TEACHING EVERY

STUDENT
Bacani, Anamae I.
BS Psychology 3-3 Garvida, Nathalie Aira P.
Vargas, John Mac Niel G.
 What do we know
about teaching?

Wiggins & McTighe, 2006; Teachers are designers- they create

learning environments.
They set goals for their students, develop teaching strategies and
activities, and assess if the goals have been met.

We will focus on how to match teaching to the needs and abilities

of students through differentiated instruction, flexible grouping, and
adaptive teaching.

We will also explore how teacher’s beliefs about their student’s

abilities might influence student learning and teacher-student
relationships
 Objectives
Objective 1 Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the
characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates.
Objective 2 Develop learning Objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy
Objective3 Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, homework,
questioning, and group discussion and how to use Understanding by Design to
integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies.
Objective 4 Define differentiated instruction and adaptive teaching and apply
these approaches to teaching a diverse group of students
Objective 5 Explain the possible effects of a teacher’s expectations, and know how
to avoid the negative implications
 Research on Teaching

Different approaches have been used to

investigate different teaching
approaches

( Floden, 2001; Greeno, Colin & Resnick,

1996; Groschner, Seidel & Shavelson, 2013)
 Research on Teaching

Characteristics of Effective Teachers

Clarity and Organization

Clarity was the most promising teacher behavior for

effective teaching ( Rosenshine & Norma, 1973)
Teachers who provide presentations and explanations tend
to have students who learn more and who rate teachers
more positively (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007; C.V.
Hines, Cruickshank, & Kennedy, 1985)
The clearer and Less vague the Teacher’s explanation and
instructions, the more the students learn ( Everston &
Emmer, 2013)
 Research on Teaching

Characteristics of Effective Teachers

Warmth and Enthusiasm

Teachers’ Enthusiasm for their subject is correlated with
student achievement gains. (M. Keller, Neumann & Fischer,
2013)
Warmth, friendliness, and understanding are the teacher’s
traits most strongly associated with students liking the
teacher and the class.( Hamann et al, 2000; Madsen,
2003)
When teachers are warm and enthusiastic, they are able
to catch and hold student’s attention. ( M. Keller, 2013)
 RESEARCH FOR TEACHING
Knowledge for Teaching

Pedagogical Content Knowledge - Combines a mastery of academic

content while knowing how to teach the content and how to match
instructions to students' differences.
Reflective Practitioners - Expert teachers who have a clear goal
and know how to take individual student differences in account
when planning.
Knowledge is necessary for effective teaching because being
knowledgeable helps teachers be clearer, more organized, and more
responsive to student questions ( Aloe & Becker, 2009)
 RESEARCH FOR TEACHING

Recent Research on Teaching

Pianta has identified

three aspects of
classroom climate which
are consistent

with the
characteristics of
teachers identified in
earlier research.
Affective Dimension,
Cognitive Dimension and
behavioral dimensions.
 The First Step:
Planning
1. Research on Planning

Time is of the essence in planning— Planning influences what students

will learn because planning transforms the available time and
curriculum materials into activities, assignments, and tasks for students.

A little planning does go a long way in terms of what will be taught

and what will be learned— Planning done at the beginning of the year
is particularly important, because many routines and patterns, such as
time allocations, are established early.

Teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit,

week, and day
 The First Step:
Planning
1. Research on Planning

Plans are not made to be broken—but sometimes they need to be bent

a bit— plans reduce—but do not eliminate—uncertainty in teaching.
Planning must allow flexibility.

To plan creatively and flexibly, teachers need to have wide-ranging

knowledge about students, their interests, and their abilities; the
subjects being taught; alternative ways to teach and assess
understanding; how to apply and adapt materials and texts; and how
to pull all this knowledge together into meaningful activities.
 The First Step:
Planning
1. Research on Planning

In planning, you can do it yourself—but collaboration is better.

Japan called kenshu or “mastery through study”

In the United States, this process is called lesson study (Morine-

Dershimer, 2006).
 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Objectives for Learning

AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS: THE COMMON CORE

The purposes of the Common Core Standards are “clear goals” and
“confident well-prepared students.” To reach these targets, the
standards are designed to be:
Research- and evidence-based
Clear, understandable, and consistent

Aligned with college and career expectations

Based on rigorous content and application of knowledge through
higher-order thinking skills
Built on the strengths and lessons of current state standards
Informed by other top-performing countries in order to prepare all
students for success in our global economy and society
(corestandards.org/about-the-standards/)
THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Objectives for Learning

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Objectives for Learning

AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS: TECHNOLOGY

1. Facilitate and inspire student learning and creativity
2. Design and develop digital-age learning experiences and assessments
3. Model digital-age work and learning
4. Promote and model digital citizenship and responsibility
5. Engage in professional growth and leadership.

