k or (ax2 + bx + c)l ,
where k and l are nonnegative integer exponents, a, b, and c are real coeffi-
cients with a 6= 0 and ax2 + bx + c is an irreducible quadratic polynomial.
Examples 7.6 (Factoring Polynomials).
1. 2x2 − x − 1 = (2x + 1)(x − 1).

2. x3 − 8 = (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4).
3. x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4 = (x − 1)(x3 + 2x2 + x − 4) = (x − 1)2 (x2 + 3x + 4).
4. x6 + 1 = (x2 + 1)(x4 − x2 + 1) = (x2 + 1)(x4 + 2x2 + 1 − 3x2 )
h √ i √ √
= (x2 + 1) (x2 + 1)2 − ( 3x)2 = (x2 + 1)(x2 − 3x + 1)(x2 + 3x + 1).
Theorem 7.1 (Partial Fraction Decomposition).

P (x)
Suppose that is a proper fraction, with the denominator Q(x) factored
Q(x)
into factors of the form
(ax + b)k or (ax2 + bx + c)l ,
where k and l are nonnegative integer exponents, a, b, and c are real coef-
ficients with a 6= 0 and ax2 + bx + c is an irreducible quadratic polynomial.
P (x)
Then is decomposed into a sum of partial fractions in the following
Q(x)
fashion:
• Each factor of the form (ax + b)k (k = 1, 2, . . . ) contributes the sum of
k type 1/type 2 partial fractions:
A1 A2 Ak
+ 2
+ ··· + .
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)k
• Each factor of the form (ax2 +bx+c)l (l = 1, 2, . . . ) into Q(x) contributes
the sum of l type 3/type 4 partial fractions:
A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B 2 Al x + Bl
+ + ··· + .
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)l
• The partial fraction decomposition is obtained by adding the contribu-
tions of all the factors of the denominator.
Algorithm of Partial Fraction Decomposition

P (x)
To decompose a proper fraction into partial fractions,
Q(x)
1. Factor the denominator Q(x) completely.
2. Set up the appropriate form of the partial fraction decomposition by
Theorem 7.1.
3. Clear the denominators multiplying through by the common denomina-
tor Q(x).
4. Determine the values of the unknown coefficients by the Method of Un-

determined Coefficients, i.e., by matching the like powers and equating
the coefficients of the polynomials in the left and right sides of the equal-
ity at each one.
5. Substitute the found values for the corresponding coefficients into the
form of step 2 to write the desired partial fraction decomposition.
Example 7.7 (Partial Fraction Decomposition).

Decompose the proper fraction
5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
into partial fractions.
Solution:
1. Factor the denominator:
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4 = (x − 1)2 (x2 + 3x + 4)
(see Examples 7.6).

2. Set up the appropriate form of the partial fraction decomposition:
5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5 A B Cx + D
2 2
= + 2
+ 2
(x − 1) (x + 3x + 4) x − 1 (x − 1) x + 3x + 4
with the coefficients A, B, C, and D to be determined.
3. Clear the denominators multiplying both sides by the common denom-
inator (x − 1)2 (x2 + 3x + 4):
5x3 −2x2 +10x−5 = A(x−1)(x2 +3x+4)+B(x2 +3x+4)+(Cx+D)(x−1)2
4. Determine the values of the unknown coefficients by the Method of Un-

determined Coefficients.
Matching the like powers x3 , x2 , x1 , and x0 and equating the coefficients
of the polynomials in the left and right sides of the equality at each one,
we obtain the following linear system of four equations in four unknowns:
at x3 : A + C = 5
at x2 : 2A + B − 2C + D = −2
at x1 : A + 3B + C − 2D = 10
at x0 : −4A + 4B + D = −5
(verify), solving which via the elimination method :
A + C = 5
2A + B − 2C + D = −2 E2 +(−2)E1 →E2 , E3 +(−1)E1 →E3
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
A + 3B + C − 2D = 10 E4 +4E1 →E4
−4A + 4B + D = −5
A + C = 5
B − 4C + D = −12 E3 +(−3)E2 →E3
−−−−−−−−−−−→
3B − 2D = 5 E4 +(−4)E2 →E4
4B + 4C + D = 15
A + C = 5
B − 4C + D = −12 3E4 +(−5)E3 →E4
−−−−−−−−−−−→
12C − 5D = 41
20C − 3D = 63
A + C = 5
B − 4C + D = −12
12C − 5D = 41
16D = −16
solving starting with the last equation and back substituting;
A = 5−3=2
B = −12 + 4 · 3 − (−1) = 1
,
C = [41 + 5(−1)] /12 = 3
D= −1
we arrive at the unique solution: A = 2, B = 1, C = 3, D = −1.

5. Substituting the found values for the corresponding coefficients into the
form of step 2, we obtain the partial fraction decomposition
5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5 2 1 3x − 1
2 2
= + 2
+ 2 .
(x − 1) (x + 3x + 4) x − 1 (x − 1) x + 3x + 4
7.4. Partial Fraction Method
The Partial Fraction Method is used for the evaluation of integrals of ra-
tional functions.
Given an integral of a rational function

Z
P (x)
dx,
Q(x)
the method is executed as follows:
P (x)
• If the fraction is proper,
Q(x)
1. Decompose into partial fractions.
2. Integrate.
P (x)
• If the fraction is improper,
Q(x)
P (x) R(x)
1. Divide: = S(x) + , where the quotient S(x) and the
Q(x) Q(x)
remainder R(x) are polynomials, the degree of R(x) being less than
the degree of Q(x).
R(x)
2. Decompose the proper fraction into partial fractions.
Q(x)
3. Integrate.
Example 7.8 (Partial Fraction Method).

2x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 − 13x2 + 13x − 1

Z
dx.
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
Solution:
1. Since the fraction is improper, we use long division first:
2x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 − 13x2 + 13x − 1 5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5

= 2x + 1 +
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4 x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
(verify).
2. Decomposing the proper fraction
5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5

x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
into partial fractions (see Example 7.7), we have:
5x3 − 2x2 + 10x − 5 2 1 3x − 1

= + + 2 .
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 3x + 4
3. Now, we integrate:
2x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 − 13x2 + 13x − 1
Z
dx
x4 + x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
Z
2 1 3x − 1
= 2x + 1 + + + 2 dx
x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 3x + 4
3x − 1
Z Z Z Z Z
1 −2
= 2x dx+ 1 dx+2 dx+ (x−1) dx+ dx
x−1 x2 + 3x + 4
it is easier to see what adjustments are required for the
forthcoming substitution when the latter integral is split as follows:
Z Z
1 x 1
= x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− +3 dx− dx
x−1 x2 + 3x + 4 x2 + 3x + 4
since [x2 + 3x + 4]0 = 2x + 3,
introducing the missing constants 2 and 3 for the first integral;
2x + 3 − 3
Z Z
1 3 1
= x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− + dx− dx
x−1 2 x2 + 3x + 4 x2 + 3x + 4
Z Z
1 3 2x + 3 9 1
= x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− + 2
dx− 2
dx
x−1 2 x + 3x + 4 2 x + 3x + 4
Z Z
1 1 3 2x + 3
− dx = x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− + dx
x2 + 3x + 4 x−1 2 x2 + 3x + 4
Z
11 1
− 2
dx
2 x + 3x + 4
substituting for the first integral:
u = x2 + 3x + 4, du = (2x + 3)dx
and completing the square for the second one:
√
x2 + 3x + 4 = x2 + 2(3/2)x + 9/4 − 9/4 + 4 = (x + 3/2)2 + ( 7/2)2 ;
Z Z
1 3 1 11 1
= x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− + du− √ dx
x−1 2 u 2 (x + 3/2) + ( 7/2)2
2
1 3 11 1 x + 3/2
= x2 + x + 2 ln |x − 1| − + ln |u| − √ arctan √ +C
x−1 2 2 7/2 7/2
substituting back and simplifying;
1 3 11 2x + 3
= x2 + x + 2 ln |x − 1| − + ln |x2 + 3x + 4| − √ arctan √ + C
x−1 2 7 7
since x2 + 3x + 4 > 0;
1 3 11 2x + 3
= x2 +x+2 ln |x−1|− + ln(x2 +3x+4)− √ arctan √ +C.
x−1 2 7 7
Let us consider one more example, in which we are to deal with a type 4
partial fraction.
Example 7.9 (Partial Fraction Method).
x3 + 1
Z
dx.
x(x2 + x + 1)2
Solution:
1. Observe that the integrand is a proper fraction, whose denominator is

completely factored. Its partial fraction decomposition is of the form:
x3 + 1 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + .
x(x2 + x + 1)2 x x + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2
Multiplying through by the common denominator x(x2 + x + 1)2 , we
have:
x3 + 1 = A(x2 + x + 1)2 + (Bx + C)x(x2 + x + 1) + (Dx + E)x.
Considering that
(x2 + x + 1)2 = x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
and
x(x2 + x + 1) = x3 + x2 + x,
comparing the corresponding coefficients, we obtain the following 5 × 5
linear system:
at x4 : A +B =0
at x3 : 2A + B + C =1
at x2 : 3A + B + C + D =0
at x1 : 2A +C +E=0
at x4 : A =1
• From the last equation, A = 1.
• Substituting the found value for A into the first equation and solving
it for B, we find B = −1.
• Substituting the found values for A and B into the second equation
and solving it for C, we find C = 1 − 2 · 1 − (−1) = 0.
• Substituting the found values for A, B, and C into the third equation
and solving it for D, we find D = −3 · 1 − (−1) − 0 = −2.
• Substituting the found values for A and C into the fourth equation
and solving it for E, we find E = −2 · 1 − 0 = −2.
Thus, the desired partial fraction decomposition is
x3 + 1 1 (−1)x (−2)x + (−2)
= + 2 + 2 .
x(x2 + x + 1)2 x x +x+1 (x + x + 1)2
2. Now, we integrate:
x3 + 1
Z Z
1 (−1)x (−2)x + (−2)
dx = + + dx
x(x2 + x + 1)2 x x2 + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2
Z Z Z
1 x 2x + 2
= dx − dx − dx
x x2 + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2
since [x2 + x + 1]0 = 2x + 1,
introducing the missing constants 2 and 1
for the second integral and expressing 2 as 1 + 1 in the third one;
2x + 1 − 1
Z Z
1 2x + 1 + 1
= ln |x| − dx − dx
2 x2 + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2
Z Z Z
1 2x + 1 1 1 2x + 1
= ln |x|− dx+ dx− dx
2 x2 + x + 1 2 x2 + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2
Z
1
− dx
(x2 + x + 1)2
substituting for the first and third integrals:
u = x2 + x + 1, du = (2x + 1) dx
and completing the square for the second and fourth ones:
√
x2 + x + 1 = x2 + 2(1/2)x + 1/4 − 1/4 + 1 = (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 ;
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
= ln |x| − du + √ dx − u−2 du
2 u 2 (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2
Z
1
− √ 2 dx
(x + 1/2) + ( 3/2)2
2
integrating and using reduction formula 11 of Appendix B

√
with x + 1/2 for x, a = 3/2, and n = 2 for the fourth integral;
1 1 1 x + 1/2 1
= ln |x| −ln |u| + √ arctan √ +
2 2 3/2 3/2 u
Z
1 x + 1/2 1
− √ √ + √ dx
2( 3/2)2 (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 (x + 1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2
substituting back and simplifying;
1 1 2x + 1 1
= ln |x| − ln |x2 + x + 1| + √ arctan √ + 2
2 3 3 x +x+1

2 x + 1/2 2 2x + 1
− + √ arctan √ +C
3 x2 + x + 1 3 3
1 2 x−1 1 2x + 1
= ln |x| − ln |x2 + x + 1| − − √ arctan √ +C
2 3 x2 + x + 1 3 3 3
since x2 + x + 1 > 0;
1 2 x−1 1 2x + 1
= ln |x| − ln(x2 + x + 1) − − √ arctan √ + C.
2 3 x2 + x + 1 3 3 3
7.5. Applications
1 1
by y = p and y = on the interval [1, 4] about the x-axis.
x(5 − x) 2
Solution: Considering that
1 1
0≤ p ≤ on [1, 4],
x(5 − x) 2
by the washer method ,
 !2 
Z 4 2
1 1
V = π − p  dx by the integration rules;
1 2 x(5 − x)
Z 4 Z 4
1 1
=π 1 dx − dx .
4 1 1 x(5 − x)
1
To decompose the proper fraction , let us use the following
x(5 − x)
shortcut, similar to how it is done when transforming products into sums
(see Sec. 2.2.5):

1 1 1 1
= + .
x(5 − x) 5 x 5−x
Hence,
Z 4 Z 4
1 1
V =π 1 dx − dx by integration rules;
4 1 1 x(5 − x)
Z 4 Z 4 Z 4
1 1 1 1
=π 1 dx − dx + dx
4 1 5 1 x 1 5−x
" 4 4 4 !#
1 1
=π x − ln |x| − ln |5 − x|
4 1 5 1 1

1 1
= π (4 − 1) − (ln 4 − ln 1 − [ln 1 − ln 4])
4 5
since ln 1 = 0 and ln 4 = 2 ln 2;

3 2 ln 4 3 4 ln 2
=π − =π − un.3 .
4 5 4 5
1
by y = 2 and x-axis on the interval [3, 4] about y-axis.
x (x − 2)
Solution: Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of defi-
nition, by the shell method ,
Z 4
1
V = 2πx 2 dx by the integration rules;
3 x (x − 2)
Z 4
1
= 2π dx
3 x(x − 2)
decomposing into partial fractions via the shortcut:

1 1 1 1
= − (cf. Sec. 2.2.5);
x(x − 2) 2 x−2 x
Z 4
1 1 1
= 2π − dx by the integration rules;
3 2 x−2 x
Z 4 Z 4
1 1 1
= 2π dx − dx by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
2 3 x−2 3 x
" 4 4 #

= π ln |x − 2| − ln |x| = π [ln 2 − ln 1 − (ln 4 − ln 3)]
3 3
since ln 1 = 0 and ln 4 = 2 ln 2;
3
= π [ln 3 − ln 2] = π ln un.3 .
2

Z
2x + 3 x2
Z
1. dx 8. dx
(x + 2)(x − 5) x2 + 2x + 1
Z
x x3
Z
2. 2
dx 9. dx
x +x−2 (x − 1)100
Z
x Z
x11
3. dx 10. dx
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4) x + 3x4 + 2
8
Z
1 Z
1
4. 3
dx 11. dx
x +1 x(x − 1)2
10
x3 + 1
Z
1 − x7
Z
5. dx 12. dx
x3 − 5x2 + 6x x(x7 + 1)
Z 2
x Z
x4 + 1
6. 2
dx 13. dx
x + 3x + 2 x(x4 + 5)(x5 + 5x + 1)
Z
1 Z
x2 + 1
7. dx 14. dx
(x4 − 1)2 x4 + 3x2 + 1
Hint: In problems 8–14, it is recommended to avoid the direct application

of the Partial Fraction Method.
Chapter 8
Rationalizing Substitutions
Definition 8.1 (Rationalizing Substitution).

A rationalizing substitution is a substitution transforming an integral of an
irrational function, which may contain radicals, exponentials, logarithms,
or trigonometric functions, into an integral of a rational function.
In this case, we say that the integral is rationalized.
Here, we consider several integration scenarios implemented via rationaliz-

ing substitutions.
8.1. Integrals with Radicals
Integrals with radicals may be rationalized via an appropriate substitutions.

s !
ax + b
Z
n
8.1.1. Integrals of the Form R x, dx
cx + d
Z r !
n ax + b
R x, dx,
cx + d
where R(·, ·) is a rational function of two variables, is rationalized via the
substitution
r
ax + b
t= n .
cx + d
Example 8.1 (Rationalizing Substitution).
Z √
x+1
dx (a = b = d = 1, c = 0)
x
115
√
substituting: t = x + 1, x = t2 − 1, dx = 2t dt ;
Z
t
= 2t dt by the integration rules;
t2 − 1
t2 t2
Z
1
=2 dt dividing: =1+ 2 (verify);
t2 −1 t2 −1 t −1
Z
1
=2 1+ 2 dt by the integration rules;
t −1
Z Z
1
=2 1 dt + dt
t2 − 1
we need not use the Partial Fraction Method for the second integral,
it is a “tall logarithm” (see the Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A));

1 t − 1
= 2 t + ln +C substituting back and simplifying;
2 t + 1
√
√

x + 1 − 1
= 2 x + 1 + ln √ + C.
x + 1 + 1
Z
8.1.2. Integrals of the Form R x, xm1 /n1 , . . . , xmk /nk dx

Z
R x, xm1 /n1 , . . . , xmk /nk dx,
where R(·, . . . , ·) is a rational function of k + 1 variables, is rationalized via

the substitution
t = x1/n or x = tn ,
m1 mk
where n is the least common denominator of all the fractions ,..., ,
n1 nk
which eliminates all the radicals.
Z Z
1 1
√ √ dx = dx
3
x+ x
4
x + x1/4
1/3
1 1
since 12 is the least common denominator of and ,
3 4
substituting: x = t12 (t ≥ 0), dx = 12t11 dt ;
Rationalizing Substitutions 117
12t11
Z
= 1/3 1/4
dt simplifying;
[t12 ] + [t12 ]
12t11 12t11 12t8
Z Z Z
= dt = dt = dt
t12/3 + t12/4 t4 + t3 t+1
by the integration rules and long/synthetic division (verify);
t8
Z Z
1
= 12 dt = 12 t7 − t6 + t5 − t4 + t3 − t2 + t − 1 + dt
t+1 t+1
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
= 12 t7 dt − t6 dt + t5 dt − t4 dt + t3 dt − t2 dt + t dt
Z Z
1
− 1 dt + dt
t+1
8
t7 t6 t5 t4 t3 t2

t
= 12 − + − + − + − t + ln |t + 1| + C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
substituting back: t = x1/12 and simplifying;
3 12 12
= x2/3 − x7/12 + 2x1/2 − x5/12 + 3x1/3 − 4x1/4 + 6x1/6
2 7 5
− 12x1/12 + 12 ln |x1/12 + 1| + C.
8.2. Integrals with Exponentials

Z
R (ax ) dx,
where R(·) is a rational function, a > 0, a 6= 1, is rationalized via the
substitution
t = ax or x = loga t.
Z
1 1
3x x
dx (a = e) substituting: t = ex , x = ln t, dx = dt ;
e −e t
Z Z
1 1 1
= dt = dt
t3 − t t t2 (t2 − 1)
transforming product into sum,
1 1 1
= 2 − (cf. Examples 2.10);
t2 (t2 − 1) t − 1 t2
Z
1 1
= − dt by the integration rules;
t2 − 1 t2
Z Z
1 1
= 2
− dt
t −1 t2
we need not use the Partial Fraction Method for the first integral,
it is a “tall logarithm” (see the Table of Basic Integrals (Appendix A));

1 t − 1 1
= ln + +C substituting back;
2 t + 1 t
x
1 e − 1
= ln x + e−x + C.
2 e + 1
8.3. Trigonometric Integrals

Z
8.3.1. Integrals of the Form R (tan x) dx

Z
R (tan x) dx,
where R(·) is a rational function, is rationalized via the following substitu-

tion:
1
t = tan x, x = arctan t, dx = 2 dt.
t +1
Z
1
tan5 x dx substituting: t = tan x, x = arctan t, dx = dt ;
t2 + 1
t5 t5
Z
t
= dt by long division: = t3 − t + 2 (verify);
t2 +1 t2 +1 t +1
Z
t
= t3 − t + 2 dt by the integration rules;
t +1
t4 t2
Z Z Z Z
3 t t
= t dt − t dt + dt = − + dt
t2 + 1 4 2 t2 + 1
introducing the missing constant 2;
t4 t2
Z Z Z Z
3 t 1 2t
= t dt − t dt + dt = − + dt
t2 + 1 4 2 2 t2 + 1
substituting: u = t2 + 1, du = 2tdt
t4 t2 t4 t2
Z
1 1 1
= − + du = − + ln |u| + C substituting back;
4 2 2 u 4 2 2
tan4 x tan2 x 1
= − + ln(tan2 x + 1) + C
4 2 2
by the trigonometric identity tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x and the laws of logarithms;
tan4 x tan2 x √ tan4 x tan2 x
= − + ln sec2 x + C = − + ln | sec x| + C.
4 2 4 2
Remark 8.1. Applying reduction formula 5 of Appendix B twice yields

the same result (check ).
Z
8.3.2. Integrals of the Form R (sin x, cos x) dx

Z
R (sin x, cos x) dx,
where R(·, ·) is a rational function of two variables, is rationalized via the

following universal substitution (or Weierstrass1 substitution):
x
t = tan or x = 2 arctan t.
2
The substitution is rationalizing since
2
dx = dt,
1 + t2
and, by the trigonometric identities (Appendix C),
x x
2 tan 1 − tan2 2
sin x = 2 = 2t
, cos x = 2 = 1−t .
x 1 + t2 x 1 + t2
1 + tan2 1 + tan2
2 2
Z
1
dx
cos x + 2
x 2
t = tan , x = 2 arctan t, dx = dt
substituting: 2 1 + t2 ;
2
1−t
cos x =
1 + t2
1 Karl Weierstrass (1815 –1897)
Z
1 2
= 2 dt simplifying and using the integration rules;
1−t 1 + t2
2
+2
Z 1+t Z
2 1 2 t
= 2 2
dt = 2 √ dt = √ arctan √ + C
1 − t + 2(1 + t ) 2
t + ( 3) 2 3 3
substituting back;

2 1 x
= √ arctan √ tan + C.
3 3 2
Remark 8.2. Although the universal substitution always rationalizes the

integrals of the above form, it may lead to cumbersome computations and
is recommended to be avoided whenever possible. Thus,
• for the integral

Z
cos x
dx,
sin x + 1
we can avoid the universal substitution applying the simpler one:
t = sin x + 1 ;
• the integral
Z
1
dx,
1 − sin x
can be found directly (see Examples 5.1).
General Guidelines
on Avoiding the Universal Substitution
• If R(− sin x, cos x) = −R(sin x, cos x) (oddness relative to sin x), the
substitution t = cos x can be used (cf. Sec. 5.2.2).
• If R(sin x, − cos x) = −R(sin x, cos x) (oddness relative to cos x), the
substitution t = sin x can be used (cf. Sec. 5.2.2).
• If R(− sin x, − cos x) = R(sin x, cos x) (joint evenness relative to sin x
1
and cos x), the substitution t = tan x, x = arctan t, dx = 2 dt
t +1
can be used considering that
tan2 x t2 1 1
sin2 x = = and cos2 x = = 2 .
tan2 x + 1 t2 + 1 2
tan x + 1 t +1
Example 8.6 (Avoiding the Universal Substitution).
sin2 x
Z
dx dividing;
sin2 x + 1
Z
1
= 1− 2 dx by the integration rules;
sin x + 1
Z Z Z
1 1
= 1 dx − 2 dx = x − 2 dx
sin x + 1 sin x + 1
since the integrand is jointly even relative to sin x and cos x,
1
t = tan x, x = arctan t, dx = dt
substituting: t2 +1 ;
t2
sin2 x =
t2 + 1
Z
1 1
=x− 2 dt
simplifying and integrating;
t t2 +1
2
+ 1
Z t +1 Z √
1 1 1
=x− dt = x − √ dt = x − √ arctan( 2t) + C
2t2 + 1 2
( 2t) + 1 2
substituting back;
1 √
= x − √ arctan( 2 tan x) + C.
2
8.4. Applications
1
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = and the x-axis on
ex +1
the interval [0, 1].
1
Solution: Since y = > 0 on [0, 1],
ex + 1
Z 1
1
A= dx
0 ex + 1
x t
1
t = ex , x = ln t, dx = dt 0 1 ;
t
1 e
Z e
1
= dt
1 (t + 1)t
transforming product into sum:
1 1 1
= − (cf. Examples 2.10);
(t + 1)t t t+1
Z e
1 1
= − dt by the integration rules;
1 t t+1
Z e Z e
1 1
= dt − dt by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
1 t 1 t+1
e e

= ln |t| − ln |t + 1| = ln e − ln 1 − [ln(e + 1) − ln 2]
1 1
considering that ln e = 1 and ln 1 = 0;
2
= 1 − ln(e + 1) + ln 2 un. .
1
by y = √ 3
and the x-axis on the interval [0, 7] about the y-axis.
x+1
Solution: Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of def-
inition, by the shell method ,
Z 7
1
V = 2πx √ 3
dx by the integration rules;
0 x+1
Z 7
x
= 2π √
3
dx
0 x +1
to rationalize, substitute:
√ x t
t= 3
x + 1, x = t3 − 1, dx = 3t2 dt 0 1 ;
7 2
2 3
t −1 2
Z
= 2π 3t dt multiplying and dividing;
1 t
Z 2
= 2π 3[t4 − t] dt by the integration rules;
1
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
4 4
= 6π [t − t] dt = 6π t dt − t dt
1 1 1

" #
2 2
t5 t2

1 5 5 1 2 2 31 3
= 6π − = 6π (2 − 1 ) − (2 − 1 ) = 6π −
5 1 2 1 5 2 5 2
141π
= un.3 .
5
Observe that the latter integral can be evaluated without being ratio-
nalized as follows:
Z 7
1
V = 2πx √
3
dx by the integration rules;
0 x+1
Z 7
x
= 2π √
3
dx
0 x+1
x t
substituting : t = x + 1, x = t − 1, dx = dt 0 1 ;
7 8
8 8
t−1 t−1
Z Z
= 2π √ dt = 2π dt
1
3
t 1 t1/3
dividing termwise and using the laws of exponents (see Appendix C);
Z 8 Z 8h
t 1 2/3 −1/3
i
= 2π − dt = 2π t − t dt
1 t1/3 t1/3 1

Z 8 Z 8
−1/3
= 2π t2/3 dt − t dt by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
1 1
" 8 8 #
3 5/3 3 2/3 3 5/3 5/3 3 2/3 2/3
= 2π t − t = 2π (8 − 1 ) − (8 − 1 )
5 1 2 1 5 2

93 9 93 9 141π
= 2π − = 2π − = un.3 (cf. Sec. 3.1.6).
5 2 5 2 5

Z
x+1 e2x + 2ex
Z
1. √ dx 8. dx
Z
2x + 1 e2x + 1
1
Z
2. √3
dx 9. tan4 x dx
3x − 1 + 1
sin2 x
Z r
x
Z
3. dx 10. dx
x+2 cos4 x
Z
x3 1
Z
4. √ dx 11. dx
x2 + 6 1 + 3 cos2 x
Z √ Z
1
x 12. dx
5. √ dx 5 + 3 cos x
x+1 Z
Z
1 1
6. √ √ dx 13. dx
x+ 3x 3 sin x + 4 cos x
Z
1
e3x
Z
14. dx
7. dx 2 sin x − cos x + 5
ex − 2
Can We Integrate Them All Now?
Although the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 1) (Theorem 1.5)

guarantees the existence of an antiderivative F for each function f contin-
uous on an interval I, it says nothing about how to find it and whether it
is feasible in terms of the known elementary functions.
Definition 8.2 (Elementary Function).

Elementary functions are
1. Constants.
2. Powers xp .
3. Exponentials ax and their inverses, i.e., logarithms loga x.
4. Trigonometric functions cos x, sin x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x and their
inverses arccos x, arcsin x, arctan x, arccot x, arcsec x, arccsc x.
5. Hyperbolic functions cosh x, sinh x, tanh x, coth x, sech x, csch x and
their inverses.
6. All the functions that can be obtained from the above via combinations
(addition/subtraction, multiplication/division) and compositions.
Some indefinite integrals, although exist, cannot be evaluated in terms of

the elementary functions, e.g.,
Z x
e
1. dx (integral exponential ),
x
Z
1
2. dx (integral logarithm)
ln x
Z
sin x
3. dx (integral sine),
x
Z
4. sin(ex ) dx,
125
Z
2
5. ex dx (Poisson integral ),
Z Z
2
6. sin(x ) dx, cos(x2 ) dx (Fresnel integrals),
Z p
7. x3 + 1 dx.
Remark 8.3. Observe that integral 2 can be reduced to integral 1 via

the substitution x = et and integral 4 to integral 3 via the substitution
t = ex (verify).
Chapter 9
Improper Integrals
There are two essential restrictions in the theory of definite integral

Z b
f (x) dx: both the integration interval and the integrand must be
a
bounded (see Sec. 1.2.2).
The notion of improper integral is introduced in order to overcome these
restrictions, i.e., to be able to integrate over unbounded intervals or have
unbounded integrands. There are two types of improper integrals accord-
ingly.
9.1. Type 1 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Interval)
Definition 9.1 (Type 1 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Interval)).

A type 1 improper integral is an integral over an unbounded interval.
Depending on the kind of the unboundedness of the integration interval
(right-sided, left-sided, or two-sided ), there are three cases:
Z ∞ Z b Z ∞
f (x) dx, f (x) dx, or f (x) dx,
a −∞ −∞
where a and b are real numbers.
9.1.1. Right-Sided Unboundedness

Z ∞
Definition 9.2 (Improper Integral f (x) dx).
a
Suppose that a function f : [a, ∞) → R, where a is a real number, is
integrable on the interval [a, t], i.e., the definite integral
Z t
f (x) dx
a
127
exists (see Definition 1.6), for each t ≥ a.
Remark 9.1. In particular, this is the case if f is continuous on [a, ∞)

(Corollary 1.1).
The improper integral of f from a to ∞

Z ∞
f (x) dx
a
is said to converge or to be convergent if the limit

Z t
lim f (x) dx
t→∞ a
exists and is finite, in which case we say that the limit is the integral’s value
and write
Z ∞ Z t
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx.
a t→∞ a
If the limit either does not exists or is infinite, the improper integral is said
to diverge or to be divergent. In the latter case, we assign to the improper
integral the value ±∞, respectively, and write
Z ∞
f (x) dx = ±∞.
a
Examples 9.1 (Improper Integrals).

Evaluate the improper integral or show that it diverges.
Z ∞
1. cos x dx is divergent since
0
Z t t

lim cos x dx = lim sin x = lim [sin t − sin 0] = lim sin t
t→∞ 0 t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
0
does not exist.
Z ∞
2. 1 dx
is divergent since
0
Z t t

lim 1 dx = lim x = lim [t − 0] = lim t = ∞.
t→∞ 0 t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
0
Z ∞
Hence, 1 dx = ∞.
0
Improper Integrals 129
Z ∞
1
3. √ dx is divergent since
1
3
x
Z t t
−1/3 3 2/3 3 h 2/3 i
lim x dx = lim x = lim t − 1 = ∞.
t→∞ 1 t→∞ 2 t→∞ 2
1
Z ∞
1
Hence, √ dx = ∞.
1
3
x
Z ∞
1
4. dx is convergent since
1 x2
Z t t
1 1 1
lim dx = lim − = lim 1 − = 1 − 0 = 1.
t→∞ 1 x2 t→∞ x 1 t→∞ t
Z ∞
1
Hence, dx = 1.
1 x2
Z ∞
3
5. x2 e−x dx is convergent since
0
Z t
3
lim x2 e−x dx introducing the missing constant 3;
t→∞ 0
1 t −x3 2
Z
= lim e 3x dx
t→∞ 3 0
x u
u = x3 , du = 3x2 dx, t t3 ;
0 0
Z t3
1
= lim e−u du by the Newton-Leibniz Formula;
t→∞ 3 0
t3
1 −u 1h 3
i 1 1
= lim −e = lim 1 − e−t = [1 − 0] = .
t→∞ 3 t→∞ 3 3 3
0
Theorem 9.1 (Type 1 p-Integrals).

Let a > 0. Then the improper integral
Z ∞
1
p
dx
a x
converges for p > 1 and diverges for p ≤ 1.
Proof.
(a) For p > 1,
Z t t
1 1 1 1
x−p dx = lim x−p+1 = lim

lim −
t→∞ a t→∞ −p + 1 t→∞ −p + 1 tp−1 ap−1
a
considering that p − 1 > 0;

1 1 1
= 0 − p−1 = .
−p + 1 a (p − 1)ap−1
Z ∞
1 1
Hence, p
dx = p−1
.
a x (p − 1)a
(b) For p < 1,

Z t t
1 1
x−p dx = lim x−p+1 = lim
1−p
− a1−p

lim t
t→∞ a t→∞ −p + 1 t→∞ −p + 1
a
considering that 1 − p > 0;
= ∞.
Z ∞
1
Hence, dx = ∞.
a xp
(c) For p = 1,
Z t t
1
lim dx = lim ln |x| = lim [ln t − ln a] = ∞.
t→∞ a x t→∞ t→∞
a
Z ∞
1
Hence, dx = ∞.
a x
9.1.2. Left-Sided Unboundedness

Z b
−∞
Suppose that a function f : (−∞, b] → R, where b is a real number, is
integrable on the interval [t, b], i.e., the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
t
exists, for each t ≤ b.
Remark 9.2. In particular, this is the case if f is continuous on (−∞, b].
The improper integral of f from −∞ to b

Z b
f (x) dx
−∞

Z b
lim f (x) dx
t→−∞ t
and write
Z b Z b
−∞ t→−∞ t
Z b
f (x) dx = ±∞.
−∞

Z 0
1. sin x dx is divergent since
−∞
Z 0 0

lim sin x dx = lim [− cos x] = lim [cos t − cos 0]
t→−∞ t t→−∞ t→−∞
t
= lim [cos t − 1] does not exist.
t→−∞
Z −1
1
2. dx is convergent since
−∞ x2
Z −1 −1
1 1 1
lim dx = lim − = lim 1 + = 1 + 0 = 1.
t→−∞ t x2 t→−∞ x t t→∞ t
Z −1
1
Hence, dx = 1.
−∞ x2
Z 0
3. ex dx is convergent since
−∞
Z 0 0
ex dx = lim ex = lim [1 − et ] = 1 − 0 = 1.

lim
t→−∞ t t→−∞ t→−∞
t
Z 0
Hence, ex dx = 1.
−∞
9.1.3. Two-Sided Unboundedness

Z ∞
−∞
Suppose that a function f : (−∞, ∞) → R and, for any real a < b, is
integrable on the interval [a, b], i.e., the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
exists.
Remark 9.3. In particular, this is the case if f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
If for some real a, both improper integrals

Z a Z ∞
f (x) dx and f (x) dx (9.1)
−∞ a
converge, the improper integral of f from −∞ to ∞ is said to converge or

to be convergent and its value is defined as the sum of the values of the two
one-sided improper integrals:
Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx. (9.2)
−∞ −∞ a
Remark 9.4. If both improper integrals in (9.1) converge for some real a,
by the additivity property of definite integral, they converge for any real a
and their sum in (9.2) is independent of the choice of a.
If for some real a, at least one of the one-sided improper integrals in (9.1)
diverges, the two-sided improper integral
Z ∞
f (x) dx
−∞
is said to diverge or to be divergent.


Z ∞
1
1. 2
dx is convergent since
−∞ x + 1
Z ∞ Z t t
1 1
(a) 2+1
dx = lim 2+1
dx = lim arctan x = lim [arctan t
0 x t→∞ 0 x t→∞
0
t→∞
π
− arctan 0] = converges and
2
(b) by the symmetry (the integrand is even),
Z 0
1 π
2+1
dx = converges as well.
−∞ x 2
Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
1 1 1 π π
Hence, 2
dx = 2
dx+ 2
dx = + = π.
−∞ x + 1 −∞ x + 1 0 x +1 2 2
Z ∞
2. ex dx is divergent since
−∞
Z ∞ Z t t
x
e dx = lim e = lim [et − 1] = ∞,
x x

e dx = lim
0 t→∞ 0 t→∞ t→∞
0
Z 0
although (see Examples 9.2) ex dx = 1.
−∞
Z ∞
x
Hence, e dx = 1 + ∞ = ∞.
−∞
Geometric Interpretation
The value of a type 1 improper integral
Z ∞ Z b Z ∞
f (x) dx, f (x) dx, or f (x) dx,
a −∞ −∞
when exists, finite or infinite, represents the net area of the region bounded
by the graph of f (x) and the x-axis on the corresponding interval.
When such a value does not exist, Z as, e.g., for the improper integral
∞
cos x dx,
0
the net area is undefined.
Theorem 9.2 (Comparison Test).
Suppose that functions f, g : [a, ∞) → R, where a is a real number, are
integrable on the interval [a, t] for each t ≥ a and satisfy the inequality
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ cg(x)
with some c > 0 for all sufficiently large x-values.
Then
Z ∞ Z ∞
1. If g(x) dx is convergent, then so is f (x) dx.
a a
Z ∞ Z ∞
2. If f (x) dx is divergent, then so is g(x) dx.
a a
Remark 9.5. The analogous tests are in place for the cases of (−∞, b] and
(−∞, ∞).
Example 9.4 (Using Comparison Test).
Determine whether the improper integral
Z ∞
1 + sin x
√ dx
1 x 10 x
is convergent or divergent.
Solution: Since
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for x ≥ 1,
then
1 + sin x 1 + sin x 2
0≤ √ = ≤ 1.1 for x ≥ 1
x 10 x x1.1 x
and hence, by the Comparison Test, the improper integral
Z ∞
1 + sin x
√ dx
1 x 10 x
converges along with the improper integral
Z ∞
1
1.1
dx,
1 x
which is a p-integral with p = 1.1 > 1.
9.2. Type 2 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Integrand)
Definition 9.5 (Type 2 Improper Integrals (Unbounded Inte-

grand)).
A type 2 improper integral is an integral of an unbounded function over a
bounded interval.
Depending on the kind of the unboundedness of the integrand (at the left
endpoint, at the right endpoint, or inside the interval ), there are also three
cases.
9.2.1. Unboundedness at the Left Endpoint

Definition 9.6 (Unboundedness at the Left Endpoint).
Suppose that a function f : (a, b] → R, where a < b are real numbers,
satisfy the following conditions
(a) f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞ as x → a+;
(b) f is integrable on the interval [t, b], i.e., the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
t
exists, for each a < t ≤ b.
The improper integral of f from a to b
Z b
f (x) dx
a
Z b
lim f (x) dx
t→a+ t
and write
Z b Z b
a t→a+ t
to diverge or to be divergent, in the latter case, we assign to the improper
Z b
f (x) dx = ±∞.
a

Z 1
1
1. √ dx is convergent since
0 x
Z 1 1
−1/2
dx = lim 2x = lim 2[1 − t1/2 ] = 2[1 − 0] = 2.
1/2

lim x
t→0+ t t→0+ t→0+
t
Z 1
1
Hence, √ dx = 2.
0 x
Z 1
1
2. dx is divergent since
0 x2
Z 1 1
1 1 1
lim dx = lim − = lim − 1 = ∞.
t→0+ t x2 t→0+ x t t→0+ t
Z 1
1
Hence, 2
dx = ∞.
0 x
Theorem 9.3 (Type 2 p-Integrals).

Let b > 0. Then the improper integral
Z b
1
p
dx
0 x
converges for p < 1 and diverges for p ≥ 1.
Proof.
(a) For p < 1,

Z b b
−p 1 −p+1 1 1−p
− t1−p

lim x dx = lim x = t→0+
lim b
t→0+ t t→0+ −p + 1 −p + 1
t
considering that 1 − p > 0;
1 b1−p
b1−p − 0 =

= .
−p + 1 1−p
Z b
1 b1−p
Hence, p
dx = .
0 x 1−p
(b) For p > 1,

Z b b
−p 1 −p+1
1 1 1
lim x dx = lim x = t→0+
lim − p−1
t→0+ t t→0+ −p + 1
t −p + 1 bp−1 t
considering that p − 1 > 0;
= ∞.
Z b
1
Hence, dx = ∞.
0 xp
(c) For p = 1,
Z b b
1
lim dx = lim ln |x| = lim [ln b − ln t] = ∞.
t→0+ t x t→0+ t→0+
t
Z b
1
Hence, dx = ∞.
0 x
9.2.2. Unboundedness at the Right Endpoint

Definition 9.7 (Unboundedness at the Right Endpoint).
Suppose that a function f : [a, b) → R, where a < b are real numbers,
satisfies the following conditions
(a) f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞ as x → b−;

(b) f is integrable on the interval [a, t], i.e., the definite integral
Z t
f (x) dx
a
exists, for each a ≤ t < b.
The improper integral of f from a to b

Z b
f (x) dx
a

Z t
lim f (x) dx
t→b− a
and write
Z b Z t
a t→b− a
Z b
f (x) dx = ±∞.
a

Z π/2
1. tan x dx diverges since
0
Z π/2 Z t t

tan x dx = lim tan x dx = lim ln | sec x|
0 t→π/2− 0 t→π/2− 0
= lim ln | sec t| since sec t → ∞ as t → π/2− ;

t→π/2−
= ∞.
Z π/2
Hence, tan x dx = ∞.
0
Z 2
1
2. √ dx converges since
0 2−x
Z t h it √ √
−1/2 1/2
lim (2 − x) dx = lim −2(2 − x) = lim 2[ 2 − 2 − t]
t→2− 0 t→2− t→2−
0
√ √
= 2[ 2 − 0] = 2 2.
Z 2
1 √
Hence, √ = 2 2.
0 2−x
9.2.3. Unboundedness Inside the Interval

Definition 9.8 (Unboundedness Inside the Interval).
Suppose that a function f is defined on an interval [a, b] (−∞ < a < b < ∞),
except, possibly, at a point a < c < b, and satisfies the following conditions:
(a) f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞ as x → c− and x → c+;
(b) f is integrable on the interval [a, t], i.e., the definite integral
Z t
f (x) dx
a
exists, for each a ≤ t < c.
(c) f is integrable on the interval [t, b], i.e., the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
t
exists, for each c < t ≤ b.
If both improper integrals

Z c Z b
f (x) dx and f (x) dx (9.3)
a c
converge, the improper integral of f from a to b is said to converge or to be

convergent and its value is defined as the sum
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c
If at least one of the improper integrals in (9.3) diverges, the improper

integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
is said to diverge or to be divergent.

Z 1
1
1. dx has unboundedness at 0 and diverges since
−1 x
Z 1
1
dx is a divergent type 2 p-integral with p = 1 ≥ 1.
0 x
Thus, the “solution”:
Z 1 1
1
dx = ln |x| = ln 1 − ln 1 = 0
−1 x −1
is incorrect.
Z 2
1
2. √ dx has unboundedness at 0 and converges since
−1
3
x
Z 0 Z t t
1 −1/3 3 2/3 3
(a) √ dx = lim x dx = lim x = t→0−lim [t2/3 − 1]
−1
3
x t→0− −1 t→0− 2 −1 2
3 3
= [0 − 1] = − is convergent,
2 2
Z 2 Z 2 2
1 −1/3 3 2/3 3
(b) √ dx = lim x dx = lim x lim [22/3 − t2/3 ]
= t→0+
0
3
x t→0+ t t→0+ 2 t 2
3 2/3 3 2/3
= [2 − 0] = 2 is convergent.
2 2
Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
1 1 1 3 3 3
Hence, √ dx = √ dx+ √ dx = − + 22/3 = [22/3 −1].
−1
3
x −1
3
x 0
3
x 2 2 2
Remark on Using Newton-Leibniz Formula
As the example of the integral

Z 1
1
dx
−1 x
shows, in the case of a type 2 improper integral with unboundedness inside

the interval, the Newton-Leibniz Formula (Theorem 1.6) cannot be used
without first checking whether the integral converges. If it does, the formula
works just like for a proper definite integral.
Thus, in the prior example,
Z 2 Z 2 2
1 3 2/3 3 h 2/3 i
√ dx = x−1/3 dx = x = 2 −1 .
−1
3
x −1 2 −1 2
Geometric Interpretation
The value of a type 2 improper integral

Z b
f (x) dx,
a
when exists, finite or infinite, represents the net area of the region bounded
by the graph of f (x) and the x-axis on the interval [a, b].
When such a value does not exist, the net area is undefined.
If f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval, the value of the type 2 improper integral when
exists, finite or infinite, represents the area of the region bounded by the
graph of f (x) and the x-axis on the corresponding interval.
Remark 9.6. The analogue of the Comparison Test for type 1 improper
integral also holds for type 2 improper integral.
9.3. Applications

1. Find the volume of “Gabriel’s horn”, i.e., the solid obtained by rotating
1
the region bounded by y = and the x-axis on the interval [1, ∞) about
x
the x-axis.
Solution: By the disk method ,
Z ∞ 2 Z ∞
1 1
A= π dx = π 2 dx by the integration rules;
1 x 1 x
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
=π 2
dx since dx = 1 (see Examples 9.1);
1 x 1 x2
= π un.2 .
2. Find the surface area of the solid of revolution of the preceding problem.
Solution: By the area of the surface of revolution formula,
v " #2 s
0 2
Z ∞ u Z ∞
1u 1 1 1
A= 2π t1+ dx = 2π 1 + − 2 dx
1 x x 1 x x
simplifying and using the integration rules;
∞
√
x4 + 1
Z
= 2π dx = ∞.
1 x3
√ √
x4 + 1 x4 x2 1
Indeed, since 3
≥ 3
= 3 = on [1, ∞),
x x x x
Z ∞√ 4 Z ∞
x +1 1
3
dx ≥ dx = ∞,
1 x 1 x
the latter being a divergent type 1 p-integral with p = 1.
Remark 9.7. The two latter examples demonstrate a somewhat coun-
terintuitive fact that the surface area of a solid with a finite volume may
be infinite.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded
by y = e−x and the x-axis on the interval [0, ∞) about the y-axis.
Solution: Since the rotation axis is perpendicular to the axis of defi-
nition, by the shell method ,
Z ∞ Z t
−x
V = 2πxe dx = lim 2πxe−x dx by the integration rules;
0 t→∞ 0
Z t
= lim 2π xe−x dx
t→∞ 0
by the type 1 partial integration scenario,
u = x, du =R dx
;
dv = e dx, v = e−x dx = −e−x
−x
" t Z t # " t #
= lim 2π −xe−x + e−x dx = lim 2π −te−t − e−x

t→∞ 0 t→∞
0 0
−t −t

= lim 2π −te − e + 1 by the limit laws;
t→∞
h i
= 2π − lim te−t − lim e−t + 1 = 2π [−0 − 0 + 1] = 2π un.3 .
t→∞ t→∞
Indeed,
lim e−t = 0
t→∞
and
t n∞o
lim te−t = {∞ · 0} = lim =
t→∞ t→∞ et ∞
by L’Hôpital’s Rule (see, e.g., [1, 6]);
t0 1 1
= lim = lim t = = 0.
t→∞ [et ]0 t→∞ e ∞

Z ∞ Z ∞
1
1. dx 4. e−x cos x dx
2 x2 + x − 2 0
Z ∞ −1
1
Z
sin(π/x)
2. dx 5. dx
x ln x x2
Ze ∞ Z−∞
∞
x 1
3. √ dx 6. dx
2
x +1
0 −∞ (x2 + x + 1)2
Z 2 Z 3
1 1
7. √ dx 10. dx
1 x −1 1 (x − 2)2/3
Z 1 0
x2
Z
8. 3
dx 11. sec x dx
0 x −1 −π/2
Z 3 Z 1
1
9. √ dx 12. ln x dx
−3 9 − x2 0
b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Mixed Integration Problems

Z Z
1
1. √ dx 14. sin(ln x) dx
2
Z (x2 + 1) x + 1 Z
x −x+1 15. tan3 x dx
2. √ dx
3
x
Z (without Reduction Formulas)
3. (1 − 2x)9 dx
Z
Z 16. sin 3x sin 5x dx
1
4. dx
Z
1 + tan x 17. x cos2 x dx
Z r
1+x Z
5. dx 18. x cot2 x dx
Z 1−x
Z
6. x ln(x4 + 4) dx 19. cos4 x dx
Z
7. sin x cos(cos x) dx (without Reduction Formulas)
Z
1
20. dx
Z
sin(ln x) 2
8.
x
dx Z (sin x + cos x)
Z −√x 1
e 21. 4
dx
9. √ dx Z x +4
x x
Z 22. 4 + 3x2 + 2
dx
10. 2x
e cos 3x dx x
Z 2
cos x
Z 23. dx
11. x arctan x dx Z sin2x
sin x
ex 24. dx
Z
4
12. x
dx Z cos x
Z 1 − 3e3 25.
1
√ 3 dx
x (1 + x)
13. √ dx
x2 + 1
Z
1
26. p dx
x(2 − x)
145
Z
1 Z √
27. dx x2 + 2x
3x x 29. dx
Z e −e x3
1 Z
1
28. √ x dx 30. √ dx
e +1 x x3 − 1
July 4, 2018 14:49 ws-book9x6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations ws-book9x6 page 147
Answer Key
Chapter 2: Direct Integration

2√

1. 5x − 6 + C 1 x − 1
5 16. ln +C
4 x + 3
1
2. − (2 − 3x)11 + C 1
17. √ arctan √
1 + 2x
+C
33
2 2 2
3. x3 + x2 − ln |x| + C x+2
1 18. arcsin +C
4. ex + + C 3
x 1 p
19. √ ln 3x − 1 + 9x2 − 6x − 3

1 2
5. − − 3 +C 3
x 3x +C
6. x2 + 3x + 4 ln |x − 1| + C
√ 20. tan(x) − sin(x) + C
2 3/2
7. x + 6 x − 3x − ln |x| + C 21. − cot x − tan x = −2 csc 2x + C
3
1
3 22. x − cos 2x + C
8. (2x − 1)4/3 (8x + 3) + C 2
112 1 1
3 5 23. x − sin(x + 2) + C
9. x − ln |2x + 3| + C 2 2
2 4 1 1
1 3 √ x 24. sin 2x + sin 8x + C
10. x − 2x + 2 2 arctan √ + C 4 16
3 2 x
25. − cot x + csc x + C = tan + C
11. x3 − 3x2 + 7x − 12 ln |x + 2| + C 2
4x 6x 9x 26. sgn(cos x + sin x)(sin x − cos x)
12. +2 + +C +C
ln 4 ln 6 ln 9
1 1
13. ln |x| − 4 + C 27.
4x 7
p 28. ln 4 − 2
14. arcsin x + ln(x + x2 + 1) + C 5
= arcsin x + arcsinh x + C 29.
6
1 1 π
15. (x + 4)3/2 − x3/2 + C 30. 1 −
6 6 4
147
Chapter 3: Method of Substitution

1
p
1. 2 x2 − 3x + 4 + C 15. (1 − 3x2 )12
p 216
2. ln ex + e2x − 1 + C 1

− (1 − 3x2 )11 + C
1 198
3. arcsin2 x + C 1 x3
2 16. arctan +C
4. ln |ln x − 3| + C 6 2
1 4
p
17. ln x + x8 − 1 + C

5. ln |ln | ln x|| + C 4
1 1 1 2x + 1
6. ln(x2 + 2) + C 18. ln x2 + x + 1 − √ arctan √
2 2 3 3
√
+C

3 2 1 x − 5
7. ln x − 5 + √ ln
√ p
2 5 x + 5 19. − 1 − x2 − arcsin x + C
+C 2
cos 2x 20. −(1 − x2 )1/2 + (1 − x2 )3/2
8. − +C 3
4 1
− (1 − x2 )5/2 + C
1 1 5
9. tan2 x + C or sec2 x + C √
2 2

1 x2 + 1 − 1
3 21. ln √ +C
10. (sin x − cos x)2/3 + C 2 x2 + 1 + 1
2 1 tan x
√ √
1 22. √ arctan √ + C

11. − √ ln 2 cos x + cos 2x + C

2 2
2
1 3 23. cos(1/x) + C
12. ex + C √
3 ex + 1 − 1
24. ln √ x +C
2 √x e + 1 + 1
13. 5 +C
ln 5 π2
1 25.
14. − (1 − 2x6 )4/3 + C 32
16 26. ln(4/3)
Chapter 4: Method of Integration by Parts
1. −x3 e−x − 3x2 e−x − 6xe−x 1 1

7. − x cos 2x + sin 2x + C
− 6e−x + C 4 8
1
2. x2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x + C 8. x arctan x − ln(1 + x2 ) + C
2
3. x ln x − x + C 1 1
√ 9. x cos(ln x) + x sin(ln x) + C
x2 x2 − 1 2 2
4. arcsec x − sgn x +C 10. x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x + C
2 2
2 2x 3 2x 11. −x cot x + ln |sin x| + C
5. e sin 3x − e cos 3x + C
13 13 1 2 1 2
1 1 12. − x2 e−x − e−x + C
6. − ln x − + C 2 2
x x
Answer Key 149
x2 16. −1/2
13. (arctan x)2 − x arctan x
2 1 1
1 1 17. eπ +
+ (arctan x)2 + ln(1 + x2 ) + C 2 2
2 2 8 3 4
√ 18. e +
1 1 + 1 − x2 9 9
14. − arcsin x − ln √
x x
19. 3/2 + π/12
+C √
20. π/9 + 3/3
15. 3 ln 3 − 2
Chapter 5: Trigonometric Integrals

1 1 3
1. − cos 7x − cos 3x + C + x+C
14 6 8
1 1 11. sec x + cos x + C
2. x+ sin 6x + C
2 12 3
12. 3 sin1/3 x − sin7/3 x + C
3. 3x − 4 cos x − sin 2x + C 7
3 1 1
4. x − sin 2x + sin 4x + C 13. − + ln |tan x| + C
2 8 2 tan2 x
5.
x
−
sin 4x
+C csc7 x csc5 x
8 32 14. − + +C
7 5
1 1 1 1
6. x− sin 4x + sin3 2x + C 15. sec4 x − tan2 x − ln |cos x| + C
16 64 48 4
cos3 x cos5 x 1
7. − + +C 16. ln |sec(ln x) + tan(ln x)|
3 5 2
3 5 1
sin x sin x + sec(ln x) tan(ln x) + C
8. − +C 2
3 5
8 π
1 6 17. √ +
9. − sin6 x cos x − sin4 x cos x 9 3 6
7 35
8 16 18. 1/3
− sin2 x cos x − cos x + C √
35 35 19. 2
1 3
10. cos3 x sin x + cos x sin x 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1)
4 8 20. π
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n
Chapter 6: Trigonometric Substitutions

√
1. 3/12 1 p
√ 5. − (3x4 + 4x2 + 8) 1 − x2
15
π 2− 3 +C
2. +
72 24 1 p
p
6. x x2 + 2 − ln x + x2 + 2

3. π/12 2
√ +C
2 1 √
4. + ln( 2 + 1) 1 p 9
p
7. x x2 − 9 + ln x + x2 − 9

2 2
2 2
+C
√ √
9 − 4x2 2 x2 + 2x − 5
8. − − 2 arcsin x + C 12. +C
x 3 6(x + 1)
√ √
9 3x 9x2 − 16 1 x2 ( x4 + 1 + x2 )
9. sgn x arcsec − 13. ln √ +C
8 4 2x2 2 x4 + 1 + 1
+C
1 9 2x − 1
10. − arctan √ 15. arcsin
x2 −2 8 3p
√ 1
x2 − 2 + (2x − 1) 2 + x − x2 + C
+ arctan +C 4
x 1 2 p
1p 2 16. (x + 1) x4 + 2x2 − 1
11. x + 2x + 10(x + 1) 4
2 1 p
9 p 2
− ln(x2 + 1 + x4 + 2x2 − 1)
− ln x + 2x + 10 + x + 1
2
2 +C
+C
Chapter 7: Integration of Rational Functions

1 13

3 − 1/16 − 1/16
x + 1
1. ln |x + 2| + ln |x − 5| + C + ln
7 7 16 x − 1 x − 1 x+1
2 1 +C
2. ln |x + 2| + ln |x − 1| + C
3 3 1
8. x − 2 ln |x + 1| − +C
1 x2 + 1 x+1
3. ln +C
6 x2 + 4 1 3
9. − −
1 1 96(x − 1)96 97(x − 1)97
ln |x + 1| − ln x2 − x + 1

4. 3 1
3 6 − − +C
1 2x − 1 98(x − 1)98 99(x − 1)99
+ √ arctan √ +C
3 3 1 4 1
1 9 10. x + ln(x4 + 1) − ln(x4 + 2) + C
5. x + ln |x| − ln |x − 2| 4 4
6 2

1 1
+
28
ln |x − 3| + C 11. ln x10 − ln |x10 − 1| − 10
3 10 x −1
4 +C
6. 4 ln |x + 2| − − 4 ln |x + 1| 2
x+2 12. ln |x| − ln |x7 + 1| + C
−
1
+C 7
1 x5 + 5x

x+1 13. ln 5 +C
3 x 5 x + 5x + 1
7. arctan x +
8 8(x2 + 1) 1 x2 − 1
14. √ arctan √ +C
5 5x
Answer Key 151
Chapter 8: Rationalizing Substitutions

1 1 1
1. (2x + 1)3/2 + (2x + 1)1/2 + C 8. ln(e2x + 1) + 2 arctan ex + C
6 2 2
1 2/3 1
2. (3x − 1) − (3x − 1)1/3 9. tan3 x − tan x + x + C
2 3
+ ln (3x − 1)1/3 + 1 + C 1

10. tan3 x + C
r 3
x  
3. ln − 1 1 x 1
x + 2 11. arctan tan − x +C

2 2
r
x tan
− ln + 1 2
xr+2
1 1 x
x 12. arctan tan +C
+ (x + 2) +C 2 2 2
x+2
1 2
x
4. (x + 6)3/2 − 6(x2 + 6)1/2 + C 2
1 + 2 tan
3 13. ln r 2
√ √

5. x − 2 x + 2 ln( x + 1) + C 5 x 2 x
4 + 6 tan 2 − 4 tan 2

6. 6x1/6 − 3x1/3 + 2x1/2 − 6 ln(x1/6 +C
+ 1) + C 1

3 x 1

1 14. √ arctan √ tan + √
7. e2x + 2ex + 4 ln |ex − 2| + C 5 5 2 5
2 +C
Chapter 9: Improper Integrals

2 7. 2
1. ln 2
3 8. The integral diverges.
2. The integral diverges.
9. π
10. 6
4. 1/2
5. −2/π
√ 12. −1
4 3
6. π
9
Mixed Integration Problems

√ √
3 8/3 3 5/3 3 2/3

1 2 x2 + 1 − x + 1
1. − √ ln 2. x − x + x +C
2 x+1 8 5 2
+C 1
√ √ 3. − (1 − 2x)10 + C
1 2 x2 + 1 + x − 1 20
= √ ln
1
2 x+1
4. ln |tan x + 1|
+C 2
1 1 x2
− ln tan2 x + 1 + x + C 18. − − x cot x + ln | sin x| + C
4 2 2
1 1
= x + ln |cos x + sin x| + C 3x sin 2x sin 4x
2 2 19. + + +C
r ! 8 4 32
x+1 1
5. 2 arctan 20. − +C
1−x tan x + 1
r 1
− (1 − x)
x+1
+C 21. − ln(x2 − 2x + 2)
1−x 16
1
2 + arctan(x − 1)
x x2 8
6. ln(x4 + 4) − x2 + 2 arctan 1
2 2 + ln(x2 + 2x + 2)
+C 16
1
7. − sin (cos x) + C + arctan(x + 1) + C
8
8. − cos(ln x) + C 1
ln(x2 + 1) − ln(x2 + 2) + C

√ 22.
9. −2e− x + C 2
23. ln | csc x − cot x| + cos x + C
e2x
10. [2 cos 3x + 3 sin 3x] + C tan3 x
13 24. +C
x2 1 1 3
11. arctan x − x + arctan x + C 2 1
2 2 2 25. − √ + √ +C
1 1+ x (1 + x)2
12. − ln |1 − 3ex | + C 26. arcsin(x − 1) + C
3
1 ex − 1

(x2 + 1)3/2 p 2
13. − x +1+C 27. ln x + e−x + C
3 2 e + 1
x √ x
14. [sin(ln x) − cos(ln x)] + C e +1−1
2 28. ln √ x +C
e +1+1
tan2 x
15. − ln | sec x| + C sgn x

2
3/2
2 29. − 1+ +C
1 1 3 x
16. sin 2x − sin 8x + C
4 16 2 p
1 1 1 30. arctan x3 − 1 + C
17. x2 + x sin 2x + cos 2x + C 3
4 4 8
Appendix A
Table of Basic Integrals
Z
1. 0 dx = C on (−∞, ∞).
xn+1
Z
2. xn dx = + C (n 6= −1)
n+1
on interval(s) depending on the exponent n.
Z
1
3. dx = ln |x| + C on each of the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, ∞).
x
ax
Z
4. ax dx = + C (a > 0, a 6= 1) on (−∞, ∞).
ln a
Z
In particular, ex dx = ex + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
5. sin x dx = − cos x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
6. cos x dx = sin x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
7. sec2 x dx = tan x + C on each of the intervals
(−π/2 + nπ, π/2 + nπ), n ∈ Z := {0, ±1, ±2, . . . } .

Z
8. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C on each of the intervals (nπ, π + nπ), n ∈ Z.
Z
9. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C on the same intervals as in 7.
Z
10. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C on the same intervals as in 8.
Z
11. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C = − ln | cos x| + C
153
on the same intervals as in 7.

Z
12. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C on the same intervals as in 8.
Z
13. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C on the same intervals as in 7.
Z
14. csc x dx = − ln | csc x + cot x| + C = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
on the same intervals as in 8.

Z
15. sinh x dx = cosh x + C on (−∞, ∞).
Z
16. cosh x dx = sinh x + C on (−∞, ∞).
For a > 0,
Z
1 1 x
17. dx = arctan + C on (−∞, ∞).
x2 + a2 a a

x − a
Z
1 1
18. (“tall logarithm” ) dx = ln +C
x2 − a2 2a x + a
on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (−a, a), (a, ∞).
Z
1 x
19. √ dx = arcsin + C on (−a, a).
a2 − x2 a
Z
1 p
20. (“long logarithm” ) √ dx = ln |x + x2 ± a2 | + C
x2 ± a2
on (−∞, ∞) for “+”
and on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (a, ∞) for “−”.
Z
1 1 x
21. √ dx = arcsec + C

2
x x −a 2 a a
on each of the intervals (−∞, −a), (a, ∞).
Appendix B
Reduction Formulas
For n = 2, 3, . . . ,
Z Z
1. cosn x dx = + cosn−2 x dx
n n
sinn−1 x cos x n − 1
Z Z
2. sinn x dx = − + sinn−2 x dx
n n
Z Z
3. secn x dx = + secn−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
cscn−2 x cot x n − 2
Z Z
4. cscn x dx = − + cscn−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
tann−1 x
Z Z
5. tann x dx = − tann−2 x dx
n−1
Z n−1 Z
n cot x
6. cot x dx = − − cotn−2 x dx
n−1
Z Z
7. For n = 1, 2, . . . , lnn x dx = x lnn x − n lnn−1 x dx
For a 6= 0 and n = 1, 2, . . . ,
xn eax
Z Z
n
8. xn eax dx = − xn−1 eax dx
a a
xn sin ax n
Z Z
n
9. x cos ax dx = − xn−1 sin ax dx
a a
xn cos ax n
Z Z
10. xn sin ax dx = − + xn−1 cos ax dx
a a
155
For a > 0 and n = 2, 3, . . . ,

Z
1
11. n dx
(x + a2 )
2
" Z #
1 x 1
= + (2n − 3) n−1 dx
(2n − 2)a2 (x2 + a2 )n−1 (x2 + a2 )
Appendix C
Basic Identities of Algebra and

Trigonometry
Algebra
Binomial Formula
For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
n
X n n−k k n n−1 n
(A±B)n = A B = An + A B+· · ·+ AB n−1 +B n ,
k 1 n−1
k=0

n n!
where := , k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
k k!(n − k)!
In particular,
(A ± B)2 = A2 ± 2AB + B 2 (Perfect Square)

3 3 2 2 3
(A ± B) = A ± 3A B + 3AB ± B (Perfect Cube)
Factoring Formula
For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
n−1
X
An − B n = (A − B) An−1−k B k
k=0
n−1 n−2
= (A − B)(A +A B + · · · + AB n−2 + B n−1 ).
In particular,
A2 − B 2 = (A − B)(A + B) (Difference of Squares)

3 3 2 2
A ± B = (A ± B)(A ∓ AB + B ) (Sum/Difference of Cubes)
157
Laws of Exponents
1. Am An = Am+n (Product Rule)
m
A
2. = Am−n (Quotient Rule)
An
n
3. (Am ) = Amn (Power Rule)
n n n
4. (AB) = A B (Power of Product Rule)
n
A An
5. = n (Power of Quotient Rule)
B B
Laws of Logarithms
1. loga (AB) = loga A + loga B (Product Rule)
A
2. loga = loga A − loga B (Quotient Rule)
B
3. loga Ac = c loga A (Power Rule)
Change of Base Formula
loga A
logb A =
loga b
1
In particular, logb a = .
loga b
Trigonometry
Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
csc θ sec θ cot θ
1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
Basic Identities of Algebra and Trigonometry 159
Quotient Identities
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ
Pythagorean Identities
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ
Even-Odd Identities
sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ tan(−θ) = − tan θ
csc(−θ) = − csc θ sec(−θ) = sec θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
Power Reduction/Half-Angle Identities
1 − cos 2θ 1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ

sin2 θ = cos2 θ = tan2 θ =
2 2 1 + cos 2θ
Product-to-Sum Identities
1
cos α cos β = [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)]
2
1
sin α sin β = [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)]
2
1
sin α cos β = [sin(α − β) + sin(α + β)]
2
b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Bibliography
[1] W. Briggs, L. Cochran, B. Gillett, et al., Calculus: Early Transcen-

dentals, 2nd ed., Pearson Education, Inc., Boston, 2015.
[2] V.F. Butuzov, N.Ch. Krutitskaya, G.N. Medvedev, and A.A. Shishkin,
Mathematical Analysis in Questions and Problems, 4th ed., Fizmatlit,
Moscow, 2001 (Russian).
[3] B.P. Demidovich, Collection of Problems and Exercises in Mathe-
matical Analysis, 13th ed., Publishing House of Moscow University,
Moscow, 1997 (Russian).
[4] B.R. Gelbaum and J.M.H. Olmsted, Counterexamples in Analysis,
Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, 2003.
[5] V.P. Minorsky, Collection of Problems in Higher Mathematics, Fiz-
matlit, Moscow, 2006 (Russian).
[6] J. Stewart, Calculus, 3rd ed., Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., Pacific
Grove, California, 1995.
161
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Index
antiderivative, 1 integrable function, 5, 8

arc length formula, 80 Integral Mean Value Theorem, 11
area function, 12 integrals of even and odd functions,
area of the surface of revolution 16
formula, 141 integration by definition, 10
avoiding the universal substitution, Integration by Parts Formula for
120, 121 Definite Integral, 59
Integration by Parts Formula for
back substitution, 36, 47 Indefinite Integral, 51
integration rules for definite integral,
changing integration limits, 46, 47 9
Comparison Test, 133 integration rules for indefinite
convergent improper integral, 128, integral, 5
131, 132, 135, 137, 139
more general use of integral notation,
definite integral, 8 9
direct integration, 20, 29
disk method, 79, 141 Newton-Leibniz Formula, 13
divergent improper integral, 128, 131,
132, 135, 137, 139 Partial Fraction Decomposition, 105,
106
elementary function, 125 Partial Fraction Method, 107, 108,
110
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus partial fractions, 100
(Part 1), 13 Partial Integration Formula, 52
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus perfect substitution, 36
(Part 2), 13 piecewise continuous function, 9
Properties of Definite Integral, 9
improper integral, 127 Properties of Indefinite Integral, 5
indefinite integral, 2
initial value problem, 31 rational function, 99
163
rationalizing substitution, 115 Total Change Theorem, 15

reduction formula, 57 trigonometric integrals, 65, 118
Reduction Formulas for trigonometric substitutions, 84
Trigonometric Integrals, 66 trivial substitution, 39
requirements to reverse substitution, type 1 p-integrals, 129
84 type 1 improper integrals, 127
reverse substitutions, 83 type 1 integrals, 52
Riemann sum, 7 type 2 p-integrals, 136
type 2 improper integrals, 134
shell method, 32, 48, 63, 113, 122, 141 type 2 integrals, 53
Substitution Rule for Definite type 3 integrals, 54
Integral, 45
Substitution Rule for Indefinite universal (Weierstrass) substitution,
Integral, 35 119
Useful Integration Formula, 18
table of gasic integrals, 17
three special types of integrals, 52 washer method, 32, 112

Makrin Integration For Calculus

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INTEGRATION FOR CALCULUS,

ANALYSIS, AND DIFFERENTIAL

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To my mother, Svetlana A. Markina, fondly.

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The calculus is the story this

Amply demonstrated by experience, integral calculus covered in Calculus I

viii Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

1. Indefinite and Definite Integrals 1

x Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

2.2.6 Using Conjugate Radical Expressions . . . . . . . 27

4. Method of Integration by Parts 51

7. Integration of Rational Functions 99

8. Rationalizing Substitutions 115

xii Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

Can We Integrate Them All Now? 125

Mixed Integration Problems 145

Answer Key 147

Appendix B Reduction Formulas 155

Appendix C Basic Identities of Algebra and Trigonometry 157

Indefinite and Definite Integrals

1.1. Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integral

1.1.1. Definitions and Examples

Examples 1.1 (Antiderivatives).

All the above examples have one thing in common: if F is an antiderivative

2 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

and hence, expression (1.1) describes all possible antiderivatives of f on I.

Z real constant (C ∈ R).

Obviously, integration (antidifferentiation) is the process inverse to differ-

Indefinite and Definite Integrals 3

(−π/2 + nπ, π/2 + nπ), n ∈ Z := {0, ±1, ±2, . . . } .

4 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

1.1.2. Validation of Indefinite Integrals

Indefinite and Definite Integrals 5

1.1.3. Which Functions Are Integrable?

1.1.4. Properties of Indefinite Integral (Integration Rules)

6 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

Remark 1.1. For integration, unlike differentiation, the are NO Product/

Exercise 1.2 (No Product/Quotient Rules for Integration).

1.2. Definite Integral

Remark 1.2. The partition intervals need not be of equal length.

Indefinite and Definite Integrals 7

The maximal length of the partition intervals

∆ := max(∆x1 , ∆x2 , . . . , ∆xn )

is called the diameter or norm of the partition.

Definition 1.4 (Riemann Sum).

[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ],

Let x∗k be an arbitrary intermediate point in the kth partition interval

If the partition is regular,

8 Integration for Calculus, Analysis, and Differential Equations

• a left Riemann sum (x∗k = xk−1 = a + (k − 1)∆x, k = 1, 2, . . . , n) is

Definition 1.5 (Net Area).

Indefinite and Definite Integrals 9

1.2.2. Which Functions Are Integrable?