Course:M.Sc.

Nursing
Subject: Nursing Education
Unit : II. Teaching and Learning
Topic :Teaching and Learning Process

Prepared By
Dr.M.Kavimani Adhavan, Ph.D(N).,
Principal
 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the session the students will be able to,

Define teaching and leaning .

Mention the concept of learning.

Describe the teaching and learning process.

Explain the functions and qualities of teaching.

List the principles of teaching and leaning .

Describe the theories of teaching and learning.

Explain the relationship between the teaching and learning.

 TEACHING

INTRODUCTION
“Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room
talk, which takes place between the teacher and pupils and
occurs during certain definable activities".
 DEFINITION OF TEACHING

• “Teaching is the task of the teacher which is performed for the

development of the child or learner”.
-Ethmas P Green
• “Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and
encouragement of learning”.
-Burton
• “Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing
the behavior potential of another person”.
-N.L Gage (1962)
 CONCEPT OF TEACHING

TEACHING
• WORDS
CHARACTERISTICS
• THEORIES

PRINCIPLES • PHILOSOPHIES

• EXPERIENCES
TEACHER LEARNER
MAXIMS • OBSERVATION
 CONCEPT OF TEACHING

• Teaching is process which usually takes place in the class room

situations.
• It is more of formal process.
• Teaching is a intimate contact between a more mature
personality and less mature one which is designed to further the
education of the latter.
 PURPOSE OF TEACHING

• Development of wholesome personality (changing habits, attitudes,

interest) of the learner.
• To help the students;
Acquire knowledge
Understand, analyze, synthesize and evaluate the knowledge
Achieve skills
Establish habits
Develop attitudes
 IMPLEMENT

PLAN EVALUATE

Feedbacks and Reflection

TEACHING PROCESS

8
PHASES OF TEACHING - Philip. W. Jackson

PHASES OPERATIONS
TEACHING
Fixing up Goals &
STAGE-I
STGE-I Content
Pre-Active
Pre-Active
Stage Decision about
Stage
Strategies

Diagnosis of the
TEACHING STAGE-2 Learners
Inter-Active
Stage Actions and
Reactions

STAGE-3 Appropriate Testing

Post-Active Devices
Stage Feedback and
Testing
 NATURE OF TEACHING

Teaching is a tri polar process Teaching is an art as well as

science.
Teaching is a planned
interactive process Teaching helps attain
information, knowledge & skills.
Teaching takes place at multiple
levels Teaching is a matter of helping
the Child to respond to his
Teaching needs effective environment in an effective
reciprocal communication manner.
Teaching is the motivation to Teaching is training the
learn
emotions of the child
Teaching is guidance
Teaching is both a conscious
Teaching is a professional and unconscious process.
activity.
 NEED OF TEACHING
Through teaching, the teacher aims at

Giving knowledge to the students

Passing information to them
Making the students acquire some skill
Changing the attitude of the learners
Modifying the behavior of the students
Giving some experiences of life
 VARIABLES OF TEACHING

Independent variables: in the process of teaching, teacher

plays the role of independent variables
Dependent variables: the student is the dependent variable in
the process of teaching
Intervening or mediating variables: the content of teaching,
strategies, tactics of teaching and techniques of motivation are
intervening variables.
 FUNCTION OF TEACHING
• Entering behavior of the
student

• Selecting appropriate Diagnostic •

•
Initial potential of the student
Educational objectives,
contents and organizing in content, instructional material
proper sequence. and environment
• His own potentials and
• Selecting proper teaching
capabilities
techniques, strategies and
feedback devices. • Selecting appropriate contents
• Seeking essential cooperation and organizing in proper
for purposeful interaction. Functions of •
sequence.
Selecting proper teaching
teaching techniques, strategies
feedback devices.
and

• Seeking essential cooperation for

purposeful interaction.

