Module 1 (Ece 3221)

Saint Louis University
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Electronics Engineering
MODULE 1
Introduction to Transmission Lines
This module will introduce you to the study of transmission media. After a brief review of
the communication system, the different types of transmission media will be presented.
Module 1 will focus on the transmission line (metallic cable). You will learn to calculate
the different electrical characteristics of the transmission line and understand the effects
of these electrical characteristics to signal transmission. The behavior or a wave when
travelling in transmission line with and without reflections will be presented as well as
transmission losses.
Unit Types of Transmission Lines

1
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Differentiate various types of metallic cables.

 Calculate primary electrical properties of Transmission Lines
Engage
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1-1:
Review the topics from ECE 2231 (Principles of Communication Systems). Draw the
Block Diagram of a communication system, and in your own words, state the
functions of each block.
Explore
Read notes on Introduction to Transmission Media presented in this section.
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MEDIA
In an electronic communication system, the transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver.
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without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Classification of Transmission Media:
1. Guided Media - provide a physical path along which the signals are propagated
a. Metallic cables (parallel wire, twisted pair, coaxial cable)
b. Optical fiber cables
2. Unguided Media - employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum,

or water.
Figure 1-1: Electromagnetic Spectrum with transmission media applications
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES (METALLIC CABLES)
A transmission line is a pair of electrical conductors separated by a dielectric used to carry electrical
signal from one place to another.
TYPES OF METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES
I. PARALLEL- CONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINES
A. OPEN-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE
This line consists of two wires that are generally spaced from 2 to 6 inches apart by
insulating spacers.
This type of line is most often used for power lines, rural telephone lines, and telegraph
lines. It is sometimes used as a transmission line between a transmitter and an antenna or
between an antenna and a receiver. An advantage of this type of line is its simple construction.
The principal disadvantages of this type of line are the high radiation losses and electrical noise
pickup because of the lack of shielding. Radiation losses are produced by the changing fields
created by the changing current in each conductor.
Figure 1-2: Open-Wire Transmission Line
B. TWIN LEAD or TWO-WIRE RIBBON
This type of transmission line is commonly used to connect a television receiving antenna
to a home television set. This line is essentially the same as the two-wire open line except that
uniform spacing is assured by embedding the two wires in a low-loss dielectric, usually
polyethylene. Since the wires are embedded in the thin ribbon of polyethylene, the dielectric
space is partly air and partly polyethylene.
Figure 1-3: Twin Lead
II. TWISTED-PAIR
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern. A wire
pair acts as a single communication link. Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a
cable by wrapping them in a tough protective sheath. Over longer distances, cables may contain
hundreds of pairs. The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in a
cable. Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have different twist lengths to reduce the crosstalk
interference. On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to 15 cm. The wires in a pair
have thicknesses of from 0.4 to 0.9 mm. Twisted pair is the primary wire type for telephone usage and is
very common for computer networking, especially as patch cables or temporary network connections
due to the high flexibility of the cables.
Figure 1-4: Twisted Pair
A. UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone wire. This is the least expensive of all the
transmission media commonly used for local area networks and is easy to work with and easy to
install.
Unshielded twisted pair is subject to external electromagnetic interference, including

interference from nearby twisted pair and from noise generated in the environment.
B. SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
A way to improve the characteristics of the twisted pair is to shield the twisted pair with a metallic
braid or sheathing that reduces interference. This shielded twisted pair (STP) provides better
performance at higher data rates. However, it is more expensive and more difficult to work with
than unshielded twisted pair.
II. COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINES
- Coaxial transmission lines are made of two concentric conductors separated by an insulating
dielectric. Coaxial cable is widely used as a means of distributing TV signals to individual homes—cable
TV. From its modest beginnings as Community Antenna Television (CATV), designed to provide service to
remote areas, cable TV reaches almost as many homes and offices as the telephone. A cable TV system
can carry dozens or even hundreds of TV channels at ranges up to a few tens of kilometers. Coaxial cable
has traditionally been an important part of the long-distance telephone network. Today, it faces
increasing competition from optical fiber, terrestrial microwave, and satellite. Using frequency division
multiplexing, a coaxial cable can carry over 10,000 voice channels simultaneously. Coaxial cable is also
commonly used for short-range connections between devices. Using digital signaling, coaxial cable can
be used to provide high-speed I/O channels on computer systems.
A. RIGID AIR-FILLED
- The rigid coaxial line consists of a central, insulated wire (inner conductor) mounted
inside a tubular outer conductor. The inner conductor is also tubular. The inner conductor is
insulated from the outer conductor by insulating spacers or beads at regular intervals. The
spacers are made of Pyrex, polystyrene, or some other material that has good insulating
characteristics and low dielectric losses at high frequencies. The rigid line has the following
disadvantages: (1) it is expensive to construct; (2) it must be kept dry to prevent excessive
leakage between the two conductors; and (3) although high-frequency losses are somewhat less
than in previously mentioned lines, they are still excessive enough to limit the practical length of
the line.
Figure 1-5: Rigid Air-filled Coax
B. SOLID FLEXIBLE
- Flexible coaxial lines are made with an inner conductor that consists of flexible wire
insulated from the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating material. The outer
conductor is made of metal braid, which gives the line flexibility. Early attempts at gaining
flexibility involved using rubber insulators between the two conductors. However, the rubber
insulators caused excessive losses at high frequencies. Because of the high-frequency losses
associated with rubber insulators, polyethylene plastic was developed to replace rubber and
eliminate these losses. Polyethylene plastic is a solid substance that remains flexible over a wide
range of temperatures. The use of polyethylene as an insulator results in greater high-frequency
losses than the use of air as an insulator. However, these losses are still lower than the losses
associated with most other solid dielectric materials.
Figure 1-6: Solid Flexible Coax
TRANSMISSION LINES CLASSIFICATION
1. BALANCED LINES
- The impedance to ground from each of the two wires is equal. This ensures that the currents
in the two wires will be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, reducing both radiation
from the cable and its susceptibility to outside interference.
2. UNBALANCED LINES
- Lack of symmetry with respect to ground. One of the wires is connected to ground.
ELECTRICAL MODEL OF A TRANSMISSION LINE:
a. Balanced line
b. Unbalanced line
The characteristics of a transmission line are determined by its:
1. Electrical Properties
a. Conductivity
b. Dielectric constant
2. Physical Properties
a. Wire diameter
b. Conductor spacing
The Electrical Properties and Physical Properties determine the Primary and Secondary Electrical
Constants of the transmission line
I. PRIMARY ELECTRICAL CONSTANTS

- uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line and are commonly called
DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS
- they are constant in the sense that they do not vary with voltage and current; however,
they are frequency- dependent to some extent
A. SERIES DC RESISTANCE, ohms/meter
B. SERIES INDUCTANCE, henries/meter
C. SHUNT CAPACITANCE, farads/meter
D. SHUNT CONDUCTANCE, Siemens/meter
PARAMETER COAXIAL CABLE TWO-WIRE LINE

𝑅𝑠 1 1  2𝑅𝑠 
Series DC resistance, R' [ + ], ,
𝜋 𝐷 𝑑 𝑚 𝜋𝑑 𝑚
µ 𝐷 𝐻 µ 2𝐷 𝐻
Series Inductance, L' 𝑙𝑛 ( ) , 𝑙𝑛 ( ) ,
2𝜋 𝑑 𝑚 𝜋 𝑑 𝑚
2𝜋𝜀 𝐹 𝜋𝜀 𝐹
Shunt Capacitance, C' , ,
𝐷 2𝐷
𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑚 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑚
𝑑 𝑑
2𝜋𝜎 𝑆 𝜋𝜎 𝑆
Shunt Conductance, G' , ,
𝐷 2𝐷
𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑚 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑚
𝑑 𝑑
𝜇
where: 𝑅𝑠 = √𝜋𝑓( 𝑐⁄𝜎𝑐 ) 𝜇𝑐 - permeability of the conductor and 𝜎𝑐 - conductivity of the
conductor
µ - permeability of the dielectric
For dielectrics encountered in practice, the permeability will be equal to that of free
space, 𝜇𝑜
𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
 - permittivity of the dielectric

𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜
𝜀𝑟 - relative permittivity / dielectric constant
𝜀𝑜 - permittivity of free space
𝜀𝑜 = 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
 - conductivity of the dielectric
D – distance between the center of the conductors (two-wire)
diameter of the outer conductor (coax)
d – diameter of the conductors (two-wire)
diameter of the inner conductor (coax)
note: Permittivity is the measure of resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in
a medium. Permittivity relates to a material's ability to resist an electric field.
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic
field within itself.
II. SECONDARY CONSTANTS

also known as Transmission Characteristics
A. CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE, Zo
- ratio of the voltage to current at any point along a transmission line under
matched condition
- impedance to which the load must be matched for maximum power transfer
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
At low frequencies such that 𝑅 ≫ 𝜔𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ≫ 𝜔𝐶
𝑅
𝑍𝑜 = √
𝐺
At high frequencies such that 𝑅 ≪ 𝜔𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ≪ 𝜔𝐶
𝑳
𝒁𝒐 = √
𝑪
𝐿
For Radio wave propagation, the frequencies are high, therefore, 𝑍𝑜 = √
𝐶
Substituting permeability and permittivity:
1 𝜇 𝐷
Coax line: 𝑍𝑜 = √ 𝑙𝑛 ( )
2𝜋 𝜀 𝑑
𝟔𝟎 𝑫 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒏 ( ) or 𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
√𝜺𝒓 𝒅 √𝜺𝒓 𝒅
1 𝜇 2𝐷
Two-wire: 𝑍𝑜 = √ 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝜋 𝜀 𝑑
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝑫 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒏 ( ) or 𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
√𝜺𝒓 𝒅 √𝜺𝒓 𝒅
Example 1:
A coaxial cable has a capacitance of 90pF/m and a characteristic impedance of 50 . Find the
inductance of a 1-m length.
Example 2:
Find the characteristic impedance of each of the following line:
a) an open-wire line with conductors 3mm in diameter separated by 10mm
b) a coaxial cable using a solid polyethylene dielectric having a dielectric constant of 2.3,
with an inner conductor of 2mm in diameter and an outer conductor 8mm in inside
diameter.
B. PROPAGATION CONSTANT, 
- used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the phase shift per unit
length of a transmission line.
- also called PROPAGATION COEFFICIENT
𝜸 = √(𝑹 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝝎𝑪)

𝛄 = 𝛂 + 𝐣𝛃
Where  - attenuation coefficient, Nepers/meter
dB/m = 8.686 (Nepers/m)
 - phase-shift coefficient, radians/meter

𝟐𝝅
𝜷= 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔/𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

Propagation velocity, vp
- the speed at which energy is propagated along a transmission line
Velocity Factor, vf
𝒗𝒑 𝟏
𝒗𝒇 = =
𝒄 √𝜺𝒓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑣𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑐 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑐 = 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝜀𝑟 − 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
Example 3:
At a frequency of 100MHz, the following values are appropriate for a certain transmission line:
L'=0.25H/m, C'=80pF/m, R'=0.15/m, G'=8 S/m. Calculate:
a) characteristic impedance
b) propagation constant
c) attenuation coefficient in dB/m
d) phase-shift coefficient
e) signal wavelength
f) velocity factor of the transmission line
Explain
Watch Lecture 1-1 (part 1 and part 2): Introduction to Transmission Lines
Elaborate
Problem Set 1-1

This a non-graded unit formative assessment.
1. A coaxial cable has a capacitance of 90pF and a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. Find the
inductance of a 1m length. Answer: 225nH/m
2. Find the characteristic impedance of each of the following lines:

a. An open-wire line with conductors 3mm in diameter separated by 10mm Answer: 227 ohms
b. A coaxial cable using a solid polyethylene dielectric having a dielectric constant of 2.3, with
an inner conductor of 2mm in diameter and an outer conductor 8 mm in inside diameter.
Answer: 54.8 ohms
3. Find the velocity factor and propagation velocity for a cable with a Teflon dielectric ( r = 2.1)
Answer: 0.69, 207x106m/s
4. Given: coax cable

R' = 0.5 /m C' = 100 pF/m L' = 250 nH/m G' = 10 mS/m f = 15MHz
Determine:
a. characteristic impedance of the transmission line Answer: 41.4153  22.7402 
b. attenuation coefficient in dB/m Answer: 𝛼 = 2 𝑑𝐵/𝑚
c. phase-shift coefficient in rad/m Answer: 𝛽 = 0.51998 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚
d. velocity of propagation of the signal in the transmission line
Answer: 𝑣 = 181.2527 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠
e. diameter of the outer conductor if the inner conductor has a diameter of 20mm
Answer: 69.807 𝑚𝑚
If you find it difficult to answer the questions given above, it is suggested that you
go back to the EXPLORE section of this unit or contact your instructor.
Evaluate
Take the graded evaluative assessment.
Unit Step and Pulse Response of Lines

2
Analyze relevant parameters of the transmission line which are key in the
actual operation of the transmission line with or without reflections.
Engage
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1-2:
With the basic knowledge you have in circuits, what do you think will happen to a pulse
signal (voltage is applied for a short period of time only) when it is applied to a transmission line?
Will the pulse reach the end of the transmission line? What will happen if the end of the
transmission line is shorted or left open?
No need to be very technical with your answer, just answer what you know.
Explore
Step and Pulse Response of Lines
It is useful to begin looking at the response of transmission lines by considering some very simple signals.
It is also useful, as a starting assumption, to suppose that the line is lossless and infinite in length.
Consider such a line in Figure 2-1, and apply a step input to one end, that is, let the voltage applied to
the line be zero until some time that we can arbitrarily call t=0. At that time, the switch closes connecting
a source with voltage V to the line through a resistance R.
Figure 2-1: Step input applied to an infinitely long line
Current begins to flow into the line, charging the capacitances of the line. A surge of energy moves along
the line at some finite speed. It takes time for the current to build up in the inductances and for the
capacitances to charge. If the line is infinitely long, the surge will continue along line forever.
Since the line has capacitance to be charged, the initial current will not be zero. The current will
have some definite, finite value that will not change as long as the surge continues to move down the
line. There is a definite ratio between the voltage and the current for any transmission line under the
conditions just described. Since the ratio of voltage to current is generally called impedance, and since
the ratio we are talking about is a characteristic of the type of line used, we call it the characteristic
impedance of the line. Sometimes it is also called the surge impedance.
Since the line has infinite length, energy put into the line continues to move along it forever. The
effect as seen from the source is: energy put into the line disappears. If this is the case, then rather than
deal with an infinite line, it should be possible to replace that line with one of finite length, terminated
at the destination end with a resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line (Figure 2-2).
Instead of moving down the line forever, the electrical energy would be absorbed by the resistor. A
transmission line that is terminated in its characteristic impedance is called a matched line.
Figure 2-2: Step input applied to a matched line of finite length
REFLECTION: 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒁𝑳 = ∞
Figure 2-3 shows a finite length transmission line terminated in an open circuit. This mismatched
line will behave exactly the same way as the matched line when the switch is first closed. A surge of
energy will move down the line, and the ratio between voltage and current at the source will be equal to
the characteristic impedance, Zo. Since the source impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of
the line, one-half the source voltage will appear across the input end of the line. The other one—half
appears across the source resistance.
The voltage and the current will continue to be related to Zo until the surge reaches the end of
the line. At that point, the total current must be zero since there is an open circuit. On the other hand,
the incoming surge of energy cannot simply disappear, because there is nothing capable of dissipating
energy at this point. What happens is that the energy reflects from the open end of the line. The reflected
voltage is the same as the incident voltage but the current is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the incident current. Thus, the total voltage at the destination end of the line is twice the incident
voltage, and the total current is zero. The incident voltage is one-half the source voltage, so the total
voltage is simply equal to the source voltage.
V Vs VL
Figure 2-3: Step input to an open-circuited line
(𝑉)(𝑅𝑠) (𝑉)(𝑍𝑜 ) 𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = = =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜 + 𝑍𝑜 2
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 = + =𝑉
2 2
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 − 𝑖𝑟 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑟
As the reflected surge moves back toward the input, the current gradually becomes zero all along the
line. Once the input is reached, the final conditions at the far end apply all along the line: the voltage is
equal to the source voltage, and the current is zero. Figure 2-4 shows how the voltage at the source end
and at the open-end of the line varies with time.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-4: (a) voltage at the source end (b) voltage at the open end
The time taken for the signal to move down the line is given simply by:
𝑳
𝑻=
𝒗𝒑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
Now, consider a transmission line that is shorted at the far end Figure 2-5. While the incident surge is
still moving along the line toward the shorted end, the voltage and current at the input end will be related
by the characteristic impedance of the line. However, once the surge reaches the shorted end, a different
boundary condition applied. A short circuit must have a voltage of zero across it. The current can have
any value, as determined by other constraints on the system. The signal will be reflected, but this time
the current will be in the same direction as the incident current, and the voltage will have the opposite
polarity. When the reflected surge reaches the input of the line, the voltage all along the line will be zero,
and the current will be limited only by the source resistance.
(a) Ciruit (b) voltage at the source end
Figure 2-5: Voltage on a shorted line with step input
Instead of a step input, a pulse could be applied to the line, as in Figure 2-6. Once again, if the line were
terminated in its characteristic impedance, the pulse would simply proceed down the line and be
dissipated. With an open circuit at the far end, the pulse would be reflected with the same voltage
polarity; with a shorted line, the reflected pulse would have opposite polarity.
(a) Matched line (b) open-circuited line (c) short-circuited line
Figure 2-6: Pulse input to transmission lines: voltages at the source end
REFLECTION: 𝒁𝑳 > 𝒁𝒐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒁𝑳 < 𝒁𝒐
A line that is terminated by an impedance other than Zo is said to be mismatched. If the line is terminated
in an impedance, but one that is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, partial reflection
of the incident surge or pulse will occur. When performing calculations with mismatched lines, it is
convenient to define a reflection coefficient:
𝑽𝒓 𝑰𝒓
= 𝑽𝒊
𝒐𝒓
𝑰𝒊
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒  = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