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Objectives for Learning

MAGER: START WITH THE SPECIFIC

• According to Robert Mager (1975, 1997), a good behavioral objective

has three parts; First, it describes the intended student behavior. Second,

it lists the conditions under which the behavior will occur: How will this

behavior be recognized or tested? Third, it gives the criteria for

acceptable performance on the test.

GRONLUND: START WITH THE GENERAL

• Gronlund and Brookhart (2009) offer a different approach, which is

often used for writing cognitive objectives. They believe an objective

should be stated first in general terms (understand, solve, appreciate,

etc.). Then, the teacher should clarify by listing a few sample behaviors

that provide evidence that the student has attained the objective.
THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Objectives for Learning

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies

In the 1950s, a group of experts in educational evaluation led by

Benjamin Bloom set out to improve college and university

examinations.
Bloom and his colleagues developed a taxonomy, or classification

system, of educational objectives. Objectives were divided into three

domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Bloom’s taxonomy of the thinking domain, or cognitive domain, is

considered one of the most significant educational writings of the

20th century (L. W. Anderson & Sosniak, 1994).

The six basic objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy are knowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (B. S.

Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956).

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies

The 2001 revision of Bloom’s taxonomy added a new dimension—to

recognize that cognitive processes must process something—you have

to remember or understand or apply some form of knowledge.

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies

THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The objectives in the taxonomy of the affective domain, or domain of

emotional response, have not yet been revised from the original

version.
The affective domain has five basic objectives: Receiving,

Responding, Valuing, Organization, and Characterization by

value
THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
James Cangelosi (1990) provided a useful way to think about

objectives in the psychomotor domain, or realm of physical ability

objectives, as either (1) voluntary muscle capabilities that require

endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, or speed, or (2) the ability to

perform a specific skill.

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

In constructivist approaches, planning is shared and negotiated.

The teacher and students together make decisions about content,

activities, and approaches.

There is no reason to work on spelling skills, then listening skills,

then

writing skills, and then social studies or science. All these abilities can

be developed together if students work to solve authentic problems.

Some topics for integrating themes with younger children are people,

friendship, communications, habitats, communities, and patterns.

Possibilities for older students are given in Table 14.5

 THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

 Teaching approaches
Direct Instruction

Coined by Rosenshine & Stevens (1986)

Good, 2008 uses the term active teaching.
It applies best to the teaching basic skills- to clearly
structured knowledge and essential skills. Examples
are science facts, mathematics, reading vocabulary,
and grammar rules.
 TEACHING APPROACHES
Direct Instruction

Rosenshine’s Six Teaching 4. Give Feedback and

Functions. Correctives baased on
1. Review and check the student answers
previous day’s work 5. Provide independent
2. Present new material practice
3. Provide Guided 6. Review weekly and
monthly to consolidate
practice
learning
 Teaching
Approaches
Advance Organizer - An introductory statement that
encompasses all the information that will follow.

They direct your attention to what is important

They highlight relationships among ideas
and will remind you of relevant information you already
have
 Teaching
Approaches

Two types of Advance Organizers ( Mayer, 1984)

Comparative Organizers activate already existing
schemas
Expository Organizers provide new information.
WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION
WORK
It could be a resource that students use to
construct understanding if done well.

 Teaching
Approaches
Evaluating Direct Instruction
Teacher's presentations can sometimes put students in a
passive position ( H.J. Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005)
Scripted Cooperation - This method gives students a
chance to check their understanding, organize their
thinking and translate ideas into their own words.
 SEATWORK & HOMEWORK

Seatwork
should follow up on a lesson and give students
supervised practice.
Requires careful monitoring from the supervising
teacher.

Homework
Students must understand the assignment before
answering the homework provided
Not all families know how to help their children
with homework.
 TEACHING APPROACHES
Questioning, Discussion, and Dialogue

1. Questioning, Discussion, and Dialogue

Is also called Recitation

I - Initiation ( Teacher Asks Questions)

R - Response ( Student Answers)
Evaluation/Reaction( Praising,
correcting,probing or expanding)
March 2O21
 TEACHING APPROACHES
Questioning, Discussion,

and Dialogue

Questions have several roles in cognition

Help students rehearse information
Work to identify gaps in student’s knowledge
base

Provoke curiosity and Long-term interest

Kinds of Questions
Convergent Questions - Only one right answer
Divergent Questions - many possible answers

 Responding to student’s answers

Hattic and Timperley Model (2007)

Task Feedback - "You need to include more about the
Subject."
Process feedback- "This page may make more sense if you
use the strategies we talked about earlier."
Self Regulation Feedback- "You already know the key
features of the opening of an argument"
Self Feedback-" You are a great student. "
 Group Discussion

Is similar to the recitation strategy

Instead of the teacher asking questions, they ask the questions
The students are directly involved and have the chance to participate.
Motivation and Engagement can be higher.
They learn to express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate
different views.
Can be unpredictable and turn into ignorance.
Can be dominated by a few students while the rest daydream.
 TEACHING APPROACHES
Fitting Teaching

to Your Goal

Fitting Teaching to Your Goals

Different goals and students' needs require
different teaching methods.

