CHAPTER 5:
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LESSONS
Lesson
 May be classified not only on the basis of
procedure and methodology but also on the basis
of objectives and the subject matter.
 Some lessons may utilize a combination of
methods depending on the objectives and the
subject matter.
1. THE DEVELOPMENT LESSON
 Type of something to be learned in which a new
idea in presented and developed. It may be a
concept, a principle, a theory, a skill or a
generalization.
 The distinguishing characteristics of the
development lesson is the novel idea which the
class has now known yet and the interest and
enthusiasm of the learners.
 There are 2 types of development lesson – the
formal and informal.
There are certain steps to be observed in the informal
development lesson:
1. Preparation – This stage consist of the cognitive
and motivational aspects of the lesson.
2. Presentation - The teacher directs the learners
learning activities by way of presenting
motivational questions, coupled with teaching
aids, and leading the class to examine, analyze,
compare and contrast.
3. Application – This is the stage to determine
whether the learners have learned or not.
Learning is facilitated when the developmental
procedure and steps are used well.
Conditions necessary to have a good development
lesson:
1. Mastery of the subject matter.
2. Recall of previous experiences that have direct
learning on the new lesson.
3. The teacher’s clear picture of what is to
perceived, presented, executed and developed.
2. THE SUPERVISED STUDY LESSON
Importance of Supervised Study:
1. The observation that a number of failures and
dropouts in a school are due to poor study habits.
2. Many hours especially in the rural and slum areas
do not have adequate lighting.
3. Slow learners need motivation, guidance and
supervised study.
TYPES OF SUPERVISED STUDY LESSONS
1. Group study
2. Study with printed materials
3. Programmed instructions
4. Science laboratories
5. The library-study plan
6. The study period
3. THE APPRECIATION LESSON
 Is designed to instruct the class to understand,
appreciate and enjoy something.
 Should focus on developing desirable values.
 The primary objectives of the teacher in
appreciation lesson is to plan interesting lessons
that will stimulate and induce learners to
appreciate what is beautiful and worthwhile.
The sources of appreciation lessons are:
1. Literature
2. Music
3. The arts
4. Nature
5. Religion
6. culture
TYPES OF APPRECIATION
1. Aesthetic appreciation
2. Ethical-social appreciation
3. Intellectual appreciation
Suggestions that may facilitate the metal readiness,
positive attitude and determined effort of the learners can
play an important role:
1. Choose materials and learning activities that the
learners are interested in which they can enjoy
2. Since appreciation is a personal experience, the
learner must participate directly in the learning
activity to derive emotional feeling and satisfaction
3. Beautiful lines full of appeal and emotion should
encourage learners to commit to memory
4. Appreciation lessons and activities should be
informal.
5. Follow-up activities that will deepen the
pleasurable response of the first impression.
PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW
1. Retention of facts and information
2. Organization of materials and experiences
3. Ability of the learner to evaluate the material
4. Foundations of further learning
5. Diagnosis of the learner’s weaknesses
6. Development and interest in the old materials
TYPES OF REVIEW
1. The short daily review
2. The post lesson unit review
3. Extensive unit review
REVIEW TECHNIQUES
1. Time frame of review
2. Length of review
3. Preparation for the review
PRINCIPLES OF A REVIEW LESSON
1. The review must be of value to the learners.
2. The review must stimulate interest.
3. The review should adhere to pedagogical and
psychological principles of learning.
4. THE DRILL LESSON
 Intended for automatization of certain facts,
information, habits, attitudes and skills to fix
association for permanency or to perfect a certain
degree a particular skill.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DRILL
Guidelines to be observed and followed:
1. Motivation
2. Focalization
3. Repetition and attention
4. Application
PRINCIPLES IN DRILL ACTIVITY
 1. Utilization of the principles of learning. The
learners should be properly motivated.
2. Way of conducting the drill. The teacher should
organize the subject matter to be covered and
develop a system that is fast, precise and
uninterrupted by any form of discussion.
3. Standards. Attainable standards e.g. speed,
precision, quality and accuracy are to be
considered.
5. THE APPLICATION LESSON
 The application on various expression lessons
may take a variety of forms. The different ideas,
facts, principles, and rules that have been taught
to the learners can find outlets or manifested in
any of the following activity:
1. Story telling
2. Oral reading
3. Dramatization
4. Written composition
5. Construction and illustration
6. Singing
7. Creative work or composition
8. Test
CHAPTER 6:
THE FOUNDATIONS OF CONTEMPORARY
TEACHING METHODS
 The traditional method of study utilized by the
learner was memorizing and the classroom
procedure was recitation method.
 From one point of view, the foundations of
contemporary teaching methods may be said to
embrace three areas:
1. The new psychology of learning
2. The democratic ideal
3. The broader objectives of education
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD BASED ON THE NEWER
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
1. Method should utilize the present interest of
learners and stimulate the development of further
interests.
2. Method should encourage the pupil to establish
worthwhile goals towards which to work.
3. Method should provide the opportunities for
developing the inherent talent and creative
abilities of learners.
4. Method should make provision for individual
differences in abilities of learners.
5. Method should utilize opportunities for learning
through the use of concrete and meaningful
learning materials.
6. Method should provide for the development of
basic skills through the use of meaningful and
real-life situations.
7. Method should provide experiences closely
geared to maturity level of learners.
8. Method should reflect an understanding of the
broader concept of learning as the modification of
behavior.
9. Method should make meaning, explanations and
relationships of ideas clear to learners.
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD BASED ON THE
DEMOCRATIC IDEAL
1. Method should provide for the teacher-learner
cooperation in planning, executing, and evaluating
learning activities.
2. Method should provide proper balance between
learner freedom and teacher guidance.
3. Method should provide learner maximum
participation in the solution of problems arising in
connection with school living.
4. Method should provide varied opportunities for the
learner to develop basic skills in group processes.
5. Method should provide for the stimulation of
individual effort through the use of group
consensus and approval.
6. Method should provide opportunities for the
learners to make decision and assume
responsibilities.
7. Method should provide for the gradual
development of self-direction on the part of
learners.
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD BASED ON THE BROAD
OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
1. Method should be concerned with all aspects of
child development.
2. Method should provide a well-balanced program
of activities for learners.
3. Method should provide orienting the learners
about their community, their nation and the world.
4. Method should promote security and satisfaction
of learning experiences for every learner.
5. Method should reflect an understanding that the
fundamental skills are broader than the three R’s.
6. Method should reflect an understanding that the
fundamental subjects such as reading, writing and
arithmetic involve the development of attitudes,
desirable habits, appreciation and skills.
THE INDUCTIVE METHOD
• Simply an investigation method.
The primary purpose of inductive method in
education is:
1. To help students explore and discover truths
through careful and exhaustive observation of
valid and reliable data.
2. To make concepts, meaning, explanation and
relationships of ideas clear to students.
3. To enable students undertake an investigation of
a problem independently.
The utilization of the inductive method includes five
steps:
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Application
Strengths of inductive method:
1. Observed that whatever is learned through
induction is learned thoroughly and retained
longer.
2. Children are trained to think logically and
scientifically.
THE DEDUCTIVE METHOD 1. Introduction step for orientation and motivation
 Starts with generalization that is applied to 2. Work period
particular cases. 3. Culminating activities
 A logical process of reasoning from general to the THE MORRISONIAN TECHNIQUE/UNIT METHOD
specific  The process of taking the contents of a particular
Objectives of deductive method subject as big blocks and not as isolated and
1. To teach students to master difficulties by using fragmentary bits of information.
rules. Steps of the unit method:
2. To remedy students tendency to readily jumped to 1. Exploration
conclusions. 2. Presentation
3. To teach students to delay their judgement until 3. Assimilation
the facts are carefully examined. 4. Organization
One well-known illustration of a deductive scheme of a 5. recitation
formal argument is syllogism. THE EXPOSITORY METHOD
 “All Filipinos are human beings”  Usually used in the lower grades because there is
 “All human beings are mortal” a need of explaining about the subject matter to
 “All Filipinos are mortal” be presented
Four steps employed in deductive method: The expository method is often used under certain
1. Statement of the problem conditions:
2. Generalization 1. When suitable or applicable information is needed
3. Inference to make the learners understand a portion of the
4. Verification lesson.
THE PROJECT METHOD 2. When the learners have some difficulty on having
 A problematic activity, carried on in a natural the information on hand.
setting. 3. When a concept or a principle can easily be
Characteristics: learned through explanation and interpretation.
1. Is problematic in nature. Steps in expository method:
2. Is planned and the activity should be executed 1. Approach
and completed. 2. Presentation
3. The activity should be purposeful, natural and 3. Application
important. THE PROBLEM METHOD
Classification of Projects:  Analogous to the inductive method except that
1. Construction project only one case is investigated.
2. Enjoyment project  The objective of this method is to study a typical
3. Problem project or common case exhaustively and in detail.
4. Learning projects Steps of the Problem method:
Three types of projects: 1. The selection of the subject matter to be studied
1. Physical or material projects 2. Apperception and motivation
2. Learning projects 3. The model or a typical case that will be a subject
3. Intellectual or problem projects of comparison
Steps of the project method: 4. Study of details
1. Purposing 5. Comparison of details and other characteristics
2. Planning with the model
3. Executing 6. Generalization
4. evaluating Advantage of this method:
THE LABORATORY METHOD  Simplicity
 Often referred to as a place for experimental  Real life characteristics which makes the subject
study in natural and physical sciences. matter clear, interesting and meaningful
 A teaching procedure that deals with first hand THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD
learning experiences.  Is basically the showing method.
 Is quite similar to supervised study.  A learning method through imitation.
 Objectives of laboratory method is to offer Steps used in the demonstration method:
opportunities for the learners get real experiences 1. Purposing
and to develop skills in the use of laboratory 2. Planning
equipment, instruments and materials for the 3. Demonstrative proper
experiment. 4. Executing
Types of laboratory method: 5. evaluation
1. Experimental type THE LECTURE METHOD
2. Observational type  Usually delivered by an invited speaker guest or
Steps in the laboratory method: lecturer during school convocations.
The lecture method is usually used under certain
conditions:
1. When a relevant information to make the students
understand a part in the lesson
2. When information is not readily available
3. When an idea can best be learned by explanation
4. When the source of materials are not accessible
to the students
METACOGNITION TEACHING METHOD
 Learners are trained to be aware of and control
over their learning by utilizing metacognition
process.