𝑉𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
The reflection coefficient may also be computed using Z L and Zo

.
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑟
= −
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼𝑟 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝑜 𝑍0
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑖 𝑍𝑜 + 𝑉𝑟 𝑍𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑉𝑟 𝑍𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = = 𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑍𝐿
𝑉𝑟 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 =
= 𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼𝑟 𝑉𝑖 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝐿
𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐
Example : The switch shown in the figure closes at time t=0, applying a 1V source through a 50-
ohm resistor to a 50-ohm line that is terminated by a 25-ohm resistor. The line is 10m in length,
with a velocity factor of 0.7. Draw graphs showing the variation of voltage with time at each end
of the line.
Explain
Watch Lecture 1-2: Step and Pulse Response of Lines
Elaborate
Problem Set 1-2

This is a non-graded unit formative assessment
I. A 12V dc source is connected to a 93Ω lossless line through a 93Ω source resistance
at time t=0. The line is 85m long and is terminated in a resistance.
a. What is the voltage across the input of the line immediately after t=0?
Answer: 6V
b. At time t=1.0s, the voltage at the input end of the line changes to 7.5V, with
the same polarity as before. What is the resistance that terminates the line?
Answer: 155Ω
c. What is the velocity factor of the line?
Answer: 0.567
II. A 10V positive-going pulse is sent down 50m of lossless 50-ohm cable with a velocity
factor of 0.8. The cable is terminated with a 150-ohm resistor. Calculate the length of time
it will take the reflected pulse to return to the start and the amplitude of the reflected pulse.
Answer: 417ns, 5V
III. After going through the EXPLORE and EXPLAIN sections of this unit, return to the
ENGAGE section and answer the same Reflection questions.
If you find it difficult to answer the questions given above, it is suggested that
you go back to the EXPLORE section of this unit or contact your instructor.
Evaluate
Unit Wave Propagation on Lines

3
Discuss the generation and effect of standing waves in a transmission line.
Engage
Watch Pulses and Waves

Study your calculator functions. Learn how to calculate complex numbers in
rectangular and polar form.
Explore
Read and understand notes on Wave propagation presented in this section.
WAVE PROPAGATION ON LINES
When a sinusoidal wave is applied to a lossless transmission line through a source resistance that
is equal to Zo, the signal will move down the line and disappear into the load. Such a signal is called a
travelling wave. Once the sine wave has been operating long enough for the first part of the signal to
reach the far end, a steady-state situation will exist. The signal at any point along the line will then be
the same as that at the source, except for a time delay. With a sine wave, a time delay is equivalent to a
phase shift. A time delay of one period causes a phase shift of 360, or one complete cycle. The length of
line L that causes a delay of one period is known as a wavelength, for which the usual symbol is .
𝑑
Recall: 𝑣 =
𝑡
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
 1
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇=
𝑇 𝑓
𝒗𝒑
=
𝒇
(a) t = 0 (b) t = T/4
(c) t = T/2 (d) t = 3T/4
Figure 3-1: Travelling waves on a matched line
Lengths of line that are not equal to a wavelength yield a phase delay proportional to their length.
Since length  produces a phase shift of 360, the phase delay produced by a given line is simply:
𝑳
 = (𝟑𝟔𝟎)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒  = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
STANDING WAVES
In an unmatched transmission line, reflected wave occurs. Consider a lossless transmission line
terminated in an open circuit. Assume the line length of one wavelength. Figure 3-2 shows the situation
at several points in the cycle. The reflected voltage has the same amplitude and polarity as the incident
voltage at the load. At every point on the line the instantaneous values of incident and reflected voltage
add algebraically to give the total voltage. From the figure, the voltage at every point on the line varies
sinusoidally but the amplitude of the voltage varies greatly due to constructive and destructive
interference between the incident and the reflected waves. At the open-circuited end of the line, the
peak voltage is maximum. One quarter wavelength away from that end, the incident and reflected
voltages exactly cancel because the two signals have equal amplitude and opposite phase. At a distance
one-half wavelength from the open-circuited end, there is another voltage maximum, and the situation
repeats for every half-wavelength segment of line.
Figure 3-2: Incident, reflected and resultant waves on an open-circuited line
A sketch showing the variation of peak (or RMS) voltage along the line is shown in Figure 3-2. It
is important to realize that this figure does not represent either instantaneous or dc voltages. There is
no dc on this line at all. Rather, the figure shows how the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage varies along
the line.
The interaction between the incident and reflected waves, which are both traveling waves,
causes what appears to be a stationary pattern of waves on the line. It is called the standing waves.
Figure 3-2. Standing wave pattern on an open-circuited line
For comparison, Figure 3-3 shows the standing waves of voltage on a line with a shorted end. There is no
voltage at the shorted end. A voltage maximum occurs one-quarter wavelength from the end, another
null occurs at one-half wavelength.
Figure 3-3. Standing wave pattern on a short-circuited line
The current responds in just the opposite way from the voltage. For the open line, the current must be
zero at the open end. It will be maximum one-quarter wavelength away, zero again at a distance of one-
half wavelength, and so on. Similarly, the current on a short-circuited line has a maximum at the
termination, a minimum one-quarter wavelength away, and another maximum at a distance one-half
wavelength away.
STANDING WAVE ON LINES WITH ZL > ZO AND ZL < Z0
When the load impedance is greater than or less than the characteristic impedance of the line, reflected
waves will occur but with an amplitude less than the incident wave. Its phase angle will depend on the
load compared to that of the line. Recall that:
𝑬𝒓 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
= =
𝑬𝒊 𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐
In a lossless transmission line:

