(Module 1) SSE 114- Production of Social Studies Instructional
Materials
What is Teaching?
◉ Teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and
experience, which is usually organized within a discipline
and, more generally, the provision of stimulus to the
psychological and intellectual growth of a person by
another person or artifact.
◉ Teaching profession is a noble one, every teacher must
play an important role in making a child/student to realize
their dreams.
Functions of Teaching
◉ In teaching process, the active or functional part is played
by the independent and dependent variable. Mainly
following three types of functions are performed by these
variables.
1. Diagnostic Functions
2. Prescriptive Functions
3. Evaluative Functions
A. Diagnostic Functions
 The goal is to bring desirable changes in the behavior
of students. The initial task needs a proper diagnosis
for the prescription of appropriate treatment (the
actual attempts) for bringing desirable behavioral
changes in the students.
B. Prescriptive Functions
 On the basis of diagnosis, the teacher takes decision
about the needed prescription for achieving the
stipulated objectives. Accomplishment of objectives
needs an appropriate interaction between the
teacher and the student which, in turn, needs proper
management of the intervening variables by the
teacher.
C. Evaluative Functions
 Concerned with the tasks of evaluating the process
and outcomes of the prescriptive functions that may
be decided in the form of realization of the stipulated
objectives.
In contrast...
 to diagnostic or prescriptive functions, the student
remains more active in the evaluative functions. He
has to respond and evaluate his own progress in
terms of the abilities acquired and behavior changes
occurred.
ACTS OF TEACHING
7 Acts of Teaching
1. Modeling
2. Prompting
3. Questioning
4. Giving feedback
5. Telling
6. Explaining
7. Directing
A. MODELING
• Modeling is perhaps the most powerful and pervasive
form of instruction.
• This sort of modeling makes the thinking “visible”.
• Nearly everything a teacher does during the course
of a lesson can be seen as modeling.
B. PROMPTING
• Prompting means encouraging the learner to use
what they already know and can do.
• Prompting may take the form of a reminder, a strong
hint, a clue, or a question, and should always be
followed by adequate wait time.
C. QUESTIONING
• Asking questions is an ideal way to generate
thoughtful discussions and explorations of issues that
are important to developing students' understanding.
• Questioning is perhaps the instructional tool used
most commonly by teachers.
D. GIVING FEEDBACK
• The primary use of feedback is not to indicate
whether students are right or wrong but to enable
them to reflect on their use of strategies and on their
learning.
• Feedback should be honest and specific so that
learners know how they are doing.
• This is a great way to build their awareness of how
they can take control of their learning
E. TELLING
• Telling means supplying what the student needs, such
as an unknown word or a topic for a literacy-learning
task.
• The idea is to fill a gap at that moment to enable the
student to move on.
F. EXPLAINING
• Explaining can be thought of as an extension of
telling.
• Explanations are verbally explicit, tailored to
individual student needs, and intended to help
students develop their own understandings.
• Teachers may explain the task itself, or they may
explain the content of a text or learning activity.
G. DIRECTING
• Directing is simply giving a specific instruction to let
the learner know what he or she is supposed to do.
TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION
WHAT IS TEACHING?
• When we talk about teaching, we are dealing with
different techniques, strategies, and approaches that
will facilitate learning.
• Impart knowledge to or instruct (someone) as to how
to do something; or
• Cause (someone) to learn or understand something
by example or experience.
WHAT IS INSTRUCTION?
• When we talk about instruction, it’s not as complex
as teaching. Instruction is simply giving direction. You
instruct someone on what to do and how to do it.
• The act of educating, giving the steps that must be
followed or an order.
• Instruction makes learners dependent on the teacher.
Comparison between Teaching and Instruction
• Teaching and Instruction are being used
interchangeably by many educators these days.
Teachers are often called instructors supposing that
their job is to instruct, to give knowledge or
instructions. However, there is subtle difference
between teaching and instruction.
 TEACHING VS INSTRUCTION
• Teaching works for overall development.
• Teaching arouses critical thinking.
• Teaching is explaining how something is done.
• Teaching is liberation.
• When you teach someone, you may transmit
almost anything: concepts, ideas, theories or,
say, history.
• A teacher strews ideas to be subverted.
• Teaching provokes.
• Instruction works for skill development.
• Instruction arouses functional thinking.
• Instruction is telling how something is done.
• Instruction is regimentation
• When you instruct someone, you’re giving
him a set of tools or tasks to do something
specific.
• An instructor lays down rules to be obeyed.
• Instructions prescribes.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESSES
◉ Instructional processes describe the instructional
activities that provide the means through which students
will achieve the stated objectives of a course.
◉ Processes must be included that develop or strengthen
students' general education skills, connect course
activities or material to the workplace, to subsequent
coursework, or to other aspects of life, and ensure
students are actively engaged in the learning process.
Instructional processes must be descriptive of the
strategies and methods employed in the course. An
example of Instructional Process is Robert Gagne’s Nine
Steps of Learning
9-STEP INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
Back in 1965, Robert Gagne detailed a nine-step instructional
process that many teachers, trainers, and instructional
designers still use today when creating their learning events.
The steps are not meant to be absolute rules, but they do
provide a good place to start during the creation process.