Prescriptive Evaluative
 QUALITIES OF A TEACHER

PERSONAL PROFESSIONAL
 • Pleasing appearance, Sense of humor,enthusiasm,Good health and
personal hygiene, Fairness, impartiality, tolerance, patience,Sociability,
PERSONAL friendliness , cooperativeness
QUALITIES

• Emotional stability, sound mental health and self control ,Superior

intelligence, Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness, Sympathy, kindness
helpfulness, patience, diligence, positive outlook and encouraging
PERSONAL
QUALITIES attitude

• Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, sincerity ,Promptness, efficiency

• Refinement in words, tact and courtesy, civility and pleasant modulated
PERSONAL voice
QUALITIES
 MASTERY OF
THE SUBJECT UNDERSTANDING
MATTER THE LEARNER

PROFESSIONAL
QUALITIES

GENERAL TAKING PRIDE OF

UNDERSTANDING TEACHING AS A
OF OTHER PROFESSION
BRANCHES/FIELD
OF KNOWLEDGE
UNDERSTANDING
THE PRINCIPLES
AND METHODS OF
TEACHING
 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

Principle of activity or learning by Principle of readiness.

doing.  Principle of effect.
Principle of play-way. Principle of exercise & repetition.
Principle of motivation. Principle of change or rest.
Principle of self education. Principle of feedback &
Principle of individual difference. reinforcement.

Principle of goal setting. Principle of training of senses.

Principle of simulation. Principle of group dynamics.

Principle of association.  Principle of creativity.

 PRINCIPLES
Principle of activity or learning by doing.
1. Child as a “Hero” in the drama of education.
2. Teaching is to keep the children active in the class.
Principle of play-way.
3. Related to principle of learning by doing.
4. Play is the chief activity of childhood-Froebel.
5. It gives joy, freedom, contentment, inner, outer peace.
Principle of motivation.
1. Satisfying the curiosity of children.
2. Utilizing all the senses of children.
3. Relating closely bogy & mind.
4. Linking teaching-learning with life.
 -contd
Principle of self education.
1. Best teaching is enabling the child learn by this own efforts.
2. Teaching enable the child to work independently & without the teacher at a later
stage.
3. Encourage students in the development of their natural desire to work .
Principle of individual difference.
4. No two children are alike.
5. Teaching to be effective must cater to individual difference of children.
Principle of goal setting.
6. Definite goal according to the standard of the each students.
7. Short term of immediate goals should be set before small children .
8. Goals should be very clear & definite & understand by children.
 -contd
Principle of simulation.
1. Teaching is the stimulation , guidance , direction & encouragement of learning.
Principle of association.
2. If wants to go together should be put together.
3. Discuss at various places ideas & thing associated in a number of ways.
Principle of readiness.
4. Prepare for action.
5. Make the mind to participate in the teaching –learning process.
6. Teacher must be alive to this principle.
Principle of effect.
7. Response is strengthened if it followed by pleasure.
8. Response is weakened if it followed by displeasure.
 -contd
Principle of exercise & repetition.
1. Exercise strengthens the bond between situation & response.
2. Two subparts:
 Principle of use.
 Principle of disuse.

Principle of change or rest.

3. Fatigue, lack of attention overcome by providing change, rest & recreation.
4. While framing the time table that the students do not experience boredom & fatigue.
5. Two consecutive periods of a subjects are not provided in a class.
Praise, grade, certificate, token money & other to incentives make the learning joy able.
Principle of feedback & reinforcement.
Praise, grade, certificate, token money & other to incentives make the learning joy able.
 -contd
Principle of training of senses.
1. Senses are gateways of knowledge .
2. The power of observation discrimination, identification, generalization &
application are developed through the effective functioning of senses.
Principle of group dynamics.
3. Group behavior, changes the behavior of the members of the group.
4. A suitable climate for group to be created in the classroom.
Principle of creativity.
5. Provide opportunities to the students to explore things events & find cause-effect
relationship.
6. Creativity explored & developed to the maximum extend.
 NEEDS OF TEACHING THEORIES
1. Explains the relationship between teaching and learning and common
factors.
2. Gives the knowledge about the teaching activities which provides
guideline for organizing teaching.
3. Instructional designs can be developed with the help of theory of
teaching.
4. Provides scientific basis for planning, organizing, leading and
evaluation of teaching.
5. Classroom teaching problems may be studied scientifically.
6. Pupil-teachers can develop teaching skills and competency.
7. Teaching objectives may be successfully achieved.
8. Helps in further understanding, prediction and control of teaching.
 TYPES OF TEACHING THEORIES
A. Formal theory of teaching
1. Meutic theory
2. Communication theory of teaching
3. Moulding theory of teaching
4. The mutual inquiry theory
B. Descriptive theory of teaching
1. Theories of instruction
2. Prescriptive theory of teaching
C. Normative theory of teaching
1. Cognitive theory
2. Theory of teacher
3. Psychological theory of teaching
4. General theory of teaching
 A). FORMAL THEORY OF TEACHING
Based upon certain logic, certain metaphysical, epistemological assumptions
and propositions is known as formal theory of teaching.

1. Meutic theory of teaching:

• It conceives that teaching process helps to recollect or unfold that
knowledge with questioning techniques.
• The socratic’s method is an essential for this theory.
• The heredity plays an important role in teaching process.

2. Communication theory of teaching:

• Based on assumptions that the teacher possesses all knowledge and
information which student does not possess.
• The teacher presents, explains, demonstrates and performs in the
classroom.
 A). FORMAL THEORY OF TEACHING

3. The moulding theory of teaching:

• John Dewey is the advocate and it focus on shape, form and moulding of
the students behavior.
• Human personality is formed, shaped and moulded by their environment.

4. The mutual inquiry theory:

• This theory assumes that each individual has the capacity to discover new
knowledge with mutual inquiry.
• True knowledge is inquiry.
• This theory of teaching is clearly applicable to research and art.
 B). DESCRIPTIVE THEORY OF TEACHING
Descriptive theory of teaching is based upon certain propositions and
certain observations.
1. Theories of instructions:
• Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction.
 1. THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION
Atkinson’s decision-theoretic analysis for optimizing learning.

Atkinson proposed four characteristics:

Model of the learning process should be involved.
It should involve specified instructional actions.
The instructional objectives should be specified in behavioral terms.
Each instructional objective can be measured by Burner advocates
that a theory of instruction is designing measurement scale or
questions.
 1. THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION

Bruner’s cognitive developmental theory of instruction

Four features are
Predisposition to learn- a theory of instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and context that will tend to make the child willing and able to
learn when he enters the school.

Structure of knowledge-a theory of instruction should specify the ways in

which body of knowledge should be structures so that it can be most readily
grasped by the learner.

Sequence of instruction-a theory of instruction should specify the most

effective sequences to present the material.

Reinforcement-a theory of instruction should specify the nature and pacing

of rewards, moving from extrinsic rewards of intrinsic one.
 2. PRESCRIPTIVE THEORY OF TEACHING

E. Stones and Morries have attempted to explain the nature of

teaching with the help of three types of related variables:

The first phase includes the teacher in the analysis of the teaching
problems and teaching tests before teaching takes place.
In the second phase decision are made about the interrelationship of
the variables deemed appropriate to teaching objectives.
The third phase concerns with evaluating the effectiveness and
workability of phase two.
 C). NORMATIVE THEORY OF TEACHING

1. The cognitive theory of teaching

Types of teacher's activity- Adviser, counselor, motivator, demonstrator,
curriculum planner and evaluator.
Types of educational objectives- Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor.
Types of learning theories- philosophical theories of learning psychological
theories of learning.
Types of components of learning- drive, cue, response and reward
2. Theory of teacher behavior
D.G. Ryan has tried to explain the concept of teacher-behavior and
formulated a theory of teacher-behavior.
“Teacher behavior consists of those acts that the teacher performs typically
in the classroom in order to induce-learning”. M. Meux and B.O. Smith
It is based upon two postulates:
Teacher behavior is social in nature and relative.
 C). NORMATIVE THEORY OF TEACHING
3. The psychological theory of teaching

This theory considers teaching a sort contractual relationship between the

teacher and the pupils.
That relationship consists of certain activities to be performed by the
teacher such as: analyzing teaching task, determining learning goals,
identifying entering behavior and selecting strategy.
4. General theory of teaching

S.C.T. Clark has formulated a general theory of teaching.

It assumes that teaching is process which is designed and performed to
produce change in behavior of students.
 MAXIMS OF TEACHING
Simple to complex
• Teaching is to be made successful & essential by using a maxim called “ From
simple to complex”.
• Teacher should be divided the subject- matter into simple aspects & complex
aspect.
• Teacher should tell simple concept first &difficult concepts latter.
From known to unknown
• A good teacher bases this new knowledge on previous knowledge of students.
From analysis to synthesis
• Analysis means breaking a problem into convenient parts and synthesis
means grouping of these separated parts into one complete whole.
 -CONTD
From seen to unseen
• Psychological, the pupils ranging from 6 to 14 years are at perceptual level –
only.
• Teacher use the seen or perceptual things to impart the knowledge regarding
unseen or non-perceptual things.
Form concrete to abstract
• The mental development of the pupils begins with the concrete objects &
afterwards the gains micro words for them.
From particular to general
• Specific examples should be presented before the pupils first and then the
general laws or principles should be derived from those specific examples.
 -CONTD
From whole to part
Gestalt : Perceive the objects as a whole and then its part. We gain
knowledge about the “whole” first and then its “parts”.
From infinite to definite
• Pupils intellectual development proceeds from indefinite to definite.
• Through sense organs, gaining the knowledge regarding different
objects while living in the contact of this parents, brother – sister, other
family members.
• On the basis of this gained knowledge, the gradually develops this
personal concepts regarding objects.
 -CONTD
From psychological to logical
• Logical approach is concerned with the arrangement of the subject
matter.
• Psychological approach looks at the child’s interest, needs, mental
make up and reactions.
• We proceed from the concrete to abstract from the simple to complex
and from known to unknown.
From empirical to rational
• Observation and experience are the basis of empirical knowledge.
• Rational implies a bit of abstraction and argumentative approach.
• Generally, the child first of all experiences knowledge in his day to
day life and after that feels the rational basis.
 CONCEPT OF LEARNING:

Learning is the lifelong process of transforming information and

experience into knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes.
 DEFINITION OF LEARNING
“Learning is the process by which behavior is originated or changes through
practice and training”.
 -Woodworth, R.S
“Learning is the modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements”.
 -Gates
“Learning is a process that result in the modification of behavior”.
 -J. F. Travers
“ Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new
ways of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempts to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations”.
 -Crow and Crow
“ learning is the process of progressive behavior adaptation.”
 -Skinner
VARIOUS FACETS OF LEARNING PROCESS
Who is to learn- child
From whom to learn- teacher, environment
Why to learn- aims of teaching
What to learn- acquisition of knowledge, skills etc.
How to learn- methodology
When to learn- motivation
Where to learn- classroom ,play field
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

According to Yoakman and Simpson

Learning is growth
Learning is adjustment
Learning is purposeful
Learning is experience
Learning is intelligent
Learning is active
Learning is both individual and social
Learning is the product of the environment
Learning affects the conduct of the learner
LEARNING IS A PROCESS
 DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING

Kind of material
Method of learning
Practice
Motivation
Intelligence
Maturation
The learner
 DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Each one of this categories listing from the simplest behavior to the most complex
behavior consist of

Domain of Practical Domain of Domain of .1

Skills(Psychomotor) Communication Skills Intellectual Skills
(Affective) (Cognitive Domain)

Imitation Receiving Recall of fact

Responding Interpretation
Control
Of Data

Automatism Internalization Problem

Solving
 Verbal learning

Motor learning

Concept learning

Problem solving learning

Serial learning

Paired- associated learning

 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Learning is the one of the important psychological process that

determines human behavior.
Learning is the process of accumulating knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
Learning may be through training, experience, reading,
observation, discussion, etc.
Learning is a continues process
Learning is also an important source of motivation, stimulation
and job satisfaction.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

General principles of learning

Readiness
Exercise
Effect
Primacy
Recency
Intensity
Requirement
freedom
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
READINESS
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness.
 Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready
to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the
subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually
the instructor’s responsibility.
EXERCISE
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice.
It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when
they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice
must be meaningful.
It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
EFFECT
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has
a direct relationship to motivation.
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.
Every learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with
some good feelings.
PRIMACY
The state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression.
Things learn first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to
erase.
The student’s first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the
foundation for all that is to follow.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
RECENCY
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are
best remembered.
 Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact
or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
 For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few
minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed
last week.
INTENSITY
The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the
real thing than from a substitute.
For example, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks
by performing them rather than merely reading about them.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
REQUIREMENT
The law of requirement states that “ we must have something to obtain or
do something”.
It can be ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or
gain something.
FREEDOM
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned.
The further a student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn,
assimilate and implement what is learned. Compulsion and coercion are
antithetical to personal growth.
Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom
of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of action.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Learning is continuous.
Learning is purposeful and must make sense to the learner.
Learning involves as many senses as possible.
Learning activities must be appropriate for the situation.
Learning must be stimulating.
Learning must result in the ability to perform.
Learning is affected by emotions.
Learning is affected by the physical and social environment.
 12 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
1) Teacher’s knowledge of the subject 7). learning is enhanced in an
matter is essential to the atmosphere of cooperation.
implementation of important teaching
tasks.
8). Material must be meaningful.
2) Active involvement of the learner
enhances learning.
3) Interaction between teachers and 9). Both teaching and learning are
students is the most important factor enhanced by descriptive feedback.
in student motivation and
involvement.
10). Critical feedback is only useful if
4) Students benefit from taking the learner has alternatives to pursue.
responsibility for their learning.
11). Time plus energy equals learning.
5) There are many roads to learning.
12). Experience usually improves
6) Expect more and your will achieve
more.
teaching.
 TEACHER ACTIONS
Presentation Practice Performance

Tells Analyses Guides Gives impetus

Explains Dissects Organizes Probes
Shows Clarifies Facilitates Examines
Describes Simplifies Questions Accepts
Evokes Summarises Listens Rejects
Compares Harmonizes Responds Directs
Contrasts Reflects Observes Evaluates
Demonstrates Postulates Prompts Assesses
Instructs Confirms Comments Comments
Gives Acts as a
instructions resource
 THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Behaviorism
2. Cognitivism
3. Social learning theory
 LEARNING THEORIES

1). Behaviorism

 It is confined to observable and measurable behavior.

 Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors and
context-independent.
 Biological basis for learning.
 Focuses on observable behaviors.
1). BEHAVIORISM

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

A stimulus is presented in order to get a response.
It is about reflexes.

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

The response is made first then reinforcement follows.
It is about feedback/reinforcement.
 -Contd

Behaviorism in the classroom

Rewards and punishments.
Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the
teacher.
Lecture-based and highly structured.
 2). CONGITIVISM

Grew in response to behaviorism.

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols.
Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful
and memorable way.
Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol
connection.
 2). COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Discovery learning (bruner)

Anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in
terms they can understand.
Powerful concepts (not isolated facts)
 transfer to many different situations.
Only possible through discovery learning
Confront the learner with problems and help them find
solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.
 2). COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Meaningful verbal learning (ausubel)

Advance organizers:
New material is presented in a systematic way and is
connected to existing cognitive structures in a meaningful way.
When learners have difficulty with new material, go back to the
concrete anchors (advance organizers).
Provide a discovery approach and they will learn.
 CONGNITIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

Inquiry-oriented projects
Provide opportunities for the testing of hypotheses.
Curiosity is encouraged
Stage scaffholding
 3). SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Grew out of cognitivism.

Learning takes place through observation and sensorial
experiences.
Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
Social learning theory is the basis of the movement against
violence in media and video games.
 3). SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Learning from models:

Attend to pertinent clues.
Code for memory (store a visual image).
Retain in memory.
Accurately reproduce the observed activity.
Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHING AND LEARNING
Both teaching and learning may be formal or informal.
Both are goal oriented.
Good teaching results in good learning.
One can observe teaching but not learning.
Both teaching and learning require skills, creativity, intelligence an
operate on definite principles.
Good teaching requires good communication skill an good learning
requires good listening skills.
Only good learner become good teachers.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHING AND LEARNING
Need for relating teaching and learning:
Teaching can be made effective by relating it to learning.
Teaching objectives can be identified in behavioral terms and by
appropriate learning situations.
The appropriate teaching conditions or structures may be generated for
effective learning.
The effective teaching aids may be selected for creating learning
situations.
Aid to understand the nature of teaching and teaching theories may be
evolved.
The knowledge of relationship will be helpful to teacher educator to
produce effective teachers.
ASPECTS OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING
PROCESS
 Discussion Interaction Adaptation
It • between the
teacher and
• between the • of the world
learner and by the teacher Reflection: on
consists learner some aspect of and action by
the world the learner
the learner's
performance by
of four defined by the
teacher
both teacher
.and learner
phases
 CONCLUSION

Teacher and learner are the major variables of teaching.

It is narrow and specific.

Teaching theories are developed by dealing with human

subjects in normal situations , while learning theories are
formulated by conducting experiments in animal.

More concerned with effective learning and development of the

learner
THANK YOU