Five steps used in this approach:
1. Planning
2. Deciding
3. Monitoring
4. Evaluating
5. Terminating
CHAPTER 7:
TEACHING APPROACHES/STRATEGIES AND
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES
 With some changes of emphasis on educational
goals and objectives, the focus on the child as the
important variable in the educational process, the
concept of teaching method has been diversified
and broad-ended and new approaches/strategies
and other instructional practices came about
purportedly premised to enhance the teaching-
learning process.
 The teacher should adapt different
approaches/strategies of teaching to suit the
needs of the learners.
 There is no single correct way to teach a
particular set of pupils/students in class.
 The teacher should be able to make a wise choice
of the type of activities that should be utilized
under varying learning conditions.
 The different teaching approaches/strategies of
organizing class activities are presented and
discussed are as follows:
THE CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
 Choosing and defining the content of a certain
discipline to be taught through the use of big or
persuasive ideas against the traditional practices
of determining content as by isolated topics.
 The emphasis in not on the content per se, but in
the big ideas that pervade the subject. It is using
the content as means of leading the learners to
discover the laws and principles or
generalizations that govern a particular subject.
 Subject matter is taught to enable the students to
develop concepts which are one’s mental picture
of anything.
 Not a particular teaching method with specific
steps to follow. It is more of a point of view on
how facts and topics under a subject matter
should be dealt with.
 This approach stresses cognitive learning: the
learning of content or acquisition of knowledge;
however, this approach requires the
categorization of content from the simple to
complex level.
 Conceptual Learning is a meaningful endeavor
for students. They can see and realize that bits of
information which seem to be isolated can be
organized and pieced together like a jigsaw-
puzzle around a context in the broader
fundamental structure of field of knowledge.
Some useful guides to remember I concept
formation are:
1. Concepts should be introduced in context rather
than in isolation.
2. Pupils/students should be given opportunity to
arrive at their own meanings of the concept prior
to guidance of the teacher.
3. The children should engage in a lot of reading,
understanding, listening, and writing so that they
will be exposed to various situations, leading to
the discovery of the correct meaning of the
concept.
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH
 Attempts are made to relate the disciplines, but
the identity of each discipline is maintained.
INTRA-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH
 Involves the organization of social science content
using only the disciplines.
 The most common approach to curriculum
organization in many colleges, specially colleges
of education in universities, is the intra-disciplinary
approach.
 The conceptual approach in the social science is
that conceptualizing means examining and
reflecting on many illustrative contents and
experiences which serves as building blocks for
concepts, which, when interrelated, enables
students to generalize.
TEAM TEACHING
 An approach or organizing teaching personnel to
improve instruction.
 An approach that involves two or more teachers
who work cooperatively with the some group of
pupils for a period of time.
 Based on the principles of cooperation of group
action.
 The success of this plan depends upon the close
cooperation of the members of the team.
 Teachers are allowed to exchange class or to
exchange tasks.
 The different models of team teaching range from
the simplest coordination of two classrooms and
two teachers to complex designs involving many
classes, a variety of grouping patterns and
hierarchy of staff.
Team teaching offers a number of advantages such
as the following:
1. Specialization is recognized.
2. Careful planning and execution is possible.
3. Effective teaching is possible.
4. Learners are better stimulated and challenged.
5. More time is available for preparation.
 6. Individual differences of the learners can be met.
7. Better education guidance of the students is
possible.
8. No fixed patterns for teams has yet been involved.
9. It allows more competent teachers to assume
leadership in the team.
10. Teachers are encouraged and stimulated to
specialize in those aspects of the subject for
which they are best qualified.
11. It can be applied in every discipline. It’s an
excellent set up for inter-disciplinary combination.
12. Pupils/students are exposed to variety of points of
views and teacher personalities.
The disadvantages of team teaching include the
following:
1. The first advantage pertain to time. Planning,
recording, and evaluating need time. Teachers
have to put time for projects.
2. The second limitation is about space and facilities.
The program needs a lecture or seminar room,
overhead projector, sound system and a bigger
space.
 It is believed that when teachers work as a group,
when their professional expertise and talents
blend and utilized and are used to the fullest
extent toward the attainment of specific goals,
inferentially, the accomplishment of the group will
be greater than the sum total of the individual
talents of each teacher working with his children
in the self-contained classroom.
THE ROLE PLAYING APPROACH
 One of the dramatic ways of presenting learning
episodes.
 It is action-filled. Because it consists of an
enactment by the students of a learning situation
through which the participants depict real-life
responses and behavior.
 It is spontaneous acting out of certain problems or
situation in a natural setting.
Steps in role playing that must be observed to
achieve optimum results:
1. Identifying the problem and explain the roles to be
played.
2. Establishing the situation in which the action is to
happen.
3. Establishing descriptive roles and selecting
participants.
4. Presenting the act or line of action.
5. Analyzing and evaluating the presentation of
action of each role player, the adequacy and
authenticity of the learning event, the major focus
and other details that are contributory to the
vividness of the presentation of the episode.
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
 “Experience is the best teacher”
 Occurrence of personal knowledge and direct
experiences are natural parts of learning.