1. Gain Attention
◉ In the beginning of any training course, it is helpful to
present a new problem or scenario to pique the interest
of the audience and to grab their attention. There are a
variety of ways to do this, but usually some kind of story
is effective.
2. Describe the Objective
◉ After you have gained the attention of the learners, you
need to inform them about what they will be able to
accomplish, and how they will use the new knowledge
they are about to gain.  The key here is to make it
relevant to them. If it makes something in their lives
easier, then let them know!
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge
◉ Remind the learners of related information or
knowledge that they already have to help them build on
previously gained knowledge and skills. This helps the
anxiety people naturally feel when they sense that
something is going to “change” from what they
previously have known.
4. Present the Material
◉ Once items one through three have been established,
you can present the material. Use various methods, like
text, videos, images, sounds, and simulations. Present
the material in small chunks so as to avoid information
overload.
5. Provide Learners Guidance
◉ Provide guidance strategies like examples, case studies,
apologies, and mnemonic devices to help learners store
the new information in their long-term memories.
6. Elicit Performance (practice)
◉ Allow the learner to practice the new skill or behavior
they are learning. This provides an opportunity for
learners to confirm their understanding, and even to fail
in a safe environment.
7. Feedback
◉ Provide learners with specific and immediate feedback
when they are practicing the new skill or behavior they
have learned. Explain in detail the concept to those who
are not as quick at picking it up.  Give more than “you’re
right” or “you’re wrong” feedback.
8. Assess Performance
◉ After ample practice has been given, test the learners to
determine if the lesson has indeed been learned.
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer
◉ Provide the learners with additional practice and
materials (job aids, quick reference guides, and
additional tests) so that they may review the material on
their own time at a later date.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Teaching strategies are methods and techniques that a
teacher will use to support their pupils or students through
the learning process; a teacher will chose the teaching
strategy most suitable to the topic being studied, the level of
expertise of the learner, and the stage in their learning
journey.
Here are some of the Teaching Strategies;
1. Modeling
◉ Modeling is an instructional
strategy in which the teacher
demonstrates a new concept or
approach to learning and
students learn by observing.
2. Use Task Cards
◉ Task cards allow you to give students a range of
content. Answering task cards can also be a small-group
activity, adding variety to classes that normally focus on
solo or large-group learning.
3. Interview Students
◉ Asking questions about learning and studying styles can
help you pinpoint the kinds of content that will meet
your class’s needs.
4. Target Different Senses Within Lessons
◉ A lesson should resonate with more students if it targets
visual, tactile, auditory and kinesthetic senses, instead of
only one.
5. Share Your Own Strengths and Weaknesses
◉ To familiarize students with the idea of differentiated
learning, you may find it beneficial to explain that not
 everyone builds skills and processes information the
same way.
6. Use the Think-Pair-Share Strategy
◉ The think-pair-share strategy exposes students to three
lesson-processing experiences within one activity. It’s
also easy to monitor and support students as they
complete each step.
7. Make Time for Journaling
◉ A journal can be a tool for students to reflect on the
lessons you’ve taught and activities you’ve run, helping
them process new information.
8. Offer Different Types of Free Study Time
◉ Free study time will generally benefit students who
prefer to learn individually, but can be slightly altered to
also help their classmates process your lessons.
9. Group Students with Similar Learning Styles
◉ Heterogeneous grouping is a common practice, but
grouping students based on similar learning style
can encourage collaboration through common work and
thinking practices.
10. Give Different Sets of Reading Comprehension Activities
◉ Instead of focusing on written products, consider
evaluating reading comprehension through questions
and activities that test different aptitudes.
11. Experiential Learning
◉ Experiential learning is an engaged learning process
whereby students “learn by doing” and by reflecting on
the experience.  specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method
12. Graphic Organizer
◉ A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic display that
depicts the relationships between facts, terms, and or
ideas within a learning task. Graphic organizers are also
sometimes referred to as knowledge maps, concept
maps, story maps, cognitive organizers, advance
organizers, or concept diagrams.
(Module 2) Instructional System
What is Instructional Materials?
• An instructional system can be defined as
“deliberately designed instructional materials that
are intended to function interrelatedly to achieve
predetermined learning outcomes” (Harris and
Harrison, 1988)
When did Instructional System Formulated?
◉ Instructional System first formulated during the World
War II when several psychologists and education
specialists were asked to create training materials in
mass for several thousand soldiers. Tests were also
administered during this time to assess learner's
abilities.
Why is it important?
◉ Instructional materials are essential tools in learning
every subject in the school curriculum. They allow the
students to interact with words, symbols and ideas in
ways that develop their abilities in reading, listening,
solving, viewing, thinking, speaking, writing, using
media and technology.
ADDIE Model
 Generic process
traditionally used by
instructional designers
and training developers.
The five phases—Analysis,
Design, Development,
Implementation, and
Evaluation—represent a
dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective
training and performance support tools.
 Was developed by Florida State University
ADDIE model consists of Five Phases;
A-nalyze
In the analysis phase, instructional problems are
clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are
established and the learning environment and
learner’s existing knowledge and skills are identified.
D-esign
The design phase deals with learning objectives,
assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject
matter analysis, and lesson planning and media
selection. The design phase should be systematic and
of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of
planned strategies targeted for attaining the
project’s goals. Specific means each element of the
instructional design plan needs to be executed with
attention to details.
D-evelop
The development phase is where the developers
create and assemble the content assets that were
created in the design phase. Programmers work to
develop and/or integrate technologies. The project is
reviewed and revised according to any feedback
given.
I-mplement
During the implementation phase, a procedure for
training the facilitators and the learners is developed.
The facilitators’ training should cover the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery,
and testing procedures.
E-valuation
The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative
and summative. Formative evaluation is present in
each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative
evaluation consists of tests designed for domain
specific criterion-related referenced items and
providing opportunities for feedback from the users.
Instructional Methods
• Is the overall plan that for teaching and learning
experience that involves used of one or several
method of instructions to achieve the desired learning
outcomes (Rothwell & Kazans 2004)
 • Techniques or approaches that the teacher uses to learner in an activity that reflects real-life conditions
bring the learner in contact with the content to be without the risk-taking consequences of an actual
learned. The way information is thought that bring the situation
learner in contact with the content to be learned
Role-Playing
◉ An instructional method where learners participate in an
◉ Gaming unrehearsed dramatization to elicit their feelings to
◉ Simulation achieve affective domain objectives.
◉ Role-playing
◉ Role-modeling
◉ Self-instruction
◉ Lecture
◉ Group Discussion
◉ One-to-One Instruction
◉ Demonstration
◉ Return Demonstration

Question:
Is there one perfect Instructional Method to teach all
learners in all settings?

 Decision about which method to use must be based on

consideration of such major factors as:
• Audience characteristics
• Learning Style
• Educator expertise
• Objectives of learning
• Potential for achieving learning outcomes
• Cost effectiveness
• Instructional setting
• Evolving technology

Types of Instructional Methods (Module 3)

Lecture
◉ Lecture method is teacher controlled and information
centered approach in which teacher works as a role
resource in classroom instruction. In this method, the
only teacher does the talking and the student is passive
listens.
Group Discussion
◉ Group discussion is a child centered strategy, in which
students are divided into groups and they are
encouraged to discuss on the subject matter given.
Group discussion is dominated by the teacher.  5. Fading worked examples
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES and INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES
◉ Instructional strategies are techniques that educators
use to ensure that students learn academic content. The
goal of instructional strategies is to produce
independent learners who are able to apply what is
learned and expand upon it as necessary.
Generalized Instructional Techniques:
1. Error-sensitive feedback
2. Mastery learning
3. Adaptive spacing and repetition
4. Metacognitive prompting

1. ERROR SENSITIVE FEEDBACK

One-to-One Instruction • Error-sensitive feedback may be given when a learner
◉ An instructional method in which the teacher delivers incorrectly answers a question or seems unsure of a
personally designed instruction to a learner. correct answer.  Feedback is specific to the answer
selected, discusses common misconceptions that may
Demonstration  have led to the incorrect answer, and steers the
◉ An instructional method in which the learner is shown by student to absorb the information and self-reflect on
the teacher how to perform a particular skill their answer and their reason for selecting it.
2. MASTERY LEARNING
Gaming • Mastery learning is a technique where the teacher
◉ An instructional method requiring the learner to insures the learner has “mastered” (can recall and
participate in a competitive activity with preset rules to apply) prerequisite knowledge before allowing the
achieve an educational objective. learner to move on to the next lesson/concept.
3. ADAPTIVE SPACING AND REPITITION
Simulation • Adaptive spacing and repetition is a technique where
◉ A trial-and-error method of teaching requiring creation the learner more easily recalls knowledge
of a hypothetical or artificial experience to engage the
 items/objects when these knowledge artifacts are
exposed to the learner repeatedly over a long time
span rather than repeatedly studied during a short
time span.
4. METACOGNITIVE PROMPTING
• Metacognitive prompting is a technique where the
tutor encourages the learner to self-reflect and
evaluate, self-explain, and self-correct rather than
provide the answer directly.
5. FADING WORKED EXAMPLES
• Fading worked examples is technique where the tutor
provides “a step-by-step demonstration of how to
perform a task or how to solve a problem” from
which parts have been deliberately removed or
faded.
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
What is Instructional Media?
◉ Instructional Media encompasses all the materials and
physical means an instructor might use to implement
instruction and facilitate students' achievement of
instructional objectives.
Why Teach with Media to Enhance Teaching and Learning?
◉ Using media engages students, aids student retention of
knowledge, motivates interest in the subject matter, and
illustrates the relevance of many concepts.
Instructional media have important advantages because
they:
 allow easy and repeated reproduction of an event or
procedure;
 provide visual access to a process or technique;
 provide a common framework of experience to a
large number of learners;
 promote an Illusion of reality;
 gain and hold the attention of the learner
 focus attention or highlight key points;
 save time by avoiding wordy explanations;
 create impact;
 facilitate the understanding of abstract concepts.
What are Instructional Media?
TYPE Examples
Print Pamphlets, handouts, study guides,
manuals
Visual Charts, real objects, photographs,
transparencies
Audiovisual Slides, tapes, films, filmstrips,
television, video, multimedia
Static/display Chalkboard, feltboard, display easels,
flip chart, cloth board, magnetic
board
Electronic Radio computers, electronic mail,
CD_ROM, multimedia
Module 4: What is Instructional Material?
Instructional Materials
 are the resources that organize and support
instruction such as textbooks, tasks, and
supplementary resources (Remillard & Heck, 2014).
Roles Played by Instructional Materials in Teaching—
Learning Activities:
a. Enhancement of the memory level of the students.
b. Facilitate the teaching-learning process.
c. Improvement of student rate of accumulation.
d. Serve as tools used by the teachers to correct wrong
impression and illustration things that learners cannot
forget easily.
e. Assist in giving sense of reality to the body of
knowledge under discussions.
f. Permit the students and teachers to experience in
concrete terms the learning activities that can
promote the idea of self-evaluation.
g. It gives lessons a personal look and encourages
teacher’s creativity
Basic Principles in Materials Development
Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials
a. Consideration for the age and abilities of the
learner.
b. Related to the lesson objectives.
c. Currency of information.
Factors to Consider in Writing Instructional Materials
(Ornstein):
(Textbooks, Module, E-book, Activity Sheets, etc. )
a. Understanding- It requires matching the materials to
the learners' abilities and prior knowledge.
b. Structuring/Clarifying- It involves organizing the
material so that it is clear to the students.
c. Sequencing- It refers to the arrangement of the
materials to provide for continuous and cumulative
learning where complex concepts are taken only after
prerequisite skills and concepts have been mastered. 
d. Explaining. It refers to the way headings, terms,
illustrations, and summary exercises are integrated
with the content. 
e. Pacing. It refers to how much and how quickly the
lessons in the textbooks are presented.
f. Reviewing. It refers to the extent to which the material
allows students to link new ideas to old concepts in the
form of a review.
g. Elaborating. It ensures that students learn better
through a variety of ways. 
h. Transfer of Learning. Transfer of learning maybe
concept-related, inquiry-related, learner or utilization-
related. 
Uses and Importance of Instructional Materials
What are the uses of instructional materials?
 Instructional materials are fundamental tools in
learning each subject in the school curriculum. They
permit the students to communicate with words,
images, thoughts, and ideas in manners that foster
their capacities in reading, listening, addressing,
viewing thinking, speaking, composing, and utilizing
media and technology. 
  Instructional Learning Materials (ILMs) are important
for the educators in showing his/her illustration
viably as it helps him or her to a better interpretation
and appreciation of the ideas, concepts just as the
topic. ILMs empower the students’-learners to
continue towards concrete learning. It builds
information on the students, excites and improves
the creative mind and increases knowledge of
learners; subsequently, they empower the learners
to learn quicker, recall longer and acquire exact data
or information.
What are the importance of instructional materials?
Teachers at all levels utilize a variety of instructional
materials such as textbooks, presentations, and handouts
to enhance the quality of their lessons.  Motivating and keeping them interested by employing
 To improve students’ knowledge, abilities, and
skills.
 To monitor their assimilation of information, and
 To contribute to their overall development and
upbringing of the learner
Module 5: What is Instructional Material?
Benefits of Instructional Materials
Why are instructional materials important in teaching?
 Instructional materials are essential tools in learning
every subject in the school curriculum. They allow the
students to interact with words, symbols and ideas in
ways that develop their abilities in reading, listening,
solving, viewing, thinking, speaking, writing, using
media and technology.
What are the advantages of instructional materials?
 Research studies revealed that students taught with
instructional materials performed significantly better
than those taught without instructional materials and
also that the use of instructional materials generally
improved students’ understanding of concepts and
led to high academic achievements.
 Learning materials can significantly increase learners’
achievement by supporting learning. For example, an
educational video may provide a learner with new
insights and an appealing worksheet may provide the
learner with new opportunities to practice a new skill
gained in class. This process aids in the learning
process by allowing the learner to explore the
knowledge independently as well as providing
repetition. Learning materials, regardless of what
kind, all have some function in student learning.
 Instructional materials can also add important
structure to lesson planning and the delivery of
instruction. Learning materials act as a guide for both
the teacher and the learner. They can provide a
valuable routine in the teaching and learning process.
For example, by providing a summarizing poster or
video after each topic.
 In addition to supporting learning more generally,
teaching and learning materials can assist teachers in
the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of
instruction is the tailoring of lessons and instruction to
the different learning styles and capacities within your
classroom. Learning materials such as worksheets,
videos, group activity instructions, or any other, all
allow teachers to modify them to best activate each
individual learner’s needs or learning style, for
example by using different media.
Benefits of instructional materials in teaching
 Apply Concept. Applying the idea that the students
learned in school to a real situation is the best
outcome their learning could achieve.
 Increase Motivation. There is no learning when
motivation is lacking. The usual setup of the teacher
talking in front and the students passively listening
can make their interest in the lesson plummet.
learning materials and combining it with interesting
tasks.
 Easiest to Learn. By making the content of the lesson
more relevant and engaging, the students will find
learning relaxed and simple. Flashy presentations,
humour and games can attract their interest and this
will allow the teacher to tap into the cognitive need of
the learner to make sense of the world.
 Promotes Critical and Creative Thinking. Since the
use of learning tools promotes active learning, the
students will acquire skills to analyse, synthesise and
apply the material. It will help develop their logical
reasoning and creative thinking because the teachers
are allowing them to have a more active role in the
learning process.
 Fun Learning. Students often look forward to teachers
who can produce engaging content. Study time is play
time while learning. By providing a realistic experience
to them in a classroom setting, learners get an
inspiring and joyful experience they can only acquire
from school. The usual setup of fun learning is when
most of the students are actively participating in an
activity.
Categories of Instructional Materials 
◉ Traditional resources. These are any textbooks or
workbooks that can be used within a classroom
setting to explain new concepts. These may include
textbooks and workbooks used in the classroom.
◉ Innovative learning materials. These are learning
materials that are more flexible in accordance with
the needs of students. Flexibility considers and takes
into account various aspects that include student
characteristics including intellectual, emotional and
spiritual abilities as well as obstacles in learning.
Factors Affecting Materials Preparation
a. The curriculum, syllabus, and the learning
competencies.
b. Learners’ learning styles, aptitudes, proficiency.
c. Pedagogical principles held by the teachers.
d. Societal demands
Key Factors to Consider in Selecting and Preparing
Instructional Materials
Take into consideration individual needs and learning
styles:
 Choose materials that present information in a
variety of ways. Using mixed media (text, video,
images, real world examples, graphs, etc.) make
information more interesting and address learners’
different learning styles.
Make sure the materials support learning objectives:
 Provide a wide range of materials that will enrich and
support the curriculum and course objectives. The
instructional materials should reinforce and
supplement, not substitute for, the teacher’s
teaching efforts.
Make the materials clear and accessible:
 Make sure learners have sufficient background
knowledge to comprehend the learning materials.
PPSIM MODULE 6: Overview of the Models for Facilitation of
Learning
K to 12 Basic Education Program (known as the “Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013”)
-covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education. 
-The program aims to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts
and skills, develops lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for
tertiary education, middle-level skills development, employment,
and entrepreneurship.
SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy…State shall create a functional basic
education system that will develop productive and responsible
citizens equipped with the essential competencies, skills and values
for both life-long learning and employment. In order to achieve this,
the State shall:
(a) Give every student an opportunity to receive quality education
that is globally competitive based on a pedagogically sound
curriculum that is at par with international standards;
(b) Broaden the goals of high school education for college
preparation, vocational and technical career opportunities as
well as creative arts, sports and entrepreneurial employment
in a rapidly changing and increasingly globalized environment;
and
(c) Make education learner-oriented and responsive to the needs,
cognitive and cultural capacity, the circumstances and diversity
of learners, schools and communities through the appropriate
languages of teaching and learning, including mother tongue
as a learning resource.
Essential Components of a Successful Education System
1. Standards. A successful system clearly defines, in measurable
terms, expectations for what students need to know and be
able to do to succeed in school, in the workplace and in life. A
successful system aligns and focuses its policies and programs
on student achievement of high academic standards.
2. Assessments. A successful system focuses on results, measuring
and reporting student, school and system performance so that
students, teachers, parents and the public can understand and
act on the information.
3. Accountability. A successful system bases consequences for
policymakers, educators, and students on demonstrated
performance. It provides students the curriculum, instruction
and time they need to succeed. It assists schools that are
struggling to improve, rewards exemplary schools and penalizes
schools that persistently fail to educate their students.
4. Professional Development A successful system insists on
meaningful preparation and continuous learning for teachers
and administrators that drives improved teaching, learning and
school management.
5. School Autonomy. A successful system gives individual schools
the freedom of action and resources necessary for high
performance and true accountability.
6. Parent Involvement. A successful system enables parents to
support the learning process, influence schools and make
choices about their children’s education.
7. Learning Readiness. A successful system recognizes the
importance of the years before children come to school. It
provides high-quality pre-kindergarten education for
disadvantaged children. It also seeks the help of other public
and private agencies to overcome learning barriers caused by
poverty, neglect, violence or ill health for students of all ages.
8. Technology. A successful system uses technology to broaden
access to knowledge and to improve learning and productivity.
9. Safety and Discipline. A successful system provides a safe, well-
disciplined and caring environment for student learning.
Educational Model
-conceptualizes child development as a process that results from
children learning the skills and behaviors that characterize higher
levels of developmental functioning.
-Sir Ken Robinson says, “The fact is that given the challenges we
face, education doesn’t need to be reformed — it needs to be
transformed. The key to this transformation is not to standardize
education, but to personalize it, to build achievement on discovering
the individual talents of each child, to put students in an
environment where they want to learn and where they can naturally
discover their true passions” (The Element: How Finding Your
Passion Changes Everything, 2009).
Types of Educational Model
STEM - Schools’ approach to education is designed to revolutionize
the teaching of subject areas such as mathematics and science by
incorporating technology and engineering into regular curriculum by
creating a “meta-discipline.”
- STEM Education attempts to transform the classroom by
encouraging a curriculum that is driven by problem-solving,
discovery, exploratory learning, that requires students to
actively engage in a situation in order to find its solution.
Problem Based Learning- Project Based Learning schools utilize an
instructional approach built upon authentic learning activities that
engage student interest and motivation. These activities are
designed to answer a question or solve a problem and generally
reflect the types of learning and work people do in the everyday
world outside the classroom.
Inquiry Based Learning
-Schools that focus on Inquiry-based learning use a learning process
through questions generated from the interests, curiosities, and
perspectives/experiences of the learner. Inquiry-based educators
believe that when investigations grow from our own questions,
curiosities, and experiences, learning is an organic and motivating
process that is intrinsically enjoyable.
Interdisciplinary Learning Collaborative
Seven design elements:
1. Integrated curriculum where assorted elective standards are
woven into the range of core academic Science, English, Math,
and Social Studies standards to create a reinvented
interdisciplinary methodology for learning.
2. Dedicated time for collaborative teacher planning; and a
significant commitment to team teaching.
3. Flexible scheduling to implement a wide range of learning
infrastructure.
4. Interdisciplinary learning designs of seminars, workshops,
modules, symposiums, internships and foundation courses that
are responsive and responsible to the student as individual
learner in a collaborative context with on-going community
engagement realities.
5. Interdisciplinary management teams (IMT’s) where each
teacher coaches a multi-age group of students, small group
dynamics, team management.
6. Collaborative Community (stakeholders) as places to learn and
learn from.
7. Development of a collaborative small school culture —
respectful and responsive to the voices and choices inherent in
a generative learning community.
Neuroscience Neuroscience or Brain-Based Learning schools utilize
approaches that educators believe are in accord with recent
research on the brain and human learning. Advocates say the human
brain is constantly searching for meaning and seeking patterns and
connections. Authentic learning situations increase the brain’s ability
to make connections and retain new information. A relaxed, non-
threatening environment that reduces students’ fear of failure is
considered by some to enhance learning. Research also documents
brain plasticity, which is the brain’s ability to grow and adapt in
response to external stimuli.
Placed-based Education Schools that use a Place-Based Education
model utilize the local community and surrounding environment as
an integrating context for multidisciplinary learning. This model is
characterized by student-driven, project-based explorations of local
environmental issues, social questions, cultural heritage, or civic
leadership. Students learn and build skills through interactions with
local community members and investigations of their natural
surroundings. They apply their learning to help solve “real”
problems, catalyse change, document history, and celebrate local
identity.
Multiage Multiage means that students who would typically be
separated by grade level are learning together as one class. A
multiage classroom is not the same as a multi-grade classroom
where students are still taught as separate grade levels even though
they are in the same room. Multiage classrooms use flexible
grouping and differentiate instruction according to each child’s
needs without distinguishing students by grade level.
PSSIM 10: Models Associated with Subject
Matter/Discipline
I. Instructional Design System
Instructional design, also known as instructional system
design (ISD), is the creation of learning experiences and
materials in a manner that results in the acquisition and
application of knowledge and skills.
Basic Components of Instructional System Design
a. ANALYSIS: a needs analysis typically includes
understanding the needs and learners including why
training or learning solution is required.
b. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT: it includes the actual
design and development of the instructional materials
or determining the delivery methods to be used.
c. EVALUATION: looks at how you determine if your
training or learning solution was successful.
Characteristics of Instructional Design Models
According to Branch and Merrill (2002), there are several
characteristics that should be present in all instructional
design models:
 It is learner-centered
 It is goal-oriented
 It focuses on real-world performance. 
 It focuses on outcomes that can be measured in a
reliable and valid way. 
 It is empirical. 
 Instructional design typically is a team effort.
II. Programmed Instruction 
Programmed Instruction 
Also known as Programmed Learning as learning is focused
in it. It is an approach which provides opportunity to the
learner to study & learn individually.
Characteristics of Programmed Instructions:
a. It is a part of education technology, i.e. instructional
technology.
b. It is a method of giving or receiving individualized
instructions. It keeps in view their individual
differences. The learner moves at his/her own speed.
c. It clearly defines the entering and terminal behavior of
the learners.
d. It is not the solution of educational problems. It is a
new instructional strategy for the modification of
behavior of learner.
e. It is systematic and sequenced.
f. It cannot replace the teacher
g. It provides immediate feedback to the learners.
Principle of Programmed Instructions 
a. PRINCIPLE OF SMALL STEPS:  A program is prepared
with large number of small and easy steps. 
b. PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE RESPONDING: Programmed
instruction provides the information in the form of
small steps and each step is required to be responded
by the learner.
c. PRINCIPLE OF IMMEDIATE
REINFORCEMENT: Programmed instruction involves
giving immediate reinforcement to the learners. 
d. PRINCIPLE OF SELF-PACING: Programmed instruction
rests on the principle of self-pacing. It recognizes the
individual differences of the learners.
e. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS EVALUATION: The
programmed instruction is based on continuous
evaluation by recording the response of the learner.  allow students to take on multiple personas and
Types of Programmed Instructions  
a. LINEAR PROGRAMMING: The founder of this
programming is B.F. Skinner. It is based on theory of
operant conditioning. It tells that “A Certain direction
can be given to human behavior”, for this purpose
activities is needed to divide in small parts and make
their analysis
b. BRANCHING PROGRAMMING: The founder of
Branching Programming is Norman A Crowder. It is
based on configuration theory of learning. It is a
problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered
approach of learning.