a. Terminated in its characteristic impedance: 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝐿
= 𝑍𝐿 +𝑍𝑜
=
𝑍𝐿 +𝑍𝐿
=0
𝐸𝑟
but  = =0
𝐸𝑖
∴ 𝐸𝑟 = 0 → 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
b. Terminated in a short: 𝑍𝐿 = 0
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜 0−𝑍𝑜
=
0+𝑍𝑜
= −1
𝐸𝑟
but  = = −1
𝐸𝑖
∴ 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐸𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 180° 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
c. Terminated in an open: 𝑍𝐿 = ∞
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜 ∞−𝑍𝑜 ∞
=
∞+𝑍𝑜
=
∞
=1
𝐸𝑟
but  = =1
𝐸𝑖
∴ 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖 → 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
d. Terminated in 𝑍𝐿 < 𝑍0 (𝑍𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜
< −1
𝐸𝑟
but  = < −1
𝐸𝑖
∴ 𝐸𝑟 < −𝐸𝑖
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 180° 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
e. Terminated in 𝑍𝐿 > 𝑍0 (𝑍𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜
<1
𝐸𝑟
but  = <1
𝐸𝑖
∴ 𝐸𝑟 < 𝐸𝑖 → 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
When a reflected signal is present but has a lower amplitude than the incident wave, there will
be standing waves of voltage and current, but there will be no point on the line where the voltage or
current becomes zero because total cancellation of incident and reflected waves will not occur. The ratio
of maximum voltage to the minimum voltage of the standing wave is called standing wave ratio or SWR.
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏
The SWR concerns magnitudes only and is thus a real number. It must be positive and greater
than or equal to 1. For matched line, the SWR is 1, and the closer the line is to being matched, the lower
its SWR. The maximum voltage on the line occurs where the incident and reflected signals are in phase,
and the minimum voltage is found where they are out of phase.
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |𝐸𝑖 | + |𝐸𝑟 |
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = |𝐸𝑖 | − |𝐸𝑟 |
|𝐸𝑖 | + |𝐸𝑟 |
𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
|𝐸𝑖 | − |𝐸𝑟 |
|𝐸𝑟 |
1+
|𝐸𝑖 |
=
|𝐸𝑟 |
1−
|𝐸𝑖 |
1 + ||
𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
1 − ||
𝑺𝑾𝑹 − 𝟏
|| =
𝑺𝑾𝑹 + 𝟏
Example:
A 75 lossless line is terminated in error with a 93 resistor. A generator sends 100mW down
the line.
a. what is the reflection coefficient at the terminating end ?
b. what is the SWR on the line?
c. how much power is dissipated at the load?
d. what happens to the rest of the power?
The presence of standing waves causes the voltage at some points on the line to be higher than
it would be with a matched line, while at other points the voltage is low but the current is higher than
with a matched line. This situation results in increased losses. In a transmitting application, standing
waves put additional stress on the line and can result in failure of the line or of equipment connected to
it. If the transmitter happens to be connected at or near a voltage maximum, the output circuit of the
transmitter may be subjected to a dangerous overvoltage condition. This is especially likely to damage
solid-state transmitters, which for this reason are often equipped with circuits to reduce the output
power in the presence of an SWR greater than about 2:1.
Reflections cause the power dissipated in the load to be less than it would be with a matched
line, for the same source, because some of the power is reflected back to the source. Since power is
proportional to the square of voltage, the fraction of the power that is reflected is 2 .
𝑷 𝒓 =  𝟐 𝑷𝒊
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
The amount of power absorbed by the load is the difference between the incident power and
the reflected power, that is
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑖 − 2 𝑃𝑖
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑷𝒊 (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
Since SWR is easier to measure than the reflection coefficient, an expression for the power
absorbed by the load in terms of the SWR would be useful.
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑷 𝒊 [ ]
(𝟏 + 𝑺𝑾𝑹)𝟐
Reflections on transmission lines can cause problems in receiving applications as well. For
instance, reflections on a television antenna feedline can cause a double image or “ghost” to appear. In
data transmission, reflections can distort pulses, causing errors.
Example:
A generator sends 50mW down a 50Ω lossless line. The generator is matched to the line, but the
load is not. If the coefficient of reflection is 0.5, how much power is reflected and how much is
dissipated in the load?
SIGNAL ATTENUATION IN TRANSMISSION LINES:
So far our analysis of the transmission line is that of a lossless (no signal attenuation) line. In
reality, when signal is transmitted through a transmission line, it undergoes a certain amount of
attenuation. The attenuation is due to the primary constants of the transmission line.
𝛾 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)
The attenuation constant,  is a distributed constant given in Nepers/meter. The current and
voltage distribution along a matched line is found to vary exponentially with distance, the equations
being:
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐸𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑
Example:
Given: Rg = 50 Zo = 75
Eg = 20 0 V  = 0.015 + j2.8 /m
l = 100m ZL = Zo
Determine voltage and current at the 75m from the source.
TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYSIS:
Consider a transmission line with the following specifications:

length - l ZL  Z0 hence, L - load reflection coefficient
propagation constant -  Zg  Z0 s - source reflection coefficient
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −𝑙
𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑙 𝐿 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −𝑙 𝐿
𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑙 𝐿 𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −3𝑙 𝐿 𝑠
A
𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −4𝑙 𝐿 2 𝑠 B 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −3𝑙 𝐿 2 𝑠
𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −4𝑙 𝐿 2 𝑠 2 𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −5𝑙 𝐿 2 𝑠 2
𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −5𝑙 𝐿 3 𝑠 2
GENERAL EQUATIONS:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐼𝑥 =
𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑥
𝑍𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = |𝐼𝑥 ||𝐸𝑥 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑍𝑥 = |𝐼𝑥 |2 𝑅𝑥
Where: Ex - voltage at a distance x from the source

Ix – current at a distance x from the source
Zx – input impedance at a distance x from the source
Px – power dissipated on the transmission line at a distance x from the source
 - attenuation coefficient
𝑙 – total length of the transmission line
Zx – phase shift of the impedance at a distance x from the source
Rx – resistive component of the impedance at a distance x from the source
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐼𝑥 =
𝑍𝑜
In terms of sending end: x = 0 In terms of receiving end: x = l
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾𝑙  (1) 𝐸𝐿 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 + 𝐵  (1)

𝐴− 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 − 𝐵
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 = 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾𝑙  (2) 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑜 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 − 𝐵  (2)
Add (1) and (2) Add (1) and (2)

𝐸𝑠 + 𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐴 𝐸𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑙
𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑠 + 𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐴 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑙
𝐼 (𝑍 +𝑍 ) 𝐼 (𝑍 +𝑍 )
𝐴= 𝑠 𝑠 𝑜 𝐴 = 𝐿 𝐿−𝛾𝑙 𝑜
2 2𝑒
Subtract (2) from (1)
𝐸𝑠 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐵𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 Subtract (2) from (1)
𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑠 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐵𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 𝐸𝐿 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐵
𝐼 (𝑍 −𝑍 ) 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝐿 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑜 = 2𝐵
𝐵 = 𝑠 𝑠−𝛾𝑙𝑜 𝐼 (𝑍 −𝑍 )
2𝑒
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 +𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾𝑥 𝐼 (𝑍 −𝑍 ) 𝐵= 𝐿 𝐿 𝑜
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑠 𝑠−𝛾𝑙𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥) 𝐼𝐿 (𝑍𝐿+𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾𝑥
2
𝐼𝐿 (𝑍𝐿−𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
2 2𝑒
𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸𝒙 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑒
𝑬𝒙 = 𝒆 + 𝒆 2𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 2
𝟐 𝟐 𝐼𝐿 (𝑍𝐿 +𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾(𝑥−𝑙) 𝐼𝐿 (𝑍𝐿 −𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)
𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸𝒙 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑒
𝑰𝒙 = 𝒆 − 𝒆 2 2
𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸(𝒍−𝒙)
𝐸𝑥 𝑰𝒙 = 𝒆 − 𝒆
𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝟐𝒁𝒐
𝑍𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥
𝒁𝟎 [(𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸𝒙+(𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸𝒙 ]
𝒁𝒙 = [(𝒁 𝒁𝟎 [(𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) +(𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) ]
𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆
−𝜸𝒙 −(𝒁 −𝒁 )𝒆𝜸𝒙 ]
𝒔 𝒐 𝒁𝒙 =
[(𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) −(𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐)𝒆−𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) ]
In terms of sending end parameters In terms of receive end parameters
𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸(𝒍−𝒙)
𝑬𝒙 = 𝒆 + 𝒆 𝑬𝒙 = 𝒆 + 𝒆
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐) −𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝒔 (𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸𝒙 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 ) 𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) 𝑰𝑳 (𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 ) −𝜸(𝒍−𝒙)
𝑰𝒙 = 𝒆 − 𝒆 𝑰𝒙 = 𝒆 − 𝒆
𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝟐𝒁𝒐 𝟐𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝟎 [(𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸𝒙+(𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸𝒙 ] 𝒁𝟎 [(𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) +(𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) ]
𝒁𝒙 = [(𝒁𝒔 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸𝒙 −(𝒁𝒔 −𝒁𝒐)𝒆𝜸𝒙] 𝒁𝒙 =
[(𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐 )𝒆𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) −(𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 )𝒆−𝜸(𝒍−𝒙) ]
For transmission lines used in RF transmission, some assumptions are made. Recall:
𝛾 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
For RF signals, frequency has a high value such that:
𝑗𝜔𝐿 ≫ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ≫ 𝐶
𝛾 = 𝑗𝛽
The formulas Ex, Ix and Zx are revised.
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 +𝑍𝑜 ) −𝛾𝑥 𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠−𝑍𝑜 ) 𝛾𝑥

𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑒
2 2
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠+𝑍𝑜 ) −𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠−𝑍𝑜 ) +𝑗𝛽𝑥

𝐸𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑒
2 2
From Euler’s Theorem:

𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑒 ±𝑗𝛽𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 + 𝑍𝑜 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥) +

𝐸𝑥 = [ ]
2 (𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑜 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥)
𝐼𝑠
𝐸𝑥 = [2𝑍𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗2𝑍𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
2
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 [𝑍𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝐸𝑥 = [𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗𝐼𝑠 𝑍𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑍𝑠
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 +𝑍𝑜 ) −𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 −𝑍𝑜 ) +𝑗𝛽𝑥

𝐼𝑥 = 𝑒 − 𝑒
2𝑍𝑜 2𝑍𝑜
𝐼𝑠 (𝑍𝑠 + 𝑍𝑜 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥) −

𝐼𝑥 = [ ]
2𝑍𝑜 (𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑜 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥)
𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑥 = [2𝑍𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗2𝑍𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
2𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝑠
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑥
𝑍𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥
𝑍
𝐸𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥−𝑗 𝑍𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑠
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍
𝐼𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥−𝑗 𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑍𝑜
𝑍
[1−𝑗 𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑠
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑠 𝑍
[1−𝑗 𝑍 𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑜
[𝑍𝑠 −𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥]

𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [𝑍𝑜 −𝑗𝑍𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥]
Performing similar manipulations to formulas in terms of the receive parameter, the revised formulas are:
In terms of sending end parameters In terms of receive end parameters
𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥] 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝐿 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
𝑍𝑠
𝑍𝐿
𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝐿
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥] 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
[𝑍𝑠 −𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥] [𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)]

𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [𝑍𝑜 −𝑗𝑍𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥]
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [𝑍𝑜 +𝑗𝑍𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)]
Example 3: A 100 coaxial cable (Zo=50) with polyfoam insulation (vf=0.79) is terminated with its
characteristic impedance. The line is driven from a 197.5MHz generator with an open circuit voltage of 120V,
and internal resistance of 30. The voltage 50m from the source is 45-150° V. Determine:
a. The total length of the line (in meter)

b. Voltage, Current, Power 25 away from the load
c. Total phase shift
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or
29
Example 4: A 70 high-frequency lossless line is used at a frequency where  = 80cm with a load of
140 + j90 .
a. Calculate the load reflection coefficient
b. Calculate the impedance at the point 5 from the load
c. Calculate the voltage at the point 5 from the load
d. Calculate the power dissipated at the point 5 from the load
To avoid lengthy mathematical calculations when using the Z x formulas, some special cases are summarized
below.
[𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]

𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜
[𝑍𝑜 + 𝑗𝑍𝑅 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
1. Impedance at any point along the transmission line when 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁𝒐
𝑍𝒙 = Zo
 
2. Impedance at a point (l-x), when (𝒍 − 𝒙) = (𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 )
𝟐 𝟐
2𝜋 
𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = ( ) = 𝜋 = 180°
 2
[𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛(180°)]

𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [𝑍𝑜 +𝑗𝑍𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛(180°)]
𝑍𝒙 = ZL
 
3. Impedance at a point (l-x), when (𝒍 − 𝒙) = (𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 )
𝟒 𝟒
2𝜋  𝜋
𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = ( )= = 90°
 4 2
[𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90°)] 1⁄tan 90°

𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [
[𝑍𝑜 +𝑗𝑍𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90°)] 1⁄tan 90°
]
𝑍𝑜 2
𝑍𝒙 =
𝑍𝐿
30
4. Impedance at any point along the transmission line when 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟎

(𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 − 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝑍𝒙 = j 𝑍o tan 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)
5. Impedance at any point along the transmission line when 𝒁𝑳 = ∞

(𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 − 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝑗⁄
[𝑍𝐿 +𝑗𝑍𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)] 𝑍
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [𝑍 [𝑗 𝑅 ]
𝑜 +𝑗𝑍 𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)] ⁄𝑍
𝑅
𝑗
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 [ ]
− tan 𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)
𝑍𝑥 = −𝑗𝑍𝑜 cot 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)
Given a lossless line:
𝑍𝑜 = 300 𝑍𝐿 = 100 𝐸𝐿 = 10 0° 𝑉 𝐼𝐿 = 0.1  0° 𝐴
𝒍−𝒙 𝜷(𝒍 − 𝒙) 𝑬𝒙 𝑰𝒙 𝒁𝒙

45° 22.36  71.557° 0.0745  18.435° 180 + 𝑗240
𝟖

90° 30  90° 0.033  90° 900
𝟒
𝟑
135° 22.36  108.435° 0.0745  161.565° 180 − 𝑗240
𝟖

180° 10  180° 0.1  180° 100
𝟐
𝟓
225° 22.36  − 108.435° 0.0745  − 161.565° 180 + 𝑗240
𝟖
𝟑
270° 30  − 90° 0.033  − 90° 900
𝟒
𝟕
315° 22.36  − 71.557° 0.0745  − 18.435° 180 − 𝑗240
𝟖
 360° 10  0° 0.1 0° 100
transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, 31

Sample Computation: (𝑙 − 𝑥) =
8
2𝜋  𝜋
𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = ( )= = 45°
 8 4
𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝐿 [cos 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) + 𝑗 sin 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
𝑍𝐿
300
= 10 [cos(45) + 𝑗 sin(45)]
100
= 22.36 71.557°
𝑍𝐿
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿 [cos 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) + 𝑗 sin 𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
𝑍𝑜
100
= 0.1 [cos(45) +𝑗 sin(45)]
300
= 0.0745 18.435°
𝐸𝑥
𝑍𝑥 = = 300 53.122 = 180 + 𝑗 240
𝐼𝑥
OBSERVATIONS:
1. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 are on the same point.

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 are on the same point.
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 𝑍0 =
= 300
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 30
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 900
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.033
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 10
𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 100
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.1

2. is the separation between two equal impedances.
2

3. is the separation between two successive reactances.
4

4. is the separation between two successive purely resistive components.
4
5. Maximum and minimum values of voltage and current happen at the point where there is purely resistive
component.
To determine location of purely resistive input impedance:
Recall:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛾(𝑙−𝑥)  𝐸𝑖 = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐵
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐿
𝐸𝑥 = (𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 )𝑒 𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) + (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 )𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)
2 2
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) + 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐸𝑟
= 𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑟 =  𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) +  𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) [1 +  𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) ]
 = | |𝜃
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛽(𝑙−𝑥) [1 + | | 𝜃 − 2𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥)]
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 − 2𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋 …

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 − 2𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 …
𝜃 − 2𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 0
𝜃
(𝑙 − 𝑥)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝛽
𝜃 − 2𝛽(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝜋
𝜋− 𝜃
(𝑙 − 𝑥)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
−2𝛽
Impedance at max voltage and min voltage:

At Emax:
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑍 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑍𝑜 = ; 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
33
𝑍𝑜 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑍𝑜 (𝑆𝑊𝑅)
At Emin:
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑍 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑍𝑜 = ; 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑜 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
𝑍𝑜
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑆𝑊𝑅
Power:
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥)2
𝑃=
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
Example 2] A 200 lossless line has 𝑍𝑜 = 75. It is terminated with an impedance equal to 200-j95.
Determine:
a) input impedance, Zs
b) , SWR
c) location of the 1st Emin from the load and the 1st Rmax from the load.
d) location of the 3rd Emax from the load
e) if vf=0.95, f=100MHz and ER = 72.558, calculate Emax, Emin, Imax, Imin
Explain
Watch Lecture 1-3(part 1, part 2 and part 3): Wave Transmission on Lines
Elaborate
Problem Set 1-3

This is a non-graded unit formative assessment
1.A transmitter delivers 50 W into a 600-ohm lossless line that is terminated with an
antenna that has an impedance of 275 ohm, resistive.
a. What is the coefficient of reflection? ANSWER: -0.371
b. How much of the power actually reaches the antenna? ANSWER: 43.1W
2. A 75-ohm source is connected to a 50-ohm load with a 75-ohm lossless transmission

line. The source sends 10mW. All impedances are resistive.
a. Calculate the SWR ANSWER:1.5
b. Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient ANSWER:- 0.2
c. How much power will be reflected from the load? ANSWER: 400W
3. A receiver requires 0.5V of signal for satisfactory reception. Calculate the minimum
signal strength (in V) at the sending end if the receiver is connected to the sending
end by a 25m of matched line having an attenuation of 6dB per 100m.
ANSWER: 0.59425 𝜇𝑉
4. A 100m long transmission line (Zo = 50) is connected to a 2MHz signal generator
with open circuit voltage of 12 0 volts and internal resistance of 50.
a. if the load voltage is 3-75 volts and under matched condition , calculate
voltage at 20m from the source ANSWER: 5.2233 − 15 , 𝑉
b. if the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance and propagation constant
is 0.0102 + j0.0523 /m:
b.1. determine the current 30m from the load
ANSWER: 0.058762  − 209.76
b.2. determine the velocity of propagation of the signal in the given
transmission line ANSWER: 240.2748 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠
b.3. when the signal reaches the load, has it travelled a complete
wavelength? justify your answer
ANSWER: 𝑁𝑜, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 360°
b.4. if the signal is to have a phase shift of -30 at the terminating end,
what must be the length (shortest possible, in meters) of the
transmission line? ANSWER: 10.0114 𝑚
5. A 300 transmission line 150m long, operates at 400kHz with attenuation coefficient
of 2.4 x 10-3 Nep/m and phase-shift coefficient of 0.0212 rad/m, supplies a load
impedance 424.3 45. The signal generator has an impedance of 100 and
produces 10 0, V.
a. at the terminating end, is the reflected signal in-phase or out-of-phase with
the incident signal? justify your answer.
ANSWER: out-of-phase by 63.434
b. calculate voltage at the sending end of the transmission line
ANSWER: 8.54  7.56
c. calculate the power sent down the transmission line
ANSWER: 0.117W
6. The input current in a matched line is 50mA and the load current is 1x10 -3 -75. The line is
1km long with a characteristic impedance of 75 . Calculate
a. The attenuation coefficient in dB/m
ANSWER: 0.034 Nep/m
b. The phase shift coefficient in rad/m
ANSWER: 0.2356 X 10-3 rad/m
c. The current 75 meters from the source
ANSWER: 37.286 x 10-3-1.0124 A
d. The voltage 75 meters from the source
ANSWER: 2.796  -1.0124 V
e. The power dissipated at 75 meters from the source
ANSWER: 0.104W
7. A 70 high-frequency lossless line is used at a frequency where  = 80cm with a load of
140+j91 .
a. Calculate the reflection coefficient and the SWR
ANSWER: 3.016
b. Determine the distance to the first voltage minimum from the load
ANSWER: 23.22cm
c. Determine the distance to the first voltage maximum from the load
ANSWER: 3.22 cm
d. Calculate the impedance at the point where maximum voltages occur
ANSWER: 211.12Ω
If you find it difficult to answer the questions given above, it is suggested that
you go back to the EXPLORE section of this unit or contact your instructor.
Evaluate
References
Blake, Roy. Electronic Communication Systems. Second Edition. Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., 2008
Tomasi, Wayne. Electronic Communication Systems. Fifth Edition. Pearson Education South Asia Pte.
Ltd., 2004

Module 1 (Ece 3221)

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Saint Louis University

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Unit Types of Transmission Lines

 Differentiate various types of metallic cables.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1-1:

Read notes on Introduction to Transmission Media presented in this section.

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Classification of Transmission Media:

2. Unguided Media - employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum,

Figure 1-1: Electromagnetic Spectrum with transmission media applications

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES (METALLIC CABLES)

TYPES OF METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES

I. PARALLEL- CONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINES

A. OPEN-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE

Figure 1-2: Open-Wire Transmission Line

B. TWIN LEAD or TWO-WIRE RIBBON

Figure 1-3: Twin Lead

Figure 1-4: Twisted Pair

A. UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

Unshielded twisted pair is subject to external electromagnetic interference, including

B. SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

II. COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINES

Figure 1-5: Rigid Air-filled Coax

Figure 1-6: Solid Flexible Coax

TRANSMISSION LINES CLASSIFICATION

ELECTRICAL MODEL OF A TRANSMISSION LINE:

The characteristics of a transmission line are determined by its:

I. PRIMARY ELECTRICAL CONSTANTS

B. SERIES INDUCTANCE, henries/meter

C. SHUNT CAPACITANCE, farads/meter

D. SHUNT CONDUCTANCE, Siemens/meter

PARAMETER COAXIAL CABLE TWO-WIRE LINE

 - permittivity of the dielectric

𝜀𝑜 - permittivity of free space

𝜀𝑜 = 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝐹/𝑚

 - conductivity of the dielectric

D – distance between the center of the conductors (two-wire)

diameter of the outer conductor (coax)

d – diameter of the conductors (two-wire)

diameter of the inner conductor (coax)

II. SECONDARY CONSTANTS

At low frequencies such that 𝑅 ≫ 𝜔𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ≫ 𝜔𝐶

At high frequencies such that 𝑅 ≪ 𝜔𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ≪ 𝜔𝐶

Substituting permeability and permittivity:

𝜸 = √(𝑹 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝝎𝑪)

Where  - attenuation coefficient, Nepers/meter

dB/m = 8.686 (Nepers/m)

 - phase-shift coefficient, radians/meter

- the speed at which energy is propagated along a transmission line

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑣𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑐 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Problem Set 1-1

2. Find the characteristic impedance of each of the following lines:

4. Given: coax cable

Take the graded evaluative assessment.

Unit Step and Pulse Response of Lines

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1-2:

Step and Pulse Response of Lines

Figure 2-1: Step input applied to an infinitely long line

Figure 2-2: Step input applied to a matched line of finite length

Figure 2-3: Step input to an open-circuited line

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑖