Chemigation Via Sprinkler Irrigation:
Current Status and Future Development
E. Dale Threadgill
MEMBER
ASAE
ABSTRACT
HIS article provides a summary of the current state
T of the art of chemical application through irrigation
systems. Chemigation of both soil and foliar applied
chemicals can be effective and is economical. Eighty-four
percent of the total chemigated area (4.6 million ha) in
the U.S. was chemigated with sprinkler systems in 1983
with 43%, 61% and 3.5% of the sprinkler, trickle and
surface irrigated areas, respectively, being chemigated at
least once.
INTRODUCTION
Chemigation can be defined as the application of a
chemical (fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide,
nematicide, etc.) via an irrigation system by injecting the
chemical into water flowing through the system.
Although the term chemigation is relatively new, the
concept of applying fertilizer in the form of animal
manure in irrigation water likely began soon after the use
of irrigation. The basic idea of applying commercial
fertilizer through a sprinkler irrigation system
(fertigation) was studied by Bryan and Thomas (1958)
more than 25 years ago. Advances in irrigation system
and injection equipment design have stimulated research
which has resulted in the expansion of chemigation to
include herbicides ( h e r b i g a t i o n ) , fungicides
(fungigation), insecticides (insectigation) and
nematicides (nemagation). Thus, chemigation now
encompasses both soil and foliar applied chemicals.
The rapid development of chemigation technology
coupled with the increasing interest in this technique by
agricultural producers stimulated scientists to hold a
National Symposium on Chemigation in 1981 and the
2nd National Symposium on Chemigation in 1982. The
scheduling of a 3rd National Symposium on Chemigation
in 1985 and the apparent rapid adoption of chemigation
as a crop management practice makes it appropriate to
summarize the current status and consider the future
development of this technology.
COMPONENTS OF CHEMIGATION SYSTEMS
Adaptability of Irrigation Systems
Application of chemicals by chemigation occurs only
where the irrigation water is applied. Therefore, surface
Article was submitted for publication in December, 1984; reviewed
and approved for publication by the Soil and Water Div. of ASAE in
May, 1985.
Project is supported by State and Hatch funds allocated to the
University of Georgia College of Agriculture Experiment Stations and
by grant funds from the Richard King Mellon Foundation.
The author is: E. DALE THREADGILL, Professor and Head,
Agricultural Engineering Dept., University of Georgia, Coastal Plain
Experiment Station, Tifton, GA.
16 © 1985 American Society of Agricultural Engineers 0001-2351/85/0101-0016$02.00
and trickle/drip irrigation systems can only be
successfully used for chemigation of soil applied
chemicals. Only sprinkler type irrigation systems will
accomodate both soil and foliar applied chemicals. Since
the current interest in chemigation centers around total
chemigation (i.e. the application of all types of
chemicals), the discussion in this article will pertain only
to sprinkler irrigation systems unless otherwise
specifically noted.
Uniformity of chemical distribution is an essential
element of successful chemigation and is usually
proportional to the uniformity of water distribution by
the irrigation system. The uniformity of application of
water and chemicals by a sprinkler irrigation system can
be expressed as the coefficient of uniformity, CU (Pair,
1983). The CU for applications of water from properly
calibrated ground-based sprayers ranges from 50 to 92%
(Bode et al., 1968) while aircraft normally obtain a CU of
about 70% (Yates, 1962). Most types of sprinkler
irrigation systems can be designed and operated to
achieve CU's of 85% or more. However, many solid-set
and periodic lateral move systems achieve CU's of only
70 to 75% while traveling gun type systems normally
achieve a CU of 80% or less under optimum conditions
and most farmers obtain CU's of less than 70% with
these systems (Heermann and Kohl, 1980). A
continuously moving lateral sprinkler system such as the
center pivot normally achieves a CU of 90% when
properly calibrated and operated (Pair, 1983). The
higher CU's of continuously moving lateral sprinkler
systems make them ideally suited for total chemigation.
The operator must recognize and determine whether the
lower uniformities of other types of sprinkler irrigation
systems are acceptable for chemigation.
Chemigation Equipment Requirements
Safety system components: The minimum equipment
required for chemigation is an irrigation system, an
irrigation pumping station, a chemical injection pump
and a chemical reservoir. However, chemigation should
never be attempted with only this minimum equipment.
The installation and proper maintenance of safety
equipment to prevent backflow of chemicals into the
water source or backflow of water into the chemical
reservoir is essential. Liability and potential litigation
resulting from inadequate safety equipment or improper
use of chemigation must be recognized. Although most
states have not yet adopted legislation mandating
chemigation safety measures, several states do have
specific legislation addressing this requirement (Georgia,
1981; Wisconsin, 1979; Florida, 1984) and most other
states have ample legal basis for regulating chemigation
and providing redress to parties who suffer injury or
damage as a result of chemigation (Davis, 1981).
APPLIED ENGINEERING in AGRICULTURE
 Irrigation Pipe Line
Anti-siphon Device Irrigation Pump
Check Valve
Pressure Switch
Discharge Line'
Suction Line
Strainer
Fig. 1—Safety devices and arrangement for chemigation through an
engine powered irrigation system.
Additionally EPA is currently developing label
requirements for the registration of pesticides for
application via chemigation (Gray, 1984).
The chemigation safety features recommended for
both internal combustion engine and electric motor
powered irrigation pumping plants are described in
ASAE Engineering Practice EP409 (ASAE, 1983). These
safety features are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 along with
additional suggested devices which serve as back-up
safety features when primary devices fail or for
additional primary safety. These safety features are
comprised of two safety systems - a backflow prevention
system and an interlocking injection system. The
normally recommended backflow prevention system
consists of a check valve in the irrigation mainline and a
vacuum breaker arranged to keep chemical or a mixture
of water and chemical from draining or siphoning back
into the water source. An additional back-up backflow
prevention system component is a low pressure activated
drain located between the anti-siphon device and the
irrigation pump to drain into a storage reservoir any
chemical which may slowly leak through the check valve.
The normally recommended interlocking injection
system consists of a check valve located in the chemical
injection line and the interlocking of the power supplies
for the irrigation pump and the chemical injection
pump. The check valve prevents water from flowing into
the chemical reservoir and overflowing water and
chemical onto the ground. Power supply interlocking
prevents the chemical injection pump from continuing to
inject chemical into the mainline and potentially
overflowing or backflowing when the irrigation system
stops. An additional safety device for the interlocking
system is a normally closed solenoid valve located in the
Irrigation Pipe Line
Electric Motor
and Pump
Anti-siphon Device
Check Valve
Pressure Switch
Discharge Line
Fig. 2—Safety devices and arrangement for chemigation through an
electric motor powered irrigation system.
Vol. l(l):June, 1985
suction line of the chemical injection pump and
interlocked with the power supply for the injection pump
to prevent flow in either direction when the injection
pump stops.
Additionally, a pressure switch in the chemical
injection line may be desirable. Electrically interlocking
this switch with the safety shutdown system for the
irrigation system will provide automatic shutdown of the
irrigation and chemigation systems if pressure is lost in
the injection discharge line.
Injection Pump: A wide variety of injection pumps are
available including water, electric motor and engine
powered units. Both piston and diaphragm type pumps
are commonly used for injection into high pressure
irrigation systems with the diaphragm type becoming
increasingly more popular. In some areas, a precision
built water motor connected internally to a piston
injector pump which operates on water power is used
(Harrison, 1982). The injection pump should be accurate
within one-half to one percent, easily adjusted for
different injection rates, and mechanically rugged with
the internal and external components being of
acceptably noncorrosive materials. Based upon eight
years of chemigation research by a team of scientists at
the University of Georgia's Coastal Plain Experiment
Station where both piston and diaphragm pumps from a
variety of manufacturers have been used, diaphragm
pumps are the preferred design. Most diaphragm pumps
have the capability of handling a wide variety of chemical
formulations, are more easily constructed of
noncorrosive materials, are more durable, and lend
themselves to design for easy adjustment of injection rate
while the pump is operating.
The range of chemical application rates via
chemigation ranges from 1.18 L/ha (1 pt/ac) for foliar
applied materials such as insecticides to more than 285
L/ha (30 gal/ac) for liquid fertilizer solutions such as
nitrogen (Stansell, 1981) and on up to 425 L/ha (45
gal/ac) for the application of suspension fertilizer
mixtures with slurry injection pumps. These rates
applied with a 61 ha center pivot translate nominally to,
respectively, 7 L/h, 1600 L/h and 2380 L/h as required
injection rates. An injection pump that is capable of
accurate injection in the range of 7-2380 L/h (2-629 gph)
is neither available nor practical. Thus, at least two
injection pumps, one with a low and one with a high
injection rate range, are required for systems used for
total chemigation. Three pumps may be necessary in
some situations. Chemigation pumps having capabilities
within any desired range are generally available.
A survey of injection pumps indicates that available
pulsation rates range from 54 to 3500 pulses/min.
Preliminary research data have shown that the pulsation
rate of the injection pump can have a significant effect on
the efficacy of some insecticide formulations (Young and
Threadgill, 1984). Groselle et al. (1984) found that a
pulsation rate of 400 pulses/min produced significantly
smaller droplets of an oil-formulated insecticide in the
mainline of an irrigation system model than were
generated at higher (725 pulses/min) or lower (72
pulses/min) pulsation rates. However, these differences
were eliminated when the insecticide passed through a
single orifice impact sprinkler. Insufficient information
is currently available to serve as a criteria for pulsation
rate selection. Research to further define the effects of
pulsation rate is continuing.
17

A. Straight Center B. Flush
C. Upstream D. Downstream
Flow %
Fig. 3—Four injection port orientations.
Chemical Reservoir: Criteria for selecting a chemical
reservoir for chemigation are similar to those used for
selecting reservoirs for conventional chemical
applications. For insecticide applications at low rates, a
smaller reservoir may be desirable while some
formulations of pesticides and plant nutrients may
require a very large reservoir equipped for either
mechanical or hydraulic agitation of the chemical.
Injection Port: The configuration of the injection port
and its orientation in the main irrigation line have a
significant effect on the droplet size distribution of oil-
formulated pesticides and can significantly affect their
efficacy. Fig. 3 illustrates four injection port orientations
that have been studied. In studies with oil-formulated
insecticides injected into a model of a center pivot system
Groselle (1984) found that orientation C (Fig. 3)
produced significantly smaller oil-insecticide droplets in
the mainline of the irrigation system than did orientation
D. However, he noted that there were no differences in
the oil-insecticide droplet sizes between either of these
orientations after the material was emitted from a single
orifice impact sprinkler. In a related study Young (1984)
observed that injection of this oil-formulated insecticide
by orientation D is a small center pivot produced
significantly better insect control than when orientation
C was used. Further research by Cochran et al. (1984)
illustrated that irrigation system pressure, injection port
orientation and sprinkler characteristics definitely affect
the droplet size distribution of oil-formulated pesticides.
Further research is needed to definitively characterize
the effects of these variables and the oil-pesticide fluid
properties on pesticide distribution and efficacy. The
influence of these factors upon the efficacy of nonoil-
formulated chemicals has not yet been studied.
Experience by the research team at the Coastal Plain
Experiment Station has illustrated that simultaneous
injection of two or more chemicals is quite practical.
However, incompatibility problems such as
precipitation, etc., which usually occur with tank
mixtures of incompatible chemicals will also occur when
two or more incompatible chemicals, injected from
separate injection pumps, are introduced into the
irrigation mainline through a common injection port.
Under these circumstances, injection of each chemical
through a separate injection port located at least 150 mm
from any other injection port has solved the problem.
Irrigation System Characteristics: Although limited
information is available, some effects of sprinkler design
and flow velocity within the irrigation mainline upon
chemical distribution and efficacy have been observed.
Some sprinkler design effects were discussed in a
18
previous section. Groselle et al. (1984) and Cochran et al.
(1984) have found that the sprinkler will generally reduce
the size of oil-insecticide droplets as compared to droplet
sizes found in the mainline flow. Smaller sprinkler
orifices cause a greater reduction in oil-insecticide
droplet sizes than larger orifices.
The velocity of flow in an irrigation mainline decreases
with increasing distance from the point of chemical
injection which results in a decreasing potential for
entrainment and mixing of injected materials. While this
may be of negligible influence for water soluble
formulations of fertilizers (Fischbach, 1982), other
results suggest that the distribution uniformity of water
soluble herbicides may differ from the uniformity of the
irrigation water and that the distribution concentations
and uniformity of these herbicides can be substantially
different detween high and low pressure irrigation
systems (Dowler et al., 1982a). Stone (1984) found that
the distribution of an oil-formulated insecticide from a
center pivot was less uniform (CU = 81%) than the
water (CU = 86%). Young (1984) notes that the efficacy
of oil-formulated insecticides has been erratic and
unacceptably low when applied via chemigation in a
irrigation system having an initial mainline flow velocity
of less than 82 m/min (4.5 ft/s). Velocity of flow may
have a similar influence on suspension fertilizers and
wettable powder pesticides. These results indicate that
further study of the effects of flow velocity and other
irrigation system characteristics on chemical distribution
and efficacy is needed.
CHEMIGATION AS A PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT TOOL
Threadgill (1981) discussed the crop production
management advantages available when chemigation is
properly utilized. These advantages can be summarized
as follows:
1. Provides excellent uniformity of chemical
application.
2. Allows prescription application of chemicals.
3. Allows timely chemical application.
4. Allows easy and effective chemical incorporation
and activation.
5. Reduces soil compaction.
6. Reduces mechanical damage to the crop.
7. Reduces operator hazards.
8. May reduce chemical requirements.
9. May reduce environmental contamination.
10. Economical
11. Effective
Realization of these potential management advantages
requires that the chemigation system be properly
designed and properly utilized. Proper calibration of the
chemical injection system is essential to achieve good
results (Stansell, 1981).
ECONOMICS OF CHEMIGATION
The potential cost of a particular application via
chemigation depends upon the need for supplemental
water at the time of chemigation. For example,
application of some chemicals may be required at the
same time that the crop normally receives an irrigation
while other chemical applications may be needed when
irrigation is not required by the crop. When chemigation
is coupled with a normal irrigation, the variable cost of
APPLIED ENGINEERING in AGRICULTURE
chemigation will only be the cost of operating the
chemical injection system. For chemigation when
irrigation is not required, the variable chemigation cost
would also include the cost of operating the irrigation
system.
Also, the cost of chemigation will depend upon the
amount of water required for an efficacious application
of the particular chemical. For example, application of
some fertilizers, nematicides and pre-emerge herbicides
may require 1.0 to 1.5 cm of water for proper
incorporation or activation while most insecticides,
fungicides and post-emerge herbicides will likely require
only 0.3 to 0.5 cm of water.
An additional factor in the economics of chemigation
is the capital or fixed cost of the chemigation system. The
cost is quite variable depending upon the size and
number of injection pumps and the type of components
used in the safety system. Considering currently available
components, a reasonable minimum system cost would
be $1,500 while the maximum cost could be $8,000 or
more. Chemigation systems can either be fixed (devoted
to a single irrigation system) or mobile. Mobile units
which include two chemical injection pumps, two storage
tanks and all recommended safety features except those
installed in the irrigation mainline are presently available
from several manufacturers at a cost of about $3,500.
These mobile units can greatly reduce chemigation costs
where an operator uses one unit with several irrigation
systems.
Considering that the purchase of an irrigation system
is initially justified upon the need and benefits of
irrigation alone, the capital or fixed cost of the irrigation
system can be amortized to irrigation usage alone. Thus,
the fixed costs of only the chemigation system
components are charged to chemigation in the following
analyses.
Table 1 presents a comparison of costs for a single
chemigation or conventional (aircraft or tractor sprayer)
application of various chemicals. Chemigation costs are
based upon a 61 ha center pivot capable of applying a
minimum water amount of 0.4 cm. The fixed cost of the
chemigation system is assumed to be $4,000 with a useful
life of 10 years. Assuming $2/ha annual maintenance
costs, total fixed costs of this chemigation system would
be $8.56/ha per year. Conventional chemical application
costs are based upon commercial aircraft and tractor
rates in the Southeast U.S. in 1984.
TABLE 1. COSTS ($/ha) OF A SINGLE CHEMIGATION AND
CONVENTIONAL APPLICATION OF CHEMICALS.
Type of chemical Conventional * Chemigationf Water applied
Fertilizer $6.20 $13.06 1.0 cm
Herbicide 14.00$ 13.06 1.0 cm
Insecticide 5.60 9.84 0.3 cm
Fungicide 5.60 9.84 0.3 cm
Nematicide 14.00$ 13.06 1.0 cm
•Costs of aircraft and tractor sprayer assumed to be equal.
tBased upon operating cost of a 61 ha center pivot (fixed
cost of irrigation system charged against irrigation) plus
entire annual fixed cost of chemigation system.
$ Includes cost of mechanical incorporation.
The costs in Table 1 show that use of a chemigation
system for only one chemical application per year will
likely be cost effective for only those chemicals requiring
incorporation. However, the potential management
advantages offered by chemigation can only be realized
through multiple annual chemigations. Table 2 presents
cost comparisons of several multiple chemigation
scenarios. It is evident from these comparisons that
chemigation is very cost effective when a system is used
two or more times annually with chemigation costs
ranging from 34 to 60% of conventional costs.
Chemigation cost savings generally increase as the
number of annual applications increases, depending
upon the annual combination of chemicals applied.
EFFECTIVENESS OF CHEMIGATION
The effectiveness of chemigation application of
fertilizers, herbicides, nematicides, fungicides,
insecticides, broad spectrum soil fumigants and plant
growth regulators has been intensively evaluated in
recent years. An interdisciplinary team of scientists at
the University of Georgia's Coastal Plain Experiment
Station has evaluated the effectiveness of chemigation for
the past eight years on at least 22 different crops. A
major portion of the results of their studies can be found
in the annual reports of their research (Threadgill, 1980;
Smittle, 1981; Dowler, 1982; and Young and Threadgill,
1984) plus the proceedings of the two national symposia
on chemigation (Young, 1981; and Young and Sumner,
1982). Additional reports on the results of their research
and that of other scientists can be found in the following
references (Chalfant and Young, 1982: Crutchfield et
al., 1977; Dowler, 1982; Dowler et al., 1982a, 1982b;
Fischbach and Martin, 1975; Gascho and Hook, 1984;

TABLE 2. COSTS ($/ha) FOR MULTIPLE CHEMIGATION AND CONVENTIONAL

APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICALS.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chemicals and IF 1F,1H 2F,1H 2F,1H 2F,1H 2F,1H 2F,1H 3F,1H 3F,2H 3F,2H
number applied* 11 lI,lFg 2I,lFg 41 41 4Fg 51
Chemigation
Fixed costf $ 8.56 $ 4.28 $ 2.85 $ 2.14 $ 1.71 $ 1.43 $ 1.22 $ 1.07 $ 0.95 $ 0.86
Variable cost$ $ 4.50 $ 9.00 13.50 14.78 16.06 17.34 18.62 23.12 27.62 28.90
Total cost 13.06 13.28 16.35 16.92 17.77 18.77 19.84 24.19 28.57 29.76

Conventional §
Total cost 6.20 20.20 26.40 32.00 37.60 43.20 48.80 55.00 69.00 74.60
Chemigation
savings - 6.86 6.92 10.05 15.08 19.83 24.43 28.96 30.81 40.43 44.84
*F = fertilizer, H = herbicide, I = insecticide, Fg = fungicide, numeral indicates number of applications of
particular type.
tAssumed $4,000 fixed cost of chemigation system plus $2/ha annual maintenance cost.
$ Based upon operating cost of a 61 ha center pivot.
§ Refer to Table 1 for individual values.