III. Practice and Drill
Understanding Practice and Drill
Drills refer to the repetitive practice of different skills. For
example, a drill in language can entail having students
write a list of words or equations repeatedly or using
flashcards. Teachers can use drilling as a way to help
students solidify newly learned skills.  Students experience the reality of the scenario and
Advantages
a. PROVIDE BASIC SKILLS FOR STUDENTS: Practice and drills
give students an opportunity to learn certain concepts
quickly and effectively.
b. ALLOW STUDENTS TO BUILD ON MASTERED SKILLS:
Students can now learn higher level skills while accessing
mastered skills quickly and effectively.
Disadvantages
a.HARD FOR STUDENTS TO FOCUS WHEN DONE TOO
OFTEN: Students who only learn through drills may get
distracted and bored with practice drills, especially if they
have already mastered the skills.
b. STUDENTS MAY NOT TRULY BE LEARNING: Students may
be relying on just remembering in order to take a test, but
are not really understanding the material properly.
PSSIM 11: Models Associated with Human
Traits/Processes
Role play and simulations
 are examples of experiential learning practices that
interact in a variety of learning environments.
Students take on different characters and act out
scenarios in role-playing, which is usually done without
the use of scripts. These impromptu scenarios can be
based on reality or ones they've never seen before. To
further "get into" their role, students must employ
creativity and critical thinking. Role play might take
days, weeks, or even a semester to complete,
depending on the context and setup.
 A simulation is a systematic kind of role play. Scenarios
in simulations are far more sophisticated and grounded
in reality. Students may also play themselves or other
characters. There may be fewer decisions to make and
more explicit "game rules" to follow. The learner is
placed in a "world" defined by the teacher. They
represent a reality within which students interact. The
teacher controls the parameters of this "world" and
uses it to achieve the desired instructional results.
gather meaning from it.
It may contain elements of:
 a game
 a role-play, or
 an activity that acts as
 a metaphor.
Students benefit from role-playing and simulations because
they are able to examine many views in a demanding
scenario. Instructors/teachers can cover increasingly
complicated course subjects in a way that encourages
students to become active learners as they strive to solve
problems in these new contexts.
Why is it significant?
 Role-playing and simulations allow students to learn
and improve abilities in a purposeful manner.
Instructors/teachers can offer a typical history lecture,
while students can participate in a role play that
provides more historical background while making it
more personal. Students can use simulations to
recreate real-world circumstances that they may
experience in their chosen discipline or in everyday life.
Rather than depending on standard evaluations, role
play/simulations can be used to better introduce
essential concepts in a more realistic fashion, resulting
in increased student engagement and retention.
Overall, role play and simulations require students to use
creativity to better grasp difficult processes or concepts,
bringing them to life.

Additional benefits to introducing role play or simulations
in the classroom (Stevens, 2015):
 increased interpersonal communication skills
 develop critical reading skills of textual documents as
additional sources
 promote research skills on particular themes or topics
 teaches empathy and how different backgrounds (race,
religion, socio-economic, etc.) can shape one’s
experience.
 serves as an “ice-breaker” among students
 promotes independent problem-solving for deepened
learning
 encourage creative expression not normally
experienced in a traditional classroom setting
 help instructors better evaluate how students make
decisions under pressure or collaborate with others
Dramatization helps the teacher address the four skills
of language learning
a. listening,
b. speaking,
c. reading, and
d. writing.
It favors and facilitates the study of some often neglected
aspects of language such as pronunciation and body
language (Albalawi, 2014).
Özdemir and Çakmak (2008) state that drama enables
students, at all levels of education, to develop their
intellectual skills such as
a. creativity,
b. problem solving,
c. communication,
d. socialization, and
e. empathy.
 It gives individuals the opportunity for self-
actualization, group work and sharing their
responsibilities
 Dramatization involves a lot of conversation and
discussion. These activities are appropriate for low-
proficiency learners who are encouraged to participate
in learning by their peers. They promote genuine
learner-to-learner conversational interactions, which
leads to improved student accomplishment. Dramatic
genres allow students to depict real-life circumstances,
which motivates them to work hard.
Students become attentive and participate actively in
learning when dramatic genres such as role-play and mime
are used in teaching (Nkemka, 2012). Dramatization,
according to Maley and Duff (2005), makes learning more
engaging and encourages learners to eagerly respond to
oral inquiries. Learners participate in purposeful activities
in which they communicate and focus on how to complete
a goal.
PPSIM MODULE 12: Models Associated with Human
Traits/Processes
Community Activity- is part of “civic responsibility”.
Students’ benefits of being involved in community activities
 Any involvement is good! When an individual (student) get
involved in community activities and volunteering, they get
many personal rewards and feelings of achievement.
Role models
 By getting involved with community activities, they can come
into contact with like-minded peers and positive adult role
models other than their parents. Interacting and cooperating
with other adults and peers in community organisations
encourages them to see the world in different ways. It also
helps them see how to put values or beliefs into action for
the good of others.
Identity and connection
 Young people are busy working out who they are and where
they fit in the world. Being involved in community activities
can give them:
 a positive way of understanding who they are
 a sense of belonging in their local community
 an opportunity to make new friendships and
connections.
Skills
 Community activities give students the chance to apply the
skills they already have. For example, they could use the
cooking skills they’ve learned at home at a community soup
kitchen.
 Volunteer work and community activities are also great
opportunities to show initiative and develop workplace skills.