 Experience is the base and serves as the
foundation upon which new ideas patterns of
behavior are formulated.
 Basically a mode of acquiring knowledge and
information or skills through direct and keen
observations followed by an in-depth analysis of
what has been registered in the senses how these
are understood.
The learning requisites of experiential learning
necessitate that:
1. Pupils should be personally involved in the
learning tasks.
2. The knowledge or information must be
discovered by the students.
3. The objectives of the learning activity must be
clearly understood by the learners.
4. There should be degree of flexibility in the way
the children pursue learning tasks.
5. The learners should be directly involved in the
planning stage of the learning experience.
6. The pupils should be given time sufficient to
reflect on the learning situation.
7. The learners should be allowed to interact with
each other about their experiences.
8. The tools and materials are readily available to
facilitate simple investigation.
9. The learners should record their observations for
their analysis, interpretations and conclusions.
10. The inclusion of a wide variety of real-life
situations in planning the lessons are carefully
included.
 Experiential learning can be more meaningful and
can insure an effective application of principles
and concepts arrived at, if the learning requisites
are fully satisfied.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING APPROACH
 Hinged from the principles postulated by John
Dewey and Herbert Thelen.
 They developed approaches and strategies as
well as procedures to help a relatively small group
solve their own problems and at the same time
learn and adapt democratic principles as they
interact with each other in every learning situation.
The characteristics of cooperative learning are:
1. Students work in groups or teams to undertake
learning tasks.
2. The intellectual interactions within the groups are
controlled by the members.
3. The members of the group are heterogeneous
and made up of mixed abilities – high, average
and low.
4. Reward systems are group oriented.
The effectiveness and success of this approach can
be seen on the following observations:
1. There is a strong motivation and desire of each
member of the group to complete an academic
task that is developed.
2. Group work and team effort develop friendliness
and willingness to assist are manifested.
3. Interdependent relationships within the group is
developed.
4. Cooperation in groups brings in to members
social cohesion and integration.
 5. Cooperation in groups promote a better medium
of exchange of ideas, and encourage respect for
other member’s point of view.
6. Cooperative learning groups demonstrate less
competitive behavior
Cooperative learning - as an approach is basically a
type of classroom organization in which pupils work
harmoniously in groups to help each other acquire
academic knowledge and information through democratic
procedures and practices.
Cooperative learning - according to Schechty (1990), is
a technique of putting children in work groups and
assuring them that even if they have different
backgrounds, different abilities and experiences in
working together in productive ways.
Cooperative learning - is perceived to raise the
academic achievement and encourage learners to help
and support peers in their group rather than compete
against one another.
Deutsch (1990) - found out that participants in
cooperative learning enjoy the task; display greater
motivation; and finish tasks more efficiently than
individuals who engage in task which utilizes competition.
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
 Considered as one of the novel developments in
education.
 Basically based on the traditional psychological
learning principle of conditioning.
 The word program refers to a coordinated group
of activities to be performed. This planned
learning pattern is presented to the pupils in a
sequential manner.
 Programmed instruction may have many types,
although they are characteristically the same.
 It is simply a teaching approach where materials
to be learned are presented step by step.
The following principles of learning with the use of
programmed instruction may be illustrated in the
following learning experiences:
1. Learning by doing is effective.
2. Learning is best facilitated when psychological
feed-back are conferred the leaners.
3. Students learn only when they master ideas and
skills step by step
4. Knowledge is facilitated when new techniques for
teaching are important.
5. Creativity is promoted.
6. The used of programmed learning materials, will
certainly motivate and encourage team teaching.
7. Programmed learning will allow pupils to
participate activity in class activity at all times.
THE INQUIRY APPROACH
 Offers promise in directing the learning activities
of the students to attain their objectives.
 The inquiry-teaching is often referred to as
discovery, problem-solving or scientific
thinking.
 Helps the students seek solutions and answers to
their own questions by way of gathering pieces of
evidence that are valid and reliable and draw their
own generalizations and conclusions.
Principles underlying the Inquiry Approach:
1. The learning process begins and moves from
intuition or a hunch going to the stage of in-depth
analysis.
2. The classroom serves as mini laboratory and the
community a big laboratory for exploration.
3. The students learn as a result of their
observations.
4. The students discover relationships.
5. The process brings the learners into more
intimate contact with real-life situations that are
essential in abstracting and generalizing empirical
data.
6. The methods and procedures utilized by the
students in learning through the inquiry approach
are similar to the ways in which scientists think,
work, and organize knowledge.
THE TEACHER’S ROLE
 The teacher should help and motivate the
students learn how to ask interesting questions.
 The teacher’s own questioning technique will
serve as a model or pattern.
 It is also important that the teacher allows certain
flexibility in the manner the learners are doing
their assigned tasks.
 The teacher should involve the students in
planning their own ways of gathering data to test
their hypothesis.
 Inquiry teaching extracts tremendous
expectations on the teachers ability to plan,
execute and sustain the interest of the learning
activity.
The inquiry approach as an important tool, when
carefully and consistently used has certain
advantages as follows:
1. When students are directly and actively involve in
the learning process, learning is more permanent
and meaningful.
2. A sense of freedom prevails as the learners are
encouraged to explore, discover, compare and
test generalization and to search for new
strategies of solving problems.
3. New topics that are discovered, become new
opportunities as students are motivated and
encouraged to approach new topics with
confidence rather than anxiety and apprehension.
4. Excitement spread throughout the classroom.
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
 A technique similar to a panel discussion.
 It is usually a small group seated face to face
around a round table and has the characteristics
of an informal social gathering.
 The number of participants need not to be large,
six to ten are enough.
 The discussion topic is chosen in which the
members are interested and familiar.
The procedure that is found useful in conducting a
round table conference can be summarized as
follows:
1. The introductory remarks, starting the
question/problem to be discussed should be
interesting and relevant to the contemporary
issue.
2. Statement of the facts of the problem.
3. Presentation of the agenda.
4. Group discussion/ exchanging of ideas of each
issue in the agenda.
5. Consideration and deliberation of what action to
take as a result of the discussion.
 The round table conference is an instructional
practice where free communication and exchange
of ideas among the participants take place to
achieve some desired objectives.
PANEL DISCUSSION
 In a panel discussion, it is important for all
participating members to have adequate
knowledge of all aspects of the subject for
deliberation other than their prepared “speaches”.
 Members are given the opportunity to interact
freely.
SYMPOSIUM FORUM
 Is a form of meeting or a conference for the
discussion of some important subjects, at which
several speakers discuss a topic before an
audience.
THE WORKSHOP
 Is used as a technique of in-service education
which involves group planning. It involves the
utilization of the group process in identifying,
analyzing and solving educational problems and
issues.
Mechanics of the Workshop
 Normally, various committees are constituted, The
committee works out the preliminary planning of
the proposed activity, the members of the group
are divided into sub- committees to take charge
of a specific area of concern or group problems.
Synergic
 This teaching device is designed to develop a
testing learning environment that fosters working
together with the spirit of cooperation with a
common purpose to share the benefits.
Educational Field Trip
 Field studies as a teaching approach is an out-of-
the-classroom teaching activity to introduce pupils
on an environment which is the most natural and
realistic manner. It takes the learners where
growth an development abound or a place where
natural phenomena occur.
Integrative Teaching
 This teaching technique is concerned with the
development of a well-rounded personality – an
individual who can adjust and respond to any
given situation.
Integrative Activities
 Planning of integrative activity requires careful
preparations of the teachers so that the desired
objectives will be successful.
Some Modes of Integrative Teaching
 Integrative teaching is an educational movement
that lets questioning and problem solving, rather
than the structure of the academic disciplines.
Thematic teaching
 Teaching themes organize learning around ideas.
It provide a broad framework for linking content
and process form a variety of disciplines
CHAPTER 8:
AIDS TO FACILITATE EFFECTIVE TEACHING
 To appreciate instruction, there is a need to make
a distinction between teaching and instruction.
 Teaching tis the behavior of the teacher that
evolves during the instructional process.
THE RECITATION
 Probably, any teacher has to teach effectively,
must know how to conduct recitations, makes and
ask good questions and gives interesting and
challenging assignments. Specific guidelines and
procedures as well as cautions are necessary and
well provided for in each area.
 The new teacher, and even experienced old
teachers, will find this literature a rich mine of
information about every teaching tool.
 The recitation as a teaching tool is viewed to be a
common teaching technique in a period of class
instruction.
THE RATIONALE OF RECITATION
 The rationale of the recitation in the teaching –
learning process does not need further
explanation.
 Teachers still believe in its efficiency as an
effective means of imparting knowledge and
information, developing many skills, abilities,
attitudes, desirable habits and ideas.
 The concept of an effective recitation is often
looked upon to be an opportunity for developing
creative expression, reflective thinking favorable
attitudes and ideals for interpersonal relations and
social living.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RECITATION
 It may be inferred that the most important
characteristics of a good recitation is to develop
wholesome attitude essentials to effective
teaching learning process. Although there is no
hard and fast rule in the conduct of the recitation,
some authors in pedagogy recommended some
guidelines:
1. The recitation should be well planned. Planning
and organizing of the learning materials will
ensure the smooth unfolding of various activities
during the recitation.
2. The recitation should be motivated to arouse the
interest of the learners.
3. The recitations should be purposive.
 4. The recitation should provide opportunities for
active and productive participation in the learning
situations.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE AN EFFECTIVE
RECITATION
There are certain factors that are to be identified and
considered to insure the success of the recitation among
these, are:
1. Good Learning environment
2. Proper class management
3. Interest and enthusiasm are contagious
4. A spirit of cooperation and cordial relations
DON’TS IN CONDUCTING RECITATION
1. The students should be aware that they should
recite for the class and not for the teacher alone.
2. No one should be allowed to monopolize the
recitation.
3. Do not interrupt a student who is reciting for his
thoughts may be disturbed, and as a result, he
might forget what he wants to say.
4. If a pupil/student commits an error while reciting,
corrections should be made after the recitations or
during the evaluation.
5. The teacher should exercise due care and
prudence on handling the responses of the
students.
6. The teacher should not embarrass any student for
giving a wrong response, for it will uncomfortable,
self conscious and shame.
THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION
 The type of recitation is primarily geared to a
greater socialization where the pupils learn to
conform to the norms of his social groups and
plays a corresponding role.
 Process is a shift towards the “cognitive
approach.”
 The teacher socialized recitation in no longer the
center of attention in the teaching learning
process as it used to be in the traditional school.
THE ART OF QUESTIONING
 It is assumed that good teaching involves good
questioning especially when large groups of
students are being taught. Skillful and intelligent
questioning can arouse the learners’ curiosity,
stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to
search out of new knowledge.
 It can challenge the pupils, make them think and
help clarify and how the learners respond to them
influence the quality of classroom discussion and
the effectiveness of instruction.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Questions can be categorized as follows:
1. According to thinking process involves – form low
level to high level
2. According to type of answers required
3. According to the degree of personal exploration or
valuing
DESCRIPTIVE CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONS
 Several authorities have formulated their own
categories and models of questions and these
are:
1. Cognitive memory
2. Convergent questions
3. Divergent questions
4. Evaluative questions
USES OF QUESTIONS
 There are various uses of the question that the
teacher can utilized to obtain desirable results.
There are:
1. To stimulate the learners to think.
2. To motivate pupils interest.
3. To diagnose learners difficulties arising from
learning tasks.
4. To help the learners organize, synthesis and
evaluate learning experiences.
5. To aid the learners to relate pertinent and
important experience to the lesson.
6. To develop new appreciations and attitudes.
7. To show relationships, such as cause and effect.
8. To encourage the learner to apply concepts in
meaningful experiences.
9. To provide frill and practice.
10. To encourage learner evaluation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTION
 Through appropriate strategies in formulating and
asking questions the teacher can help learners
understand and formulate ideas, relationship and
principle.
 It should be simple, clear and definitive.
SUGGESTED TECHNIQUES OF QUESTIONING
 Good questioning is both a methodology and a
art; there are certain techniques to be followed. It
also requires skills and good judgement. The
following techniques are suggested:
1. Questions should be asked on a natural,
spontaneous and well-modulated voice.
2. Ask questions that are stimulating and not merely
testing.
3. Ask questions that are relevant and interesting to
pupil.
4. Ask questions that are sequential.
5. Ask the question first and then wait for the class
to think about it before calling a pupil to answer
the question.
6. The teacher should refrain from repeating
questions.
7. Ask questions that are clear and simple.
8. Prepare five or six pivotal questions.
THE ASSIGNMENT
 The assignment is that part of lesson assigned as
a particular task to the pupil what they are
expected to accomplish n the lesson.
 The assignment as an academic duty or job that
may be done in class or home.
 Form of a project to be accomplished.
 A research topic on health and sanitation, causes
of drug addiction, a theme to be written, a literary
selection to be memorized understood and
interpreted.
FUNCTION OF THE ASSIGNMENT
  In order that the assignment will serve its
purpose, it must be purposive it is the paramount
duty of the teacher to ensure that all assigned
learning tasks are important and meaningful to the
learners.
There are number of functions of assignments:
1. To set the goal or direction of the learning task.
2. To stimulate logical and creative thinking.
3. To recall previous lessons in preparation for a
long test.
4. To motivate the learners and prepare them for the
learning task to be done.
5. To determine and plan out learning activities to be
undertaken.
6. To provide directions and other requirements for
the learning activity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ASSIGNMENT
 An effective assignment will certainly help the
teacher take care of the important phase if the
teaching- learning situations to achieve the
desired results.
1. A good assignment should be clear and definite.
2. A good assignment should relate new learning
experiences to the old.
3. A good assignment should stimulate the
imagination of the learner by way of thinking and
clarifying the learning task’ besides being
challenging.
4. A good assignment should be comprehensive and
should have a wide range of interesting learning
activities.
5. A good assignment should relate to a real life
situations.
CHAPTER 9:
Instructional planning
 Approaches to classroom development
o The personality, philosophy and teaching style
will directly affect the teacher’s managerial
approach to classroom management.
o There are various approaches or models that
have been products of researchers and are
applicable to classroom management which
are based on psychology, classroom
experience and common sense.
The assertive approach
 Expects the teacher to specify rules of behavior
and consequences for disobeying them.
 It is important that the learners know and realize
that they should be held accountable for their
actions.
 The teacher can devise his rules for based on
sound criteria of imposing sanctions for pupils
who misbehave.
Suggestions for teachers who would apply assertive
discipline as an approach to classroom management:
1. Clearly identify learning expectations
2. Take decisive positions
3. Use of firm
4. Employ eye contact and meaningful gestures to
supplement verbal messages
5. Say no without guilt feelings
6. Give and receive compliments spontaneously.
7. Place demands and set limits on the students and
enforce them.
8. Point out consequences of behavior and explain
why specific action is necessary.
9. Be calm and consistent; avoid display of emotions
and threats.
10. Establish positive expectations for student
behavior and try to eliminate negative
expectations about students.
11. Gain confidence and management skills in
identifying and working with chronic behavior
problems in the classroom.
BUSINESS ACADEMIC APPROACH
 Developed by Evertson and Emmer
 Emphasis was on organization and management
of students as they engage in academic work
Clear Communication of Assignments and Work
Requirements
 The teacher should define, establish and explain
clearly to the students work assignments, features
of work, procedures, and prescribed standards to
met.
1. Instruction for assignments
2. Standards for forms, neatness and due dates
3. Procedures of absent pupils
Monitoring student Work
 Monitoring pupil work will certainly help the
teacher detect them who are having difficulty and
related problems and to encourage them, to keep
on working.
1. Monitoring group work
2. Monitoring individual work
3. Monitoring completion of work
4. Maintaining records of students accomplishments
FEEDBACK TO LEARNERS
 Important for enhancing academic monitoring and
managerial procedures.
 Attention to problem is very important for teachers
to pay careful attention at the beginning of the
school year up to completion of prescribed
assignment without justifiable reason should be
advised to work harder.
 Attention to good work should be properly
recognized by giving or providing polite words and
praises.
THE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION APPROACH
 Involves various techniques and methods, that
ranging from simple rewards to elaborate
reinforcement training.
 Rooted in the words of James Warson and B.F.
Skinner and assume that behavior is shaped by
the environment and pay little attention to the
causes of the problem.
The basic principles of the behavior modification
approach are:
1. The behavior is influenced and shaped by its
consequences, and not the causes of problem
brought about in the history of the individual.
 2. The behavior is strengthened by immediate
reinforces – positive or negative. Positive
reinforces are various forms of praises and
rewards; while Negative reinforces virtually take
away or stop something the learner does not like.
3. The behavior is strengthened by a systematic
reinforcement.
4. Learners respond better to positive reinforces
than they do to punishment.
5. When a learner is not rewarded for appropriate or
adaptive behavior, he may become increasingly
dominant and will be utilized to obtain
reinforcement.
6. Constant reinforcement.
7. Once the behavior has been learned, it is best
maintained through intermittent reinforcement.
8. Students who follow rules are rewarded; while
those who break rules are punished.
Models are examples of imitation are effective in
modifying behavior for they capture and hold attention.
Building and sustaining good discipline through
modeling are:
1. Demonstration
2. Attention
3. Practice corrective feedback
4. Application
Suggested teacher’s role in modeling:
1. Selects behavior to be learned.
2. Selects most appropriate models.
3. Sees that the behavior is modeled clearly,
accurately and briefly.
4. Assists observers focus attention on what is being
modeled.
5. Assists observers in remembering what they saw.
6. Provides for suitable practice in reenacting the
observed behavior.
7. Provides corrective feedback during student
reenactment.
8. Practice in reenacting the observed behavior.
GROUP MANAGERIAL APPROACH
 Kounin’s behaviors and categories for observing
classroom management two major categories:
1. Work involvement
2. Deviancy
Other related categories:
1. Desist techniques
 with-it-ness
 overlapping behavior
2. Movement management
Among the housekeeping classroom activities that
need to be routinized include:
1. Entering and leaving the room
2. Seating arrangement
3. Classroom attendance
4. Using chalkboard and keeping it clean after use
5. Collecting and distributing student’s paper
6. Passing, collecting, handling and putting away
books and other learning materials
Group focus.
 This teacher behavior is keeping the students
focused on the group activity.
Group guidance approach.
 It is based on changing the overt behavior of the
students on a group basis.
The acceptance approach to discipline.
 Maintains that every individual has a primary need
for acceptance.
 Based on the democratic model of teaching.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
 Includes control of its physical conditions, proper
utilization of materials for instruction, classroom
routine and discipline.
 Physical aspects include the location, size,
shape and lighting and illumination, ventilation,
acoustics, and provisions for sanitation.
Aquino’s four variables of classroom management:
1. The physical environment
2. The intellectual climate
3. Social climate
4. Emotional climate
KEY QUESTIONS ABOUT CLASSROOM CLIMATE
1. Is the classroom climate purposeful, task-
oriented, relaxed, warm and supportive? Does it
have sense of order?
2. Are the comments particularly, freedom on their
progress, help students develop self-esteem and
self-respect as learners?
3. Are the learning activities challenging, and do
they offer realistic opportunities for success?
4. Does the teacher make a good use of both
intrinsic and extrinsic sources of student
motivation?
5. Does the teacher’s behavior convey positive
expectations?
6. Does the teacher convey personal interest and
care for the progress of the students?
7. Is the relationship with the teacher based on
mutual respect and rapport?
8. Do the measures conveyed by the nature and
types of activities used and the way the teacher
interacts with learners contribute to establishing
and sustaining a positive classroom climate?
9. Does the appearance and layout of the classroom
convey positive expectations and facilitate the
activities which occur?
10. Does the teacher take adequate amounts of
influence of the composition of the class; e.g.,
social class mix in the way he can best establish a
positive classroom climate?
CLASSROOM ROUTINE
 Routinizing some classroom activities can save a
lot of time and effort, prevent confusion, and
facilitate learning activity.
 Activities that are repeatedly done everyday can
be routinized so that the learners will know exactly
what should be done.
 Courtesy in and outside the classroom should be
observed at all times.
  The teacher should be the model of courteous
behavior.
CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE
 Discipline refers to the order in which is
necessary in the classroom for students’ learning
to occur effectively.
 Order is needed in the classroom to facilitate the
teaching-learning process.
 Discipline, as applied to classroom instruction, is
any means or device adopted by the teacher to
achieve orderly behavior of the learners.
 the ultimate objective of discipline is to help the
learners develop ethical character and attain
desirable behavior.
 Character traits that should be inculcated and
developed are obedience, responsibility,
diligence, perseverance, respect for the rights of
others, cheerfulness, and fair pay.
 Discipline, to be effective should be meaningful
and sympathetic.
 The importance and value of developing proper
conduct in society should be very clear to them.
COMMON TYPES OF DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS
 Factors that contribute to these behavioral
problems of the children are poor training,
breeding, and upbringing, desire for attention, lack
of self-control, poor environment, broken homes,
poor vision, poverty, and perhaps weak
personality of the teacher.
 The teacher should be able to identify and
determine the cause or causes of problems so
that appropriate remedies can be applied.
 The most common problems encountered by
the teacher especially the new ones are:
inattention, laughing, giggling, whispering,
clowning, joking, making faces, talking, playing
and discourtesy.
 The more serious ones are: cheating, lying,
stealing, shouting, destruction of school property,
vandalism, defiance to school rules and
regulations, fighting in class, physical attacks,
bullying and stubbornness.
Causes of disciplinary problems
1. The teacher factor
2. The learner as a factor in discipline
3. The school environment as a factor in discipline
How can classroom discipline be improved?
 All teachers must maintain better approaches how
these behavioral problems can be minimized to a
tolerable level
The certain approaches that can serve as pointers or
guidelines that can be observed:
1. There should be regular personal conferences
with the learners and the parents emphasizing the
importance of classroom discipline.
2. Disorderly students should be given
responsibilities.
3. Keeping every learner in his learning wholesome
task.
4. Creating an atmosphere of warmth and
friendliness in the classroom.
5. Helping learners assume some responsibility for
group control.
6. The teacher should be patient and firm in
disciplining the learners.
7. Group leaders should assume responsibility in
seeing that school rules and regulations are
upheld by every member of the class.
8. Establishing good routine habits and always keep
the students busy in their learning activities.
9. Showing the right kind of interest in the learners in
their school work.
10. Making learners establish trust and confidence to
the teacher.
11. Punishment should be meted by the offender.
NEVER PUNISH THE WHOLE CLASS for the
offense committed by one individual.
12. The teacher should take the initiative and
deliberate effort to discipline his class.
13. The teacher should never promise anything that
she cannot do.
14. The teacher should call on students who do not
pay attention.
15. The teacher should be amiable and learn to smile
graciously.
16. Send students who has violated rules of conduct
in the guidance office.
CHAPTER 10:
EVALUATING INSTRUCTIONAL AND LEARNING
OUTCOMES
 Researchers in evaluating instructional outcomes
at all levels of education-elementary, secondary,
and tertiary have developed widespread interest.
 There are several questions that confront
teachers at all levels that need to be addressed
such as:
 Did the learners develop adequate skills? Were
the teaching methods and strategies utilized
adequate and effective in helping them pursue
their goals and objectives? Which learning
experiences were effective in promoting learning?
Importance of Evaluation
 The importance of evaluation cannot be
overemphasized. It is important as an instrument
of the school system, to the teacher, the learner,
the parent, the administrator, the policy maker
and the teaching profession.
 The process is continuously being done to
determine the effectiveness of instruction.
 The school administrator is also eager to know
the effectiveness as well as the inadequacies of
the educational program.
 Evaluation involves the determination of the goals
and objectives toward which educational efforts
are directed and the determination of
measurement instruments and techniques to be
utilized in assessing the degree toward the set
and desired goals and objectives of the
educational program.
PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATION
There are certain principles that should be observed
in evaluation.
1. Evaluation should be within the parameter to
which the learners have attained the objectives of
education.
2. Objectives should be defined in terms of learner
behavior.
3. Evaluation is an integral part of the educative
process.
4. The evaluation program should be cooperative.
5. Evaluation should be comprehensive.
6. Evaluation utilizes a variety of measurement
instrument and techniques.
7. Records should be utilized to give a complete and
clear picture of the learners.
8. Diagnosis and Remedial Teaching are phases of
the evaluative process.
TYPES OF EVALUATION
 Since evaluation is an integral part of the
educative process, the teacher should guide
every learning experience in relation to the needs
and interest of the learners
 Evaluation forms the basis for deciding what type
of appraisal is needed to assess a particular
learning situation.
1. Diagnostic Evaluation
2. Formative Evaluation
INSTRUMENT OF MEASUREMENTS AND
EVALUATION
 For gines, et al. 1998 measurement is the process
of quantifying the degree to which someone or
something possesses a given trait.
 Navarro, et., 1988 state that measurement refers
to the process of gathering information in relation
to the presence or absence of a student behavior.
 Evaluation is a process in which we put a value
on or assign worth to something. The essential
characteristics of evaluation is judgement.
PURPOSE OF TEST IN EDUCATION
 The primary purposes of tests are to determine
the extent to which the learning objectives have
been attained and to evaluate the effectivity of
instructional outcomes.
According to Findley, these purpose may be
classified as:
1. Instructional
2. Administrative
3. Guidance
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TESTS
 The two major criteria for selecting tests are
reliability and validity.
 No matter what type of test one uses, it should be
reliable and valid.