Vol. l(l):June, 1985 19

Gascho et al., 1984; Heikes, 1979; Johnson et al., 1982;
McMaster and Douglas, 1976; Ogg, 1980; Ogg et al.,
1983; Phatak et al., 1982; Raun, 1979; Smittle and
Johnson, 1982; Smith et al., 1973; Sumner and Phatak,
1982a, 1982b; Sumner et al., 1983; Threadgill, 1982;
Young, 1980; and Young et al., 1981). Rather than
summarize the results of all these studies herein, the
reader is referred to these references for detailed
information. Generally, these results have demonstrated
that chemigation is feasible and can be very effective
when the irrigation system and chemical injection system
are properly installed and operated and when the proper
chemical, chemical formulation and water application
rates are used. Chemical formulation appears to be
particularly important for applications where foliar
retention of the chemical is required for efficacy (i.e.
fungicides, insecticides and post-emergence herbicides).
For these foliar applications, the most consistent positive
results have been obtained when the technical chemical
has been formulated in an oil without the addition of any
emulsifier. However, chemigation with these
formulations presents some incompletely analyzed
engineering problems regarding how materials are mixed
and carried in the water, uniformity of application and
possible residues in the irrigation system. Wettable
powder, water soluble and emulsified concentrate
formulations of these foliar materials have given
inconsistent and erratic results in a wide range of tests.
Most efficacy evaluations have occurred using
currently recommended rates of the chemicals. Only
recently have studies been initiated evaluating reduced
chemical rates and, in some cases, achieving the desired
efficacy with reduced chemical rates appears promising.
Determination of the appropriate quantity of water
(minimum and maximum) which can be used in
chemigation has received considerable interest. In
general, chemigation with materials that do not require
incorporation into the soil has been effective with water
quantities ranging from 0.25 to 1.9 cm. Phytotoxicity
caused by fertigation has not been reported even though
a wide range of nutrient rates and formulations has been
applied.

TABLE 3. RESULTS OF CHEMIGATION SURVEY SUMMARIZED BY ASAE REGIONS FOR THE 35

REPORTING STATES (IN HECTARES), 1983.
ASAE Type of
region irrigation Type of chemigation
(states) system Irrigated Fertigated Herbigated Insectigated Fungigated Nemagated
Southeast Sprinkler 1,083,500 80,100 10,000 5,000 6,300 100
(GA, AL, FL, surface 727,900 100 100
KY, TN, SC, NC, trickle 62,800 1,600 400 600 200
VA, MS) Total 1,874,200 81,800 10,500 5,000 6,900 300

Southwest Sprinkler 1,268,500 378,800* 8,300 46,200 36,100 300

(TX, OK, LA, surface 3,679,500 80,900 2,000
AR) trickle 18,100 6,200
Total 4,966,100 385,000 89,200 48,200 36,100 300

Mid-Central Sprinkler 2,090,300 675,800 41,300 81,700

(KS, MO, NE, surface 2,792,000 202,400
IA) trickle 2,300
Total 4,884,600 878,200 41,300 81,700
Illinois-Wisconsin Sprinkler 224,600 14,600 2,400 120
(IL, WI
trickle
Total 224,600 14,600 2,400 120

Tri-State Sprinkler 56,700 24,300

(IN, MI, OH) surface 2,400 ZTJ1Z
trickle 40
Total 59,140 24,300
Rocky Mountain Sprinkler 518,500 147,400 22,300 19,400 16,400
(NM, CO, UT, WY) surface 2,671,700
trickle 650 200
Total 3,190,850 147,600 22,300 19,400 16,400
Pacific Sprinkler 858,600 721,200 3,000 900
(CA, NV, AZ, HI) surface 3,615,000 197,800 18,200 2,000 38,200
trickle 111,300 110,200
Total 4,584,900 1,029,200 21,200 2,000 39,100
Pacific Northwest Sprinkler 2,170,900 686,400 410,400 8,100 22,600 26,300
(WA, OR, ID, surface 2,049,500 6,100
MT, AK) trickle 3,900 2,000
Total 4,224,300 694,500 410,400 8,100 22,600 26,300
North Atlantic Sprinkler 53,700 10,100 40
(PA, WV, MD, NJ, surface
DE, CT, NY, VT, trickle 2,300 1,100 1,000
MA, NH, ME, RI) Total 56,000 11,200 40 1,000
North Central Sprinkler 202,400 121,400 1,200 400
(ND, SD, MN) surface
trickle
Total 202,400 121,400 1,200 400

*May include some surface and trickle system fertigated acreage.

20 APPLIED ENGINEERING in AGRICULTURE

 CURRENT CHEMIGATED AREA
The management advantages, positive economics and
effectiveness of chemigation coupled with the rapid
development of research information on chemigation has
stimulated a very rapid increase in the degree of
utilization of this crop production management tool
throughout the United States. A chemigation survey was
conducted to determine the current chemigated area in
each state by submitting a survey instrument to
Extension Agricultural Engineers in each of the 40 states
which have an extension agricultural engineer with a
major emphasis on irrigation (as identified in the 1982
USDA Directory of State Extension Agricultural
Engineers). The information received from the 35
responding states is summarized in Table 3. Chemigated
area was not identified as to the number of times a
particular type of chemical was applied on a particular
area. For example, a value of 3,000 ha fertigated could
imply (a) 3,000 ha fertigated one time, (b) the same
3,000 ha fertigated two or more times, or (c) 1,000 ha
each fertigated three times. Telephone discussions with a
few of the extension engineers who contributed
information for sprinkler type irrigation systems stated
that the listed herbigated and nemagated areas were only
treated one time while the listed areas for fertigated,
insectigated and fungigated crops were generally treated
more than one time. Therefore, it is appropriate to state
that the listed areas denote that chemigation was applied
to that number of hectares at least one time and more
than once in many cases.
Data are summarized and reported by ASAE Regions.
Most states reported that the degree of accuracy of their
data on chemigated area is at best fair and in most cases
merely an estimate. Very few states currently conduct a
survey of chemigated area. States from which survey data
were not received or solicited are not identified in Table
3. Irrigated area (Irrigation Journal, 1984) in the five
states not responding plus the 10 states from which data
were not solicited is as follows: (a) sprinkler - 832,600 ha,
(b) surface - 96,000 ha and (c) trickle - 26,800 ha.
The results of the chemigation survey are summarized
in Table 4 for data received from the 35 reporting states.
The total irrigated area (35 states) included in Table 4
represents 98% of the total U.S. irrigated area (50 states)
reported in Irrigation Journal (1984). Likewise, the total
sprinkler irrigated area (35 states) represents 98% of the
total U.S. sprinkler irrigated area and the total trickle
TABLE 4. RESULTS OF CHEMIGATION SURVEY SUMMARIZED FOR THE 35 REPORTING
STATES (IN HECTARES), 1983.
Type of
irrigation
system Irrigated Fertigated Herbigated
Sprinkler 8,527,700 2,860,100 497,700
surface 15,538,000 406,400 99,200
trickle 201,390 121,300 400
Total 24,267,090 3,387,800 597,300
Chemigated
as percentage
of irrigated
total N/A 14.0 2.5
Sprinkler
chemigated as
percentage of
sprinkler
total N/A 33.5 5.8
Vol. l(l):June, 1985
irrigated area (35 states) represents 88% of the total U.S.
trickle area. Therefore, the survey results provide an
estimate of the current status of chemigation in a high
percentage of the irrigated area of the U.S.
Eighty-four percent of the total area chemigated in
1983 was with sprinkler irrigation systems, 13% with
surface systems and 3 % with trickle systems. While 43%
of the sprinkler irrigated area and 61% of the trickle
irrigated area was chemigated at least one time in 1983,
only 3.5% of the surface irrigated area was chemigated.
Fertigation was the most widely used form of
chemigation, being practiced on 33.5% of the sprinkler
irrigated area and 60% of the trickle irrigated area but
on only 0.3% of the surface irrigated area. Likewise,
herbigation was used on 5.8, 0.2 and 0.6%, insectigation
was used on 1.9, 0.0 and 0.003%, fungigation was used
on 1,0, 0.3, and 0.2% and nemagation was used on 0.3,
0.6 and 0.0% of the sprinkler, trickle and surface
irrigated areas, respectively.
Although it is desirable to know the trend in the use of
chemigation, there are no prior reported national level
data to compare with the results of this survey. However,
data from 1981 and 1982 Georgia surveys (Harrison,
1983) show that chemigated area in Georgia increased
11% during one year. Based upon this Georgia data and
discussions with extension engineers in several reporting
states, I estimate the U.S. chemigated area and/or use
with sprinkler irrigation systems is expanding at an
annual rate of 8 to 9%.
SUMMARY
Chemigation is an effective crop production
management tool which is particularly well adapted to
continuously moving lateral sprinkler type irrigation
systems. Offering many management advantages, the
cost of multiple annual chemigations is generally 34 to
60% of the cost of applying those chemicals by a
conventional technique. Chemigation is very effective
when the irrigation and chemigation system are properly
installed and operated and when the proper chemical,
chemical formulation and water application rate are
used. Effectiveness has been proven for both soil and
foliar applied chemicals.
An adequate selection of commercially available
equipment is available for assembling a chemigation
system. Particular consideration must be given to safety
devices to prevent backflow of chemicals into the water
Type of chemigation
Insectigated Fungigated Nemagated Total
161,760 82,700 26,700 3,628,960
4,000 38,200 547,800
600 1,200 123,500
165,760 121,500 27,900 4,300,260
0.7 0.5 0.1 17.7
1.9 1.0 0.3 N/A
21
source, into the chemical reservoir or onto the soil
surface. Consideration and use of legislation or
regulations requiring approved safety systems is
increasing at both state and national levels.
Although considerable information about chemigation
has been developed in the past few years, research on
many factors has barely begun while other factors are not
yet being addressed. Such factors as sprinkler design,
system pressure and flow velocity, injection port
configuration and chemical formulation are known to
have a significant effect on chemigation efficacy in
certain cases and are receiving further study while
injection pump pulsation rate may be of less importance.
Initial studies on efficacy of reduced rates of chemicals
applied via chemigation have provided promising results
and information on maximum and minimum amounts of
water for chemigation is being developed but both water
and chemical rates need a great deal of additional
research.
A survey revealed that 84% of the total chemigated
area (4.30 million ha) in the U.S. is chemigated with
sprinkler irrigation systems with 43% (3.63 million ha)
of the sprinkler irrigated area and 61% (0.12 million ha)
of the trickle irrigated area being chemigated at least one
time in 1983. Chemigation was practiced on only 3.5% of
the surface irrigated area. Types of chemigation
arranged in order of decreasing use are fertigation,
herbigation, insectigation, fungigation and nemagation.
The use of chemigation with sprinkler irrigation
systems is predicted to increase rapidly as current and
developing research programs generate more complete
information about this rapidly developing technology.
References
1. ASAE. 1983. Safety devices for applying liquid chemicals
through irrigation systems. Engineering Practice ASAE EP409,
Agricultural Engineers Yearbook of Standards, Am. Soc. Agri. Engr.,
St. Joseph, MI, pp. 522-523.
2. Bode, L. E., M. E. Gebhart and C. L. Day. 1968. Spray-
deposit patterns and droplet sizes obtained from nozzles used for low-
volume applications. TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE ll(6):754-756,
761.
3. Bryant, B. B. and E. L. Thomas, Jr. 1958. Distribution of
fertilizer materials applied through sprinkler irrigation systems.
Bulletin 598. University of Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station,
Fayetteville, AR, 12 pp.
4. Chalfant, R. B. and J. R. Young. 1982. Chemigation, or
application of insecticide through overhead sprinkler irrigation
systems, to manage insect pests infesting vegetable and agronomic
crops. J. Econ. Entomol. 75:237-241.
5. Cochran, D. L., E. D. Threadgill and J. R. Young. 1984. Use
of center pivot simulator for chemigation research. ASAE Paper No.
84-2099, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085.
6. Crutchfield, D. A., R. N. Clark, and A. F. Wiese. 1977.
Deposition of atrazine and trifluralin with sprinkler irrigation. Proc.
South. Weed Sci. Soc. 30:428.
7. Davis, C. L. 1981. Liability considerations in chemigation.
Proc. of National Symposium on Chemigation, University of Georgia,
Tifton, GA, pp. 113-119.
8. Dowler, C. C. 1982. Activity of selected herbicides applied
postemergence through irrigation. Southern Weed Science Society
Proc. p. 397. (Abstract).
9. Dowler, C. C , W. A. Rohde, L. E. Fetxer, D. E. Scott, Jr., T.
E. Sklany, and C. W. Swann. 1982a. The effect of sprinkler irrigation
on herbicide efficacy in selected crops and distribution and penetration
in some Coastal Plain soils. The Univ. of Georgia College of
Agriculture Research Bulletin 281. 27 pp.
10. Dowler, C. C , E. D. Threadgill and J. R. Stansell. 1982b.
Chemigation equipment and techniques for irrigation research.
American Society of Agronomy Abstracts, p. 51.
11. Dowler, C. C. (ed.). 1982. Irrigated multiple-cropping
production systems: A summary of progress, 1981. University of
22
Georgia, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA, 69 pp.
12. Fischbach, P. E. 1982. Applying chemical through irrigation
systems-safety and environmental considerations. Proc. of 2nd
National Symposium on Chemigation, University of Georgia, Tifton,
GA, pp. 80-87.
13. Fischbach, P. E. and Alex Martin. 1975. Herbigation
-applying herbicide through sprinkler systems. ASAE Paper No.
75-1527. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085.
14. Florida. 1984. Antisyphon requirements for irrigation systems.
Florida statutes, Rule 5E-2.30.
15. Gascho, G. J. and J. E. Hook. 1984. Nitrogen management for
irrigated corn grown on sand. Fer. Issues 1(1): 1-6.
16. Gascho, G. J., J. E. Hook and G. A. Mitchell. 1984. Sprinkler-
applied and side-dressed nitrogen for irrigated corn grown on sand.
Agron. J. 76:77-81.
17. Georgia. 1981. Agriculture - rules, etc. regulating irrigation
systems. Georgia General Assembly, House Bill No. 521.
18. Gray, Philip. 1984. Personal communication about "Pesticide
application through irrigation systems," unpublished draft of proposed
Environmental Protection Agency document.
19. Groselle, D. E. 1984. Droplet size of oil formulated insecticides
generated in irrigation water during chemigation. Unpublished M.S.
thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
20. Groselle, D. E., J. R. Stansell and J. R. Young. 1984. Particle
size variation of oil-formulated insecticides in chemigation. ASAE
Paper No. 84-2098, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085.
21. Harrison, D. S. 1982. Selection, operation, calibration and
maintenance of chemigation equipment. Proc. of 2nd National
Symposium on Chemigation, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA. pp.
74-79.
22. Harrison, K. L. 1983. Irrigation survey, 1981 and 1982.
University of Georgia, Cooperative Extension Service, Tifton, GA.
23. Heermann, D. F. and R. A. Kohl. 1980. Fluid dynamics of
sprinkler systems, p. 583-618. In: M. E. Jensen (ed.) Design and
operation of farm irrigation systems. ASAE Monograph No. 3, St.
Joseph, MI 49085.
24. Heikes, P. E. 1979. Herbigation: Applying herbicides through
sprinkler systems. Weeds Today 10:7-9.
25. Irrigation Journal. 1984. '83 irrigation survey. Irrigation
Journal 34(1).
26. Johnson, A. W., W. A. Rhode and W. C. Wright. 1982. Soil
distribution of phenamiphos applied by overhead sprinkler irrigation to
control Meloidogyne incognita on vegetables. Plant Disease
66(6):489-491.
27. McMaster, G. M. and D. R. Douglas. 1976. Fungicide
application through sprinkler irrigation systems. TRANSACTIONS of
the ASAE 19(6):1041-1044.
28. Ogg, A. G., Jr. 1980. A sprinkler system for research on
applying herbicides in irrigation water. Weed Sci. 28:201-203.
29. Ogg, A. G., Jr., C. C. Dowler, A. R. Martin, A. H. Lange, and
P. E. Heikes. 1983. Application of herbicides through irrigation
systems. Extension Service, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Item AD-FO-2280, 8
pp.
30. Pair, C. H. (ed.). 1983. Irrigation, 5th ed. The Irrig. Assoc,
Silver Spring, MD, 686 pp.
31. Phatak, S. C , D. R. Sumner, B. G. Mullinex, Jr. and N. C.
Glaze. 1982. Effect of metham sodium applied through overhead
sprinkler irrigation system on soil pest control and growth and yield of
vegetable crops. Hort. Sci. 17:38. (Abstract)
32. Raun, E. S. 1979. Pest management using center pivots. Irrig.
Age May-June: 17-18.
33. Smith, D. T., R. C. Berner, and J. P. Walter. 1973. Nitralin
and trifluralin incorporation by rainfall and irrigation. Weed Res.
13:359-366.
34. Smittle, D. A. (ed.). 1981. Irrigated multiple-cropping
production systems: A summary of progress, 1977-1980. University of
Georgia, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA. 46 pp.
35. Smittle, D. A. and A. W. Johnson. 1982. Effects of
management practices on Meloidogyne incognita and snap bean yield.
J. of Nematol. 14:63-68.
36. Stansell, J. R. 1981. Chemigation injectors: selection,
calibration and use. Proc. of National Symposium on Chemigation.
University of Georgia, Tifton, GA. pp. 103-108.
37. Stone, K. C. 1984. Water and chemical distribution through a
sprinkler irrigated plant canopy. Unpublished M.S. thesis, University
of Georgia, Athens, GA.
38. Sumner, D. R. and S. C. Phatak. 1982a. Control of
Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. with metham sodium applied
through sprinkler irrigation. Phytopathology 72:948. (Abstract).
39. Sumner, D. R. and S. C. Phatak. 1982b. Control of root
APPLIED ENGINEERING in AGRICULTURE
diseases of snapbean with soil fungicides and metham sodium applied
through overhead irrigation. Report of Bean Imp. Coop, and Nat. Dry
Bean Council Res. Conf. p. 61-62. Gainesville, FL. Jan. 5-7.
40. Sumner, D. R., C. C. Dowler, A. W. Johnson, N. C. Glaze, S.
C. Phatak, R. B. Chalfant, and J. E. Epperson. 1983. Root diseases of
cucumber in an irrigated multiple-cropping system with pest
management. Plant Disease 67:1071-1075.
41. Threadgill, E. D. (ed.). 1980. Irrigated multiple-cropping
production systems: A progress report, 1977-1979. University of
Georgia, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA.
42. Threadgill, E. D. 1981. Why chemigate? Proc. of National
Symposium on Chemigation, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA. pp.
1-6.
43. Threadgill, E. D. 1982. Chemigation: New way to get crops to
take their medicine. Ga. Agr. Rsch. 22(4): 16-17.
44. Wisconsin. 1979. Agriculture Admin. Code NR 112.15.
45. Yates, W. E. 1962. Spray pattern analysis and evaluation of
deposits from agricultural aircraft. TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE
5(l):49-53.
Emergency Stop Concept for Farm Machinery
(continued from page 15)
Shutting off the air supply is a simple way to provide
engine kill. Naturally aspirated engines can have air shut
off at any point in the air intake without harmful effects.
On the other hand, if air is shut off on the suction side of
a turbo-charged engine, some oil seal damage could
occur. For this reason, air shut off of a turbo unit should
possibly be downstream of the pressure side.
Carburetor equipped engines can best be starved for
air downstream from the carburetor to prevent flooding
although flooding is a minor problem.
Nuisance tripping from crops or brush is a factor to be
considered. This would require properly locating and
Vol. l(l):June, 1985
46. Young, J. R. 1980. Suppression of fall armyworm populations
by incorporating insecticides into irrigation water. Fla. Entomol.
73:447-450.
47. Young, J. R. (ed.). 1981. Proc. of National Symposium on
Chemigation, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA. 126 pp.
48. Young, J. R., T. C. Kiesling, and J. R. Stansell. 1981.
Insecticide application with sprinkler irrigation systems.
TRANSACTIONS of the ASAE 24(1): 121-123.
49. Young, J. R. and D. R. Sumner (ed.). 1982. Proc. of 2nd
National Symposium on Chemigation. University of Georgia, Tifton,
GA. 98 pp.
50. Young, J. R. and E. D. Threadgill (ed.). 1984. Irrigated
multiple-cropping production systems: A summary of progress, 1982.
University of Georgia, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA.
94 pp.
51. Young, J. R. 1984. Personal communications. Insect Biology
Laboratory, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA.
52. Young, J. R. and E. D. Threadgill. 1984. Unpublished data.
Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, GA.
shielding the cable and setting a minimum actuation
tension.
A first logical application of this concept would be on
stationary feed grinders, conveyors, etc. where people
must work near the operating machine.
References
1. Hammond, W. C , Bobby L. Tyson, and Furman W. Kay. 1983.
Emergency stop mechanism for farm machinery. ASAE Paper No.
SER 83-102, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085.
2. Sevart, J. B. and Bradley Klausmeyer. 1982. Emergency stop
devices for a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery. A G R I C U L T U R A L
ENGINEERING 63(9):11-13 Steptember.
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