Being able to manage free time while balancing leisure, work
and study is an important life skill. Being part of community
activities could motivate students to get more organised and
start to manage their own time.
Self-confidence, mental health and wellbeing
 Community activities can boost individual’s self-confidence
and self-esteem. Students can learn to deal with challenges,
communicate with different people and build up their life
skills in a supportive environment.
 It’s also a great foundation for mental health and well-being.
Young people often feel good about being involved in
something where others expect them to turn up, where they
feel helpful and valued, and where they’re supported to
achieve something as part of a group. These positive feelings
can help protect young people from sadness and depression.
Being involved in positive community activity can also
reduce the likelihood of substance abuse, mental illness and
criminal activity.
Group investigation
 is a cooperative learning strategy that integrates interaction
and communication in the classroom with the process of
academic inquiry. It enables the classroom to build both on
cooperation among students in small groups and
coordination between groups in classroom.
 Adopting this method, teacher is expected to be able to run
the teaching learning process effectively. They will work in
groups by explain materials that given. Thus, when teacher
put the students in groups, he or she has to ensure that the
students whose levels are different are put together. In
addition, the activity offered in Group investigation is
 interesting so that the students will feel the new atmosphere
in classroom and are interested in learning.
Robert E. Slavin stated that Group Investigation as follow; “Group
Investigation is a form of cooperative learning that dates back to
John Dewey but has been refined and researched in more recent
years by Shlomo and Yael Sharan and Rachel Herts-Lazarowitz in
Israel.” The group investigation model was described in 1960 by
Herbert Thelen, who drew upon John Dewey’s educational
philosophy concerning democratic problem solving. In Thelen’s
model, students are provided with opportunities to experience
democratic decision making and problem solving through the
investigation of real problems, issues, or concerns.
Group Investigation method is one of the cooperative learning.
Cooperative learning teaching model is one model of learning
that support contextual learning. Cooperative learning teaching
system can be defined as a system of a work/study in a
structured group.
Included in this structure are the five basic elements (Johnson &
Johnson, 1994), include
a. positive interdependence,
b. individual responsibility,
c. personal interaction,
d. collaboration skills, and
e. group process.
Group Investigation allows students to work actively and
collaboratively in small group and enables students to take an
active role in determining their own learning goal and processes.
 The teacher who uses this method firstly he/she divides
the class into small heterogeneous groups.
 This group consists of four to six and may form around
friendships or around an interest in a particular topic.
 Students select topics for study, then every group decides
what subtopics are to be investigated as well as the goals
of their study, and then prepare and present a report in
front of class.
 This type demands to the student’s abilities of
communication or the group skill.
Group Investigation model exercises the students to grow up
their brain skill. The students as the followers actively will
show from the first step until the last step of the learning
process.
Group investigation is an effective organizational medium for
encouraging and guiding students' involvement in learning.
Students actively share in influencing the nature of events in
their classroom. Also, by communicating freely and cooperating
in planning and carrying out their chosen topic of investigation,
they can achieve more than they would as individuals. The final
result of the group's work reflects each member's contribution,
but its intellectually richer than work done individually by the
same students.
Component of Group Investigation
The components can serve as criteria for knowing whether we
are implementing group investigation method in keeping with its
basic principles and goals. These four components we consider to
be the primary indicators of the group investigation are
interrelated and occur simultaneously.
Investigation
 Investigation refers to the organization and procedures for
directing the conduct of classroom learning as a process of
inquiry. It is the most general of the four components in this
model, identifying the teacher's and students' orientation
toward the process of learning. This orientation of the entire
class makes it possible for the other three components of
the Group Investigation method to take place.
Interaction
 Interaction identifies the interpersonal, or social, dimension
of the learning process as it unfolds in the communication
among members of small groups in the classroom.
Interpretation
 Interpretation occurs both at the interpersonal as well as at
the individual cognitive level. The interaction among
students in small groups stimulates their individual effort to
attribute meaning to the information they have acquired in
the process of investigation. Individuals' understanding of
the topic under study is enhanced by their interpretation of
the information.
Intrinsic Motivation
 Intrinsic motivation refers to the nature of the students'
emotional involvement in the topic they are studying and in
the pursuit of the knowledge they seek to acquire. The goal
is to have students become personally interested in seeking
the information they need in order to understand the topic
under study.
Stages in Implementing Group Investigation
According to Slavin (2008) in implementing group investigation
can be done in six stage;
STAGE 1. Identify the Topic and Organizing Students into Groups
 This exploratory step may take two or three class periods.
The teacher presents a broad topic to the whole class. The
topic may be pan of the curriculum or may stem from the
students' interest or from a timely issue. The topic should be
a multifaceted one, so that it will trigger a variety of
reactions from the students. At this point, students are not
expected to show what they know but what they want to
know. Student scan sources, propose, question and sort
them into categories. The categories become subtopics.
Students join in the group studying the subtopic of their
group.
STAGE 2. Planning the Investigation in Groups.
 Upon joining their respective groups, the students turn their
attention to the subtopic of their choice. Together they
formulate a researchable problem and plan their course of
action. Through discussion group members exchange views
about the scope of their inquiry. They clarify exactly what it
is they want to investigate, how they will go about it and
how they will divide the work among themselves.
STAGE 3. Carrying Out the Investigations
 Group members gather, organize, analyse and evaