Electrical Module 1

Principles of Electrical
Engineering
By
Vijaya Laxmi
Dept. of EEE
BIT, Mesra, Ranchi
Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Institute Vision
• To become a Globally Recognized Academic
Institution in consonance with the social,
economic and ecological environment, striving
continuously for excellence in education,
research and technological service to the
National needs.

Institute Mission
• To educate students at Undergraduate, Post
Graduate, Doctoral and Post Doctoral levels to perform
challenging engineering and managerial jobs in industry.
• To provide excellent research and development facilities to
take up Ph.D. programmes and research projects.
• To develop effective teaching and learning skills and state
of art research potential of the faculty.
• To build national capabilities in technology, education and
research in emerging areas.
• To provide excellent technological services to satisfy the
requirements of the industry and overall academic needs of
society.

Department Vision
• To become an internationally recognized
centre of excellence in academics, research
and technological services in the area of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering and
related inter-disciplinary fields.

Department Mission
• Imparting strong fundamental concepts to students and
motivate them to find innovative solutions to engineering
problems independently.
• Developing engineers with managerial attributes capable of
applying appropriate technology with responsibility.
• Creation of congenial atmosphere and ample research
facilities for undertaking quality research to achieve
national and international recognition by faculty and
students.
• To strive for internationally recognized publication of
research papers, books and to obtain patent and
copyrights.
• To provide excellent technological services to industry for
the benefit of society.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO)
1. To develop capability to understand the fundamentals of Science
and Electrical & Electronics Engineering for analyzing the
engineering problems with futuristic approach.
2. To foster a confident and competent graduate capable to solve
real life practical engineering problems
3. Fulfilling the obligation towards society.
4. To inculcate an attitude for identifying and undertaking
developmental work both in industry as well as in academic
environment with emphasis on continuous learning enabling to
excel in competitive participations at global level.
5. To nurture and nourish effective communication and interpersonal
skill to work in a team with a sense of ethics and moral
responsibility for achieving goal.

Program Outcomes (PO)
A graduate shall
• Be competent in applying basic knowledge of science and
engineering for the purpose of obtaining solution to a multi-
disciplinary problem
• Gain skillful knowledge of complex engineering problem analysis
• Be able to design system components and processes meeting all
applicable rules and regulations
• Be proficient in arriving at innovative solution to a problem with
due considerations to society and environment
• Be capable of undertaking suitable experiments/research methods
while solving an engineering problem and would arrive at valid
conclusions based on appropriate interpretations of data and
experimental results
• Continually upgrade his/her understanding and become masterly at
modern engineering and soft tools and apply them along with other
appropriate techniques and resources
• Exhibit understanding of societal and environmental issues (health,
legal, safety, cultural etc) relevant to professional engineering
practice and demonstrate through actions, the need for sustainable
development
• Be committed to professional ethics, responsibilities and economic,
environmental, societal, and political norms.
• Demonstrate appropriate inter-personal skills to function effectively
as an individual, as a member or as a leader of a team and in a
multi-disciplinary setting
• Be able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentations; give and receive clear instructions; make effective
presentations and communicate effectively and convincingly on
complex engineering issues with engineering community and with
society at large.
• Be conscious of financial aspects of all professional activities and
shall be able to undertake projects with appropriate management
control and control on cost and time.
• Recognize the need for continuous learning and will prepare
himself/ herself appropriately for his/her all-round development
throughout the professional career.
Graduate Attributes
• Engineering Knowledge: Apply knowledge of
mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals
and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
• Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research
literature and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using
first principles of mathematics, natural sciences
and engineering sciences.
• Design/ Development of Solutions: Design
solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet
specified needs with appropriate consideration for
public health and safety, cultural, societal and
environmental considerations.
• Conduct investigations of complex problems using
research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data
and synthesis of information to provide valid conclusions.
• Modern Tool Usage: Create, select and apply appropriate
techniques, resources and modern engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
• The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by
contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to professional engineering practice.

• Environment and Sustainability: Understand the
impact of professional engineering solutions in societal
and environmental contexts and demonstrate
knowledge of and need for sustainable development.
• Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to
professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
engineering practice.
• Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an
individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams
and in multi disciplinary settings.
• Communication: Communicate effectively on complex
engineering activities with the engineering community
and with society at large, such as being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations and give
and receive clear instructions.
• Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate
knowledge and understanding of engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s
own work, as a member and leader in a team, to
manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
• Life-long Learning: Recognize the need for and
have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life- long learning in the
broadest context of technological change.

COURSE INFORMATION SHEET
• Course code: EE2201

• Course title: Principles of Electrical Engineering
• Pre-requisite(s): Fundamentals of Mathematics and
Physics
• Credits: L T P
• 3 1 0
• Class schedule per week: 4

Course Objectives
This course enables the students :
• To outline and explain
 DC and AC networks and their solutions using different network
reduction techniques
 Basic principles of magnetic circuits
 Basic principles of electrical measuring instruments
• To relate comprehensive knowledge of AC networks to
solve both 1 - Ф and 3 - Ф AC circuits
• To solve magnetic circuits using their analogy with electric
circuits
• To conclude the performance of
 1 – Ф AC series and parallel circuits by resonance phenomena
 Magnetic circuits by using dot convention

Course Outcomes
After the completion of this course, students will be:
• Able to examine performance of DC and AC circuits and
associate the principles to electrical measuring instruments
• Able to clearly explain and interpret them for circuits with
dependent/independent sources using different techniques
• Capable of correlating the knowledge of 1 - Ф circuits to
solve problems of 3 – Ф circuits
• Able to appraise analogy between an electrical and a
magnetic circuit
• Able to solve 1 – Ф series and parallel resonant circuits and
problems based on coupled magnetic circuits

Syllabus
MODULE – I: Introduction: Importance of Electrical Engineering in day-to-day life,
Electrical elements and their classification, Ideal and Real Sources, Source Conversion,
KCL and KVL, Loop current and Nodal voltage method-for D.C. Circuits: Steady state
analysis with independent and dependent sources; Series and Parallel circuits, Star-
Delta conversion (5)
MODULE – II: A.C. Single-Phase Series Circuits: Common signals and their waveforms,
RMS and Average value. Form factor & Peak factor of sinusoidal waveform.
Impedance of Series circuits. Phasor diagram. Active Power. Power factor. Power
triangle. (5)
MODULE – III: A.C. Single-Phase Parallel Circuits: Admittance method, Phasor diagram.
Power. Power factor. Power triangle, Series- parallel Circuit, Power factor
improvement, Series and Parallel Resonance, Resonance curve , Q –factor, Dynamic
Impedance, and Bandwidth. (5)
MODULE – IV: Circuit Theorems: Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s & Norton’s theorem,
Maximum Power Transfer theorem for Independent and Dependent Sources in DC as
well as AC circuit. (5)
MODULE – V: Three Phase Circuits: Line and Phase relation for Star and Delta connection,
Power relations, Analysis of balanced and unbalanced 3 phase circuits.
(5)
MODULE – VI: Magnetic Circuits: Introduction, Series-parallel magnetic circuits, Analysis
of Linear and Nonlinear magnetic circuits, Energy storage, A.C. excitation, Eddy
currents and Hysteresis losses. (5)
MODULE – VII: Coupled Circuits (Dot rule), Self and mutual inductances, Coefficient of
coupling. Basic Indicating Instruments: Moving coil and moving iron type instruments.
(5) Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra
• TEXT BOOKS:
• 1. Hughes Electrical Technology, Revised by McKenzie Smith,

Addison Wesley.
• 2. Fitzgerald and Higginbotham, Basic Electrical Engineering,
McGraw Hill Inc, 1981.
• REFERENCE BOOKS:
• 1. D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, Basic Electrical Engineering, 3rd
Edition, TMH, New Delhi, 2009.
• 2. W. H. Hayt, Jr J. E. Kemmerly and S. M.Durbin, Engineering Circuit
Analysis, 7th Edn TMH, 2010.
• 3. Electrical Engineering Fundamental, Vincent Del Toro, Prentice
Hall, New Delhi.

Module I: Objectives
• Understanding of importance of electricity for
engineers
• Capability of applying Ohm’s law to simple circuits
• Understanding Kirchoff’s Voltage and current laws
• Analyze different solutions such as node voltage and
loop current methods to solve problems of DC circuits
• Understanding the source conversion methods and
voltage and current division rules
• Capability of applying star-delta and delta-star
conversion methods for solving complex circuits

Electricity and Engineers
• An electrical system permits us easily to transmit
energy from a source of supply to a point of
application.
• An electrical system can be summarized as follows:
 Production of electrical energy
 Transmission of electrical energy
 Application of electrical energy
 Control of electrical energy

An Electrical System
A basic electrical system has 4 constituent parts:
 Source: To provide energy to the electrical system
 Load: To absorb the electrical energy supplied by
the source. For ex. Lamps, heaters etc.
 Transmission system: Conducts energy from the
source to load. For ex. Insulated wire
 Control apparatus: Its function is to control. For
ex. Simple control is a switch which permits the
flow of energy or interrupts the flow.

Simple Lamp Circuit

Terminology used
• Circuit element: Any individual circuit component (inductor,
resistor, capacitor, generator etc.) with two terminals, by which it
can be connected to other electric component.
• Branch: A group of circuit elements, usually in series and with two

terminals.
• Potential source: A generator which maintains its value of potential

independent of the output current.
• Current Source: A generator which maintains its output current

independent of the voltage across its terminals.
• Network and circuit: An electric network is any possible

interconnection of electric elements or branches. An electric circuit
is a closed energized network. A network is not necessarily a
circuit.
• Lumped network: A network in which physically separate resistors,
capacitors and inductors can be represented.
• Distributed network: One in which resistors, capacitors and
inductors cannot be electrically separated and individually isolated
as separate elements. Ex. Transmission line
• Passive network: A network containing circuit elements without
any energy sources.
• Active network: A network containing energy sources together with
other circuit elements.
• Bilateral circuit: An electric circuit that possesses the same
properties or characteristics in either direction is called bilateral
circuit. Ex. Transmission line
• Unilateral circuit: An electric circuit whose properties or
characteristics change with the direction of its operation is called
unilateral circuit. Ex. Diode rectifier

• Unilateral elements: The elements that conduct only in one
direction, such as semiconductor diode, transistor.
• Bilateral elements: The elements that conduct in both the
direction similarly such as resistor, inductor, capacitor etc.

• Linear element: A circuit element is linear if the relation
between current and voltage involves a constant coefficient,
e.g. di 1
v  Ri, v  L , v   idt
dt C
• A linear network is one in which the principle of superposition
and homogeneity (linearity test) holds.
If x1  y1 and x2  y2
and x1  x2  y1  y2
and also 1 x1   2 x2 1 y1   2 y2
• A nonlinear network is one which is not linear.

Node or junction
• A node is defined as a point where three or
more connections to elements or sources are
made.
• Voltage of any node with respect to a datum
or ground is the node voltage or nodal
voltage.
• Voltage between any pair of nodes is the
node-pair voltage.

Closed path
• It means any path, along various branches of the
circuit which finishes at the point where it started.
• A circuit may contain one or more closed paths.
• A closed path may not made up of sequence of
connected elements.
• The path may jump from a node to another, whether
or not they are directly connected by an element.

Mesh and Loop
• Mesh: Any path which contains no other paths
within it is called a mesh. Mesh must not have any
other circuit inside it.
• Loop : A path which contains more than two meshes
is called a loop.
• Thus a loop contains meshes but a mesh does not
contain a loop. It may have other loops or meshes
inside it.

Nodes: b,c,e,g
Branches: b-e, c-d-e, e-g, c-a-b, c-f-g, R7, I
Meshes:
Sources of Electrical Energy
There are two types of sources of electrical
energy:
• Ideal voltage source
• Ideal current source

Ideal voltage source
• An ideal voltage source is two-terminal element
which maintains a terminal voltage v(t) regardless of
the value of the current through its terminals.
At v==0, the voltage source is same as that of a short circuit.

Dependent Voltage source
• The voltage across two-terminals of the source is
dependent on the voltage or current of any other
part of the circuit. It is symbolically represented as
below.

Practical voltage source
• In practical voltage source, the voltage across the terminals of
the source keeps falling as the current through it increases as
shown in the figure below.
v1  V  i1 r
where i1 is current flowing and r is internal resistance of the
ideal voltage source of voltage v
The practical voltage source approaches the ideal voltage source
if r becomes zero.
Ideal current source
• An ideal current source is a two-terminal element which
maintains a current i(t) flowing through its terminals
regardless of the value of the terminal voltage as shown in
figure below.
When I==0, the ideal current source has the same v-I characteristics as an open circuit.
Dependent Current source
• A current flowing through its terminals is dependent
on the voltage or current of any other part of the
circuit. It is symbolically represented by the figure
shown below.

Practical current source
• The current through the source decreases as the
voltage across it increases, as shown in the figure
below.
v1
i1  i 
R
where R is the internal resistance of the ideal current source.
The practical current source approaches the ideal current source when R
becomes infinity. Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra
Replacement of practical voltage or current
sources by their internal resistances
• The practical voltage source is replaced by its internal
resistance by short circuiting the voltage source.
• The practical current source is replaced by its internal
resistance by open circuiting the current source.

Controlled or dependent sources
It may be of various types as
• Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
• Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
• Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
• Current controlled current source (CCCS)

Types of medium
• Conductor: A medium in which atoms can
readily release electrons.
• Insulator: A material that does not readily
permit electron flow.
• Semiconductor: They have certain
characteristics that belong to neither of two
groups.

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
Copper Rubber Silicon
Aluminium Porcelain Germanium
Silver Nylon
Platinum Plastic
Bronze Air
Gold Varnish
Glass
Wood
Mica
Ceramic
Certain Oils

Current flow in a circuit
The current will not flow unless the following
conditions are fulfilled:
 There must be a complete circuit around which the
electrons may move. If the electrons flow cannot
return to the starting point, then eventually they will
congregate together and the flow will cease.
 There must be a driving influence to cause the
continuous flow. This is provided by a source which
causes the current to leave at a high potential and t
move round the circuit until it returns to the source at
a low potential.

Current flow in a circuit
The current will not flow unless the following
conditions are fulfilled:
There must be a complete circuit around
which the electrons may move.
There must be a driving influence to cause the
continuous flow.

Electromotive Force
• An electromotive force is that which tends to
produce an electric current in a circuit.
• Its unit is volt.

Electromotive Force and Potential
Difference
• The e.m.f. represents the driving influence that causes the
current to flow.
• The e.m.f. is not a force, but represents the energy
expanded during the passing of a unit charge through the
source. This is connected with energy conversion.
• The energy introduced into the circuit is transferred to the
load by transmission system.
• The energy transferred to the load is called potential
difference (PD).
• The e.m.f. and p.d. are similar quantities. However, e.m.f. is
always active, because it tend to produce current, whereas
p.d. may be active or passive. Passive p.d. means it has no
tendency to create current in a circuit.

For ideal transmission system, the EMF and PD are same
in the above circuit.
Ohm’s Law
• The potential difference between the ends of many
conductors is proportional to the current flowing
between them, provided the temperature remain
constant.
• This is expressed as V I
since the relationship is assumed constant,
V
 R
I
Where R is a constant termed as resistance of the
conductor.
• Or, the expression is written as V  IR

Resistor
• It is a device which provides resistance in an
electrical circuit.
• The resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if
the resistance is proportional to the PD across its
terminals. Their resistance remain constant when
temperature is kept constant.
• If the resistance varies with the magnitude of
either voltage or current, it is said to be
nonlinear. For. Ex. Resistance made of
semiconductor materials.
Types of resistors
• Fixed resistor
• Variable resistors (or Rheostat)
• Potentiometer

Source Conversion
A real physical source is represented by :
• A resistance in series with an ideal voltage source
• A resistance in parallel with an ideal current source
v1  v  i1 R v1  (i  i1 ) R  iR  i1 R
In order that the two equations are equivalent, v=iR

• Hence, if it is required to convert a voltage source v in series
with an internal resistance R into an equivalent current
source, it is done by replacing the voltage source with a
current source of value (v/R), placed in parallel with a
resistance R as in figure below.
If R  0, v1  v i.e., ideal voltage source

• If a current source I in parallel with a resistance R is
to converted into a voltage source, it is achieved by
substituting a voltage source (iR) is series with a
resistance R as shown in the figure below.
If R , i1 i i.e., v1 0, i1 i

Voltage source and Equivalent current source

Current source and Equivalent voltage source

Equivalent Voltage source

Equivalent Current source

Equivalent voltage source from mixed
source

Terms: A summary
• Current: Rate of flow of electric charge in a circuit.
• Source: Supplies energy to a system
• Load: Accepts energy from a system
• Electric charge: May be positive or negative
• Electromotive force: It is driving force from the supply to maintain
current
• Potential difference: The energy in volts lost per coulomb of charge
passing through the load.
• Power: Rate of energy transmission, i.e., product of current and
voltage
• Resistance: Measure of opposition to the flow of charge through a
load
• Ohm’s Law: Ratio of voltage to current is constant, provided other
physical factors such as temperature remain constant

DC circuits: Objectives
• Recognition of series and parallel connected loads and their
characteristics
• Understanding Kirchoff’s laws
• Capability of analyzing simple circuits and networks
containing series and parallel loads
• Understanding power and energy associated with electric
circuits and networks
• Capability of analyzing the power and energy associated
with loads passing current
• Familiarity with temperature coefficient of resistance
• Awareness of the effects of temperature rise in electrical
components

Series circuits

Observation
The current measured in each of the ammeter is same, irrespective of the

voltage applied to the circuit.
No matter what supply voltage is applied, it is always equal to the sum of

voltmeter readings across the loads.
Resistive loads
V  V1  V2  V3
In general V  IR
Then , V1  IR1 , V2  IR2 , V3  IR3
Hence , V  IR1  IR2  IR3
So , IR  I R1  R2  R3 
and R  R1  R2  R3

Problem
• Calculate for each of the circuits shown in the
figure the current flowing in the circuit given
that R=3kΩ.

• Solution:
• Case 1:
V 220
I  3
 0.073 A  73mA
R 33
 10
• Case 2:
R  R1  R 2  6 k 
V 220
I   3
 37 mA
R 6  10

Problem
• Calculate the voltage across each of the
resistors shown in figure and hence calculate
the supply voltage V.
• Given,
I 1.5A, R1  2, R2  3, R3  8

• Solution:
V1  IR1  1.5  2  3V
V2  IR2  1.5  3  4.5V
V3  IR3  1.5  8  12V
V  V1  V2  V3
 3  4.5  12  19 .5V

Problem
• For the circuit shown in the figure calculate
the circuit current, given that supply is 100 V.
• Given,
R1  40, R2  50, R3  70

• Solution:
R  R1  R 2  R3
 40  50  70  160 
V 100
I   0 .625 A
R 160

Voltage Division Rule
• This involves the division of voltage between only two
resistors connected in series as shown in the figure.
The total resis tan ce is , R  R1  R2
If sup ply voltage is V , current in the circuit is
V
I
R1  R2
The volt drop across R1 is given by

V
IR1  .R1  V1
R1  R2 V1 R1

V R1  R2
The ratio of voltages therefore depends on the ratio of the resistances.

This permits a rapid determination of the division of volt drops in
simple series circuit . Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra
Problem
• A voltage divider is to give an output voltage of 10V
from an input voltage of 30V as in Figure below.
Given that R2=100Ω, calculate the resistance of R1.

• Solution:
V2 R2

V R1  R 2
10 100

30 R 1  100
R 1  100  300
R 1  200 

Parallel Circuit

Observation
No matter what the supply voltage is, the sum of currents indicated by ammeter
A1 and A2 is always equal to the supply current as indicated by ammeter A.
No matter what supply voltage is applied, the voltages across each of the loads
are equal to it.

Resistive loads
I  I1  I 2  I 3
V
In general, I  ,
R
V V V
then, I1  , I 2  , I3 
R1 R2 R3
V V V
Hence, I   
R1 R2 R3
V V V V
So,   
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
and,   
R R1 R2 R3
Capacitors in series
1 1 1 1 1
   
C eq C1 C 2 C 3 C 4

Capacitors in parallel
C eq  C 1  C 2  C3

Inductors in series
Leq  L1  L2  L3  L4

Inductors in Parallel
1 1 1 1
  
L eq L1 L2 L3

Problem
• Calculate the supply current to the network
shown in the figure below.
• Given,
R1  22, R2  44

• Solution:
V 110 V 110
I1    5A I2    2 .5 A
R1 22 R2 44
I  I 1  I 2  5  2 .5  7 .5 A

Problem
• For the network shown in figure below,
calculate the effective resistance and hence
the supply current.
• Given,
R1  6.8, R2  4.7, R3  2.2

• Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
R R1 R2 R3 6 .8 4 .7 2 .2
1
R   1 . 23 
0 . 815
V 12
I    9 . 76 A
R 1 . 23

Current Division Rule
• This involves combination of only two resistors in parallel.
The effective resis tan ce is given by ,
1 1 1 R1  R 2
  
R R1 R 2 R1 R 2
R1 R 2
Hence , R  Also , V  I 1 R1
R1  R 2
R1 R 2
V  IR  I
R1  R 2 R2
I1  I
R1  R 2
The current in one resistor is that portion of the total given by the
ratio of other resistance to the sum of the resistances.
This permits a rapid determination of the division of the currents
in a simple parallel network.Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra
Problem
• A current of 8A is shared between two resistors in
the network shown in figure below. Calculate the
current in the R2=2Ω resistor given that (i) R1  2,
(ii) R1  4

• Solution:
R2 2
Case I : I 1  I  8  4A
R1  R2 22
R1 4
Case II : I 2  I  8  5 .3 A
R1  R2 42

Difference between Series and Parallel
circuits
Series Parallel
Current
I  I1  I 2  I 3 I  I1  I 2  I 3
Voltage
V  V1  V2  V3 V  V1  V2  V3
Resistance 1 1 1 1
R  R1  R2  R3   
R R1 R2 R3

Points to remember
• In a series circuit, the total resistance is always greater than
the greatest resistance in the circuit. This serves as a check
when combining series resistance.
• In a parallel network, the total resistance is always less than
the smallest resistance in the network. This serves as a useful
check especially as it is easy to forget to invert the term 1/R
during the evaluations of R.

Kirchhoff’s Laws
• First (current) Law
• Second (Voltage) Law

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a

junction in a network is zero.
 I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  0
or
I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  0
Node or Junction

Problem
• For the network junction shown in figure
below, calculate the current I3, given that
I1  3 A, I 2  4 A and I 4  2 A

I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  0
I 3   I1  I 2  I 4
 3  4  2  3 A

Problem
• For the network shown in figure below, determine
the relationship between the currents I1, I2, I3 and I4.

• Solution:
For junction a : I1  I 4  I 3  0
 I 3  I1  I 4
For junction b : I 3  I 5  I 2  0
 I3  I2  I5
So , I 1  I 4  I 2  I 5
and I 1  I 2  I 4  I 5  0
It may be noted that Kirchoff’s first law need not apply to a junction,
but may also apply to a section of a network.

Problem
• For the circuit given in figure below, I1=2.5A and I2=-
1.5A. Calculate the current I3.

• Solution:
I1  I2  I3  0
I3  I1  I2  2.5 1.5  1A

Problem
• Write down the current relationships for junctions a,
b and c of the network shown in figure below and
hence determine the currents I2, I4 and I5.

• Solution:
Junction a :
Junction c :
I1  I 2  I 3  0
I3  I4  I5  0
I 2  I1  I 3  3  1  2 A
I5  I3  I4  1  1  2 A
Junction b:
I2  I4  I6  0
I4  I6  I2  1  2  1A
This shows that the current is flowing from junction b to c.

So, the assumption of direction of current from b to c is actually to
be reversed.
Series-parallel network

Problem
• For the network shown in figure below,
determine I1 and I2.
• Given, R1  30, R2  60, R3  30
I 3  1A

• Solution:
R2
I3  .I 1
R2  R3
R2  R3 60  30
I1  .I 3  .1  1 .5 A
R2 60
and , I 2  I 3  I 1  0
I 2  I 1  I 3  1 .5  1  0 .5 A

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
At any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of

the e.m.f.s acting round the loop is equal to the
algebraic sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
E  V1  V 2  V 3

Problem
• For the network shown in figure below, determine
the voltages V1 and V2.

Solution
Loop 1 : E  V 1  V 2
V 1  E  V 2  12  8  4 V
Loop 2 : V2  V3  V4  0
V 3  V 2  V 4  8  2  6V
Loop 3 : E  V1  V 3  V 4
12  4  6  2  12 V
This confirms the result.
There need not be an e.m.f. in a given loop and this was instanced by Loop 2.
This is important to note that p.d.s acting in a clockwise direction round a loop are
taken to be negative, which compares with the treatment of currents flowing out
of junction.
• The KVL need not be restricted to actual circuits, instead a part of circuit
may be imagined.
Let V4 be the p.d. across the imaginary section shown by dotted lines.
KVL to Loop :
0  V4  V1  V2  V3
V4  V1  V2  V3

Problem
• Calculate the voltage V1 and the e.m.f. E2 with two
sources.

Solution
• Applying KVL to LHS Loop:
E1  V1  V 2
V1  E1  V 2  10  6  4V
• RHS Loop:  E2  V2  V3

E2  V2  V3  6  8  14V
• The results can be checked by outside loop:

E1  E2  V1  V3
10  14  4  8
This confirms the result.

Kirchoff’s laws as solution of network
• By direct application to the network in conjunction with
Ohm’s laws
• By indirect application to the network in conjunction with the
manipulation of the component resistances
• By direct application to the network resulting in solution by
simultaneous equations

Problem
• For the network shown in the figure below, determine the
supply current and the source emf. Given,
R1  8  , R 2  6  , R 3  16  , R 4  8 
I4  3A

Solution
V3  I 3 R3  I 4 R4  3  8  24V
24
I3   1 .5 A
16
From KCL , I  I 3  I 4  1 .5  3  4 .5 A
Also , V1  IR1  4 .5  8  36V

V2  IR 2  4 .5  6  27V
From KVL,
E  V1  V2  V3
 36  27  24  87V
Problem
• Given the network shown in figure below, determine
I1, E, I2 and I. Given, R1  9, R2  15, R3  8

Solution
V1 27
I1    3A
R1 9
V 2  I 1 R 2  3  15  45V
E  V  V1  V 2  27  45  72V
V 72
I3    9A
R3 8
I  I 1  I 3  3  9  12 A

Star-Delta Conversion
Equivalence can be
found on the basis
that the resistance
between any pair
of terminals in the
two circuits have to
be the same, when
the third terminal is
left open.

• First take delta connection:
Between A and C, there are two parallel paths, one
having a resistance of R2 and other having a
resistance of ( R1+R3).
Hence, resistance between terminal A and C is
R2 R1  R3 
R2  R1  R3 

• Now in star connection,
• The resistance between the same terminal A and C is (RA+RC)

as they are in series. Since terminal resistance have to be
same so we must have
R2 R1  R3 
R A  RC  ....(a )
R2  R1  R3 
• Similarly, R3 R1  R2 
RA  RB  ...(b)
R3  R1  R2 
R1 R2  R3 
and , RB  RC  ...(c)
R1  R2  R3 
Delta- Star Conversion
• By subtracting (b) from (a) and adding the result to (c), we will
get the following values for R1,R2 and R3 we get
R2R3
RA 
R1  R 2  R 3
R 3 R1
RB 
R1  R 2  R 3
R1R 2
RC 
R1  R 2  R 3
Resistance of each arm of star is given by the product of the

resistance of the two delta sides that meet at its ends divided by the
sum of the three delta resistance .
Star-Delta Conversion
• Multiplying (a) and (b), (b) and (c) , (c) and (a) and adding
them together and simplifying, the following result is
obtained.
RA RB  RB RC  RC RA
R1 
RA
RA RB  RB RC  RC R A
R2 
RB
R A RB  RB RC  RC RA
R3 
RC
The equivalent delta resistance between any two point is given by

the product of resistance taken two at a time divided by the
opposite resistance in the star configuration.
Problem
• A delta connected resistors is given in figure.
Convert this into an equivalent star connection.
Ans. RA=3 Ω, RB=1 Ω, RC=1.5 Ω

Problem
• The figure shows a network. The number on each
branch represents the value of resistance in ohms. Find
the resistance between the points E and F.
Ans: 5.6Ω

Problem
• Find the current drawn from the 5 volt battery in
the network shown in figure.
Ans: 0.974A
Care to be taken
• During the network reduction or simplification
process, some points in the original network are
lost.
• Care must be taken during this process that no
point of ultimate relevance is lost.

Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis relies on Kirchoff’s laws.
It is variously known as Maxwell’s circulating current method,
loop analysis or mesh current analysis.
This technique proceeds as follows:
 Circulating currents are allocated to closed loops or meshes
in the circuit rather than to branches.
 An equation is then obtained by equating the algebraic sum
of the emfs round that loop to the algebraic sum of the
potential differences (in the direction of the loop, mesh or
circulating current), as required by KVL.
 Branch currents are found thereafter by taking the algebraic
sum of the loop currents common to individual branches.

Problem
• Calculate the current in each branch of the network
shown in figure below.

In Loop 1 :
100  20  I 1 60  30  50   I 2 50  I 3 30
 140 I 1  50 I 2  30 I 3  80
In Loop 2 :
 50  20  I 2 50  40  10   I 1 50  I 3 40
  50 I 1  100 I 2  40 I 3   30
In Loop 3 :
0  I 3 30  20  40   I1 30  I 2 40
 30 I1  40 I 2  90 I 3  0

Current in 60  I1  1.65 A in the direction of I1
Current in 30  I1  I 3  0.15 A in the direction of I1
Current in 50  I 2  I1  0.51A in the direction of I 2
Current in 40  I 2  I 3  0.66 A in the direction of I 2
Current in 10  I 2  2.16 A in the direction of I 2
Current in 20  I 3  1.50 A in the direction of I 3

Problem: Mesh current
• Find the voltage across R in the given network,
by mesh current analysis.

Solution
Loop 1 :
10  2 I 1   2 I 2  0 I 3  5
12 I 1  2 I 2  5
Loop 2 :
 2 I 1  10  2  20  2 I 2   2 I 3  0
 2 I 1  34 I 2  2 I 3  0
Loop 3 :
0 I 1   2 I 2  2  10 I 3  10
 2 I 2  12 I 3  10
• Rearranging in matrix form,  12  2 0   I1   5 

 2 34  2  I    0 
  2   
 0  2 12   I 3  10
Voltage across R is , VR  I 2  I 3 R
 2 360 3
I2    A
 4800 40
12 5 0 12 2 0
where,  2   2 0  2  360,    2 34  2  4800
0 10 12 0  2 12
 3 4060 203
and , I 3    A
 4800 240
12  2 5
where,  3   2 34 0  4060
0  2 10
 3   203 
VR       2  1.54V
 40   240 

Nodal Analysis
This is also known as Node voltage method and is based on
KCL at each junction (node) of the circuit, to find the node
voltages.
This generally proceeds as follows:
 Choose a reference node to which all node voltages can be
referred. Label all the other nodes with (unknown) values of
voltage, V1, V2 etc.
 Assign currents in each connection to each node, except the
reference node, in terms of the node voltages, V1, V2 etc.
 Apply KCL at each node, obtaining as many equations as there
are unknown node voltages.
 Solve the resulting equations to find the node voltages.

Problem
• Using node voltage method calculate the voltages V1
and V2 in figure below and hence calculate the
currents in the 8Ω resistor.

• Solution:
4  V1 V1  V 2 V1
Node 1 :  
5 10 15
or , 11V1  3V 2  24 ...( 1)
V1  V 2 V 2  6 V 2
Node 2 :  
10 12 8
or , 12 V1  37 V 2   60 ...( 2 )
From (1) and ( 2 ), V 2  2 . 55 V

From (1), V1  2 . 88 V
V2
Hence , current in 8  resistor is  0 . 32 A
8
Problem
• Using Nodal analysis, calculate the voltages V1 and V2 in the
circuit of figure.

Solution
V1 V1  V 2
Node 1 :  1
5 3
1 1 V
or , V 1     2  1 .....( 1 )
5 3 3
V1  V 2 V
Node 2:  2
3 7
V 1 1
or , 1  V 2     0 ...( 2 )
3 3 7
Solving both equations ,
7
V2  V1 ...( 3 )
10
From equation (1 ), 8 V 1  5 V 2  15 ...( 4 )
From equations ( 3 ) and ( 4 ),
10
V1  V
3
7
From ( 3 ), V2  V
3
Assignment Problem
• Determine the voltages at nodes 1 and 2 of the
network shown below, by node analysis.

Assignment Problem
• Find the various branch currents in the passive
elements of the network.

Problem
• Determine the node voltages and the current through the
resistors for the network below using (i) Mesh analysis (ii)
Node analysis.

• Solution:
Loop 1 :
i1  i3 5  i1  i2 2  12 here, (i3  3)
or , 7i1  2i2  3 i3
Loop 2 :
i2  i1 2  i2  i3 6  i2 .1  6
or ,  2i1  9i2  24 i1 i2
i1  1.27 A, i2  2.95 A
current in 5  i1  i3   1.73 A Va  0V

current in 2  i1  i2   1.68 A Vb  i2 .1  6  3.05V
current in 6  i2  i3   0.05 A Vc  i1  i2 2  3.36V
current in 1  i2  2.95 A Vd  12V
Problem
• Write the nodal equations of the circuit given below.

Solution
Node 1 : Node 3 :
V V  V2 V3 V  V2
i 1  1 Ki 0   3  0
R1 R2 R5 R4
 1 1   1  V2  1 1 
or , V 1     V 2    i or ,   V 3      Ki 0
 R1 R2   R2  R4  R4 R5 
Node 2 :
V2 V  V 3 V 2  V1
Ki 0   2 
R3 R4 R2
V1  1 1 1  1
or ,   V 2      V 3  Ki 0
R2 R
 3 R 4 R 2  R 4

Controlled or Dependent sources
It may be of various types as :
• Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
• Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
• Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
• Current controlled current source (CCCS)

Problem: Dependent source
• Obtain the voltage output across rL.
• Solution:
• Using KVL in loop,
 12  i.1  i.10  2i  0
13i  12
i  0.92 A
• Hence, the drop across rL is
0.92  rL  0.92  10  9.2V

• Obtain iR in terms of is.

Solution
• Applying KCL at node x, is  ir  iR
v
or , is   iR
r
• In loop xmny,  v  av  iR R  0
 v1  a   iR .R
i R .R
• So, v
1 a
iR .R 1  R 
is  .  iR  iR   1
1 a r  r 1  a  
r 1  a 
hence, iR  is
R  r 1  a 
• Find the voltage drop and power loss in RL if i1=1A in
the dependent current source.

• Solution:
we have , i.5  v L
v L  2i1  5 5  2  5 5   15V
This indicates that the drop across RL is 15V with opposite polarity at x.
2
power dissipated in RL  i 2 RL  3 5  45watts.

Power and Energy
• In the problem of wiring of bulbs in series and parallel, it has
been seen that a reduction in the voltage and in the current
to the lamp bulbs their light output to be reduced.
• The light output is the rate at which the light energy is given
out, i.e., the power to the lamp.
• It can be shown that P V
and P  I
• So, P  VI
• The volt is that potential difference across a conductor when
passing a current of 1A and dissipating energy at the rate of
1W.
• So, P=VI

Problem
• A 230V lamp is rated to pass a current of 0.26A.
Calculate its power output.
• If a similar lamp is connected in parallel to the lamp,
calculate the supply current required to give the
same power output to each lamp.

• Solution:
P  VI  230  0 . 26  60 W
with second lamp:

P  60  60  120W
P 120
I   0.52A
V 230

Problem
• Assuming the lamps to have reasonably constant
resistance regardless of operating conditions,
estimate the power output if the lamps are
connected in series.

For one lamp :
• Solution: V 230
R   885 
I 0.26
For sec ond lamp in series :
R  885  885  1770 
V 230
I   0.13 A
R 1770
P  VI  230  0.13  30W
This is the combined output and therefore each lamp has an output of 15W.
This will not give much light, as the lamps are connected in series. Because instead of 60W,
each bulb is getting only a quarter.
This is only an estimate, since no allowance has been made for the effect of different
operating conditions due to temperature rise as the lamp gives out more light.
• Again,
P  ( IR) I  I 2 R
• This expression emphasizes the power-dissipation effect of a
current which creates heat in a conductor. This is known as
heating effect of a current and is termed as conductor or I2R
loss, since the energy transferred in this way is always lost to
the electrical system.
• In a heating bar of an electric radiator or the heating element
of a cooker, I2R loss is beneficial, in other cases it may be
simply energy lost to the surroundings.

• I2R represents a power, i.e., the rate at which energy
is transferred or dissipated and not the energy itself.
• The energy is expressed as W  Pt  VIt
and W  I 2 Rt (Joule
( Joule)
• For the purpose of electricity supply, the Joule is too
small unit. The unit could be watt second.
• For larger power rating (a Kilowatt) and a longer
period of time (an hour), a larger unit of energy
(Kilowatt Hour, KWh) is obtained.

Problem
• A current of 3A flows through a 10Ω resistor.
• Find
a) The power developed by the resistor
b) The energy dissipated in 5 min.

• Solution:
( a ) P  I 2 R  32  10  90W
(b ) W  Pt  90  (5  60 )  2700 J

Problem
• A heater takes a current of 8A from a 230V source for
12h. Calculate the energy consumed in kilowatt
hours.

• Solution:
P  VI  230  8  1840 W  1 . 84 kW
W  1 . 84  12  22 kWh

Problem
• For the network shown in figure below, calculate the
power developed by each resistor. Given,
R1  8, R2  4

• Solution:
R2 4
I1  I  9  3A
R1  R2 8 4
P1  I12 R1  32  8  72W
I 2  I  I1  9  3  6 A
2 2
P2  I R2  6  4  140W
2

Principle of duality
• Two networks are said to be dual to each other when
the mesh equations of one network are the same as
the node equations of the other.
• The KCL and KVL are same, word to word, except
voltage substituted by the current, independent loop
for independent node etc.
• Similarly two graphs are said to be dual of each other
if the incidence matrix of any one of them is equal to
the circuit matrix of the other.
• only planar networks have duals.

Principle of Duality
• Two networks are said to be dual to each other when
the mesh equations of one network are the same as
the node equations of the other.
• The KCL and KVL are same, word to word, except
voltage substituted by the current, independent loop
for independent node etc.
• Only planar networks have duals, i.e., networks
which can be drawn on a plane surface where no
element cross any other element or branch.

Conversion for dual electrical circuits
Loop basis Node basis

Current Voltage
Resistance Conductance
Inductance Capacitance
Branch current Branch voltage
Mesh Node
Short circuit Open circuit
Parallel path Series path

Steps to follow
• Place a node inside each mesh of a given network. These internal nodes
correspond to the independent nodes of the dual network.
• Place a node outside the given network. The external node correspond to
the datum node in the dual network.
• Connect all internal nodes in the adjacent mesh by dashed lines crossing
the common branches. Elements which are the duals of the common
branches will form the branches connecting the corresponding
independent node in the dual network.
• Connect all internal nodes to the external node by dashed lines
corresponding to all external branches. Duals of these external branches
will form the branches connecting independent nodes and datum node.
• A clockwise current in a mesh corresponds to a positive polarity (w.r.t. the
datum node) at the dual independent node.
• A voltage rise in the direction of a clockwise mesh current corresponds to
a current flowing towards the dual independent node.

Problem
• Draw the dual of the network shown in the
figure below.

Independent
nodes
Datum node

Problem
• Draw the dual of the network shown in the figure
below.

Problem
• Draw the dual of the network shown in the figure
below.

2 3

Problem: source conversion
• Convert the network with a voltage source and
resistance.

• Solution:

Supernodes
• Nodes that are connected to each other by
voltage sources, but not to the reference node by
a path of voltage sources, form a supernode.
• The total number of equations required for a
supernode is equal to the number of nodes
connected in the supernode.
• A supernode requires one node voltage equation,
i.e., KCL equation and remaining node voltage
equations are KVL equations.
Problem
• Determine the current in 5Ω resistor for the network
shown below.
20V

Solution
• Applying KCL at node 1,
V1 V1  V2
10   20V
3 2
1 1 1
V1     V2    10
3 2 2
0.83V1  0.5V2  10
Nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode.
• Voltage equation for supernode,
V2 V3  20

• Applying KCL at supernode,
V 2  V1 V 2 V 3  10 V 3
   0
2 1 5 2
 1 1  1 1
V1    V 2  1   V 3  2
 2  2  5 2
 0 . 5V1  1 . 5V 2  0 .7V 3  2
• Solving we get, V  19 .04V

1
V 2  11 .6V
V3   8 .4V
V3  10  8 .4  10
I 5     3 .68 A
5 5
Problem
• In the network given below, find the node voltages
V1, V2 and V3.

Node 1 :
Solution
V1  V 2 V1  V 3
4 
0 . 33 0 .5
 1 1  1 1
  V1  V2  V3  4
 0 . 33 0 . 5  0 . 33 0 .5
5 . 03V1  3 . 03V 2  2V 3  4
Nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode.
V3 V2  5
KCL at sup ernode,
Solving we get , V1  2.62V
V2  V1 V2 V3 V3  V1
   0 V2  0.17V
0.33 0.2 1 0.5
 5.03V1  8.03V2  3V3  0 V3  4.83V
Problem
• Node 2 and 3 can be combined as supernode.

• We have,
Node 1 :
V 1  50 V
Node 2:
V 2  V1 V2
  Ix  0
5 50
Node 3 :
V3
Ix  4   0
100

V2  V3  10i
V2  V1
V2  V3  10
5
From Node 2 and 3,
V 2  V1 V2 V3
  4  0
5 50 100

Supermesh
• Meshes that share a current source with other meshes,
none of which contains a current source in the outer
loop, form a supermesh.
• A path around a supermesh doesn’t pass through a
current source. A path around each mesh contained
within a supermesh passes through a current source.
• The total number of equations required for a
supermesh is equal to the number of meshes
contained in the supermesh.
• A supermesh requires one mesh current equation, i.e.,
KVL equation and the remaining mesh current
equations are KCL equations.
Problem
• Find the current through 10 Ω resistor of the
network shown below.

Solution
• Applying KVL to mesh 1,
2  i1.1  i1  i2 .10  0
11i1  10i2  0 i1 i2 i3
Meshes 2 and 3 form a supermesh.

The direction of current source of 4A and current (i3-i2) are same,
i.e., in the upward direction.
• We have
i3  i 2  4
KVL to outer path of sup ermesh,
 10i2  i1   5i2  15i3  0
10i1  15i2  15i3  0
• Solving we get,
i1  2.35 A
i2  2.78 A
i3  1.22 A
current through 10  i1  i2  0.43 A

Problem
• Find the current in the 3Ω resistor of the network.

Solution
• Mesh 1 and 3 form a supermesh. i1  i3  7
• Applying KVL to outer path of supermesh
7  i1  i2 .1  i3  i2 .3  i3 .1  0
i2
 i1  4i2  4i3  7
• Applying KVL to mesh 2, i1
i2  i1 .1  i2 .2  i2  i3 .3  0
i3
i1  6i2  3i3  0
• Solving we get,
i1  9 A , i 2  2 . 5 A , i3  2 A
current through 3  resistor  i 2  i3  0 . 5 A
The End

Electrical Module 1

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Principles of Electrical

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

• Course code: EE2201

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

• 1. Hughes Electrical Technology, Revised by McKenzie Smith,

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

• Branch: A group of circuit elements, usually in series and with two

• Potential source: A generator which maintains its value of potential

• Current Source: A generator which maintains its output current

• Network and circuit: An electric network is any possible

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

At v==0, the voltage source is same as that of a short circuit.

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

In order that the two equations are equivalent, v=iR

If R  0, v1  v i.e., ideal voltage source

If R , i1 i i.e., v1 0, i1 i

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

The current measured in each of the ammeter is same, irrespective of the

No matter what supply voltage is applied, it is always equal to the sum of

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra

Vijaya Laxmi, BIT, Mesra