Direct instructions lead to better performance

of achievement tests
Informal Methods are associated with better
performance in tests of creativity.

 Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design

Wiggins& Mctighe (2006) Understanding by Design

The focus on deep understanding is characterized by;
1. The ability to explain
2. Ability to interpret
3. The ability to apply
4. Ability to have perspective
5. Ability to Emphasize
6. Ability to have self-knowledge about a topic
Differentiated Instruction
and Adaptive Teaching
 Within-Class and Flexible Grouping

Differences in students’ prior knowledge are a major challenge

for teachers, especially in subjects that build on previous
knowledge and skills such as math and science (Loveless,
1998).
THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING— Students in many
classes and schools are grouped by ability, even though there
is no clear evidence that this within-class ability grouping is
superior to other approaches.
 WITHIN-CLASS AND FLEXIBLE GROUPING

Thoughtfully constructed and well-taught ability groups in

math and reading can be effective, but the point of any
grouping strategy should be to provide appropriate challenge
and support—that is, to reach children within their zone of
proximal development, that area where students can learn and
develop, given the appropriate support (Vygotsky, 1997)
FLEXIBLE GROUPING— In flexible grouping, students are
grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs.
Flexible grouping approaches include high-level instruction
and high expectations for all students, regardless of their
group placement (Corno, 2008).
 ADAPTIVE TEACHING

Lyn Corno (2008) has developed a model of adaptive teaching

that also addresses learner differences.
In this approach, teachers see “learner variation as an
opportunity for learning from teaching rather than as

obstacles to be overcome”
ADAPTIVE TEACHING

REACHING EVERY STUDENT: DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION IN INCLUSIVE

CLASSROOMS

Effective teaching for students with disabilities does not

require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good
teaching practices and sensitivity to all your students.
To accomplish the first goal of academic learning, students
with learning disabilities appear to benefit from using
extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from
advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they
already know or stating clear objectives (H. L. Swanson, 2001).
REACHING EVERY STUDENT: DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION IN INCLUSIVE

CLASSROOMS

Identify the environmental, curricular, and instructional

demands of your classroom.
Note students’ learning strengths and needs.
Check for potential areas of student success.
Look for potential problem areas.
Use information gathered to brainstorm instructional
adaptations.
Decide which adaptations to try.
Evaluate student progress.
 TECHNOLOGY AND DIFFERENTIATION

Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system

that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional

capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Goldman, Lawless,

Pellegrino, & Plants, 2006).

A well-designed computer instructional program is engaging
and

interactive—two important qualities for students who have problems

paying attention or a history of failure that has eroded motivation.

Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching
One way to make all instruction more appropriate and effective is to

know your students and develop trusting relationships with them.

 TOPIC 5

TEACHER
EXPECTATION
 A

Two Kinds of Expectation Effects

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The teacher’s belief about the student’s abilities
has no basis. Students will match the initially
inaccurate expectation

Often to be stronger observed in early grades

Sustaining Expectation Effect
Teachers fail to alter their expectations to take
account of the improvement of students.
B. SOURCES OF EXPECTATIONS
intelligence test scores
gender
notes from previous teacher
the medical or psychological
reports in students’ permanent files
prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters
appearance
previous achievement
Socio Economic Status (SES)
race and ethnicity
andthe actual behaviors of the student
 C
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?

Instructional Teacher- student

Strategies interactions
 D
Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations
Use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, and other
teachers very carefully.
Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies.
Provide both challenge and support.
Be especially careful about how you respond to low-achieving students
during class discussions.
Use materials that show a wide range of ethnic groups.
Make sure that your teaching does not reflect racial, ethnic, or sexual
stereotypes or prejudice.
Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures.
Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn—and mean
it.
Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges.
Monitor your nonverbal behavior.
SUMMARY OF THE LESSON
 Research on Teaching

What methods have been used to study teaching?

What are the general characteristics of good
teaching?
What do expert teachers know?
What does the new latest research on teaching
show?
 The First Step: Planning

What are the levels of planning, and how do they

affect teaching?
What is an instructional objective?
Describe the three taxonomies of educational
objectives
Describe constructivist planning.
 Teaching Approaches
What is direct instruction?
Distinguish between convergent and divergent and high
level versus low-level questions.
How can wait time affect student learning?
What are the uses and disadvantages of group discussion?
How can you match teaching to your goals?
How can you use Understanding by Design to plan quality
instruction?
 Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching

What are the problems with ability grouping?

What are the alternatives available for grouping in classes,
including flexible grouping?
What is adaptive teaching?
What characterizes effective teaching for students with
disabilities?
What resources do teachers have to work effectively with
students with disabilities?
 Teacher Expectations

What are some sources of teacher expectations?

What are the two kinds of expectation effects, and
how do they happen?
What are the different avenues for communicating
teacher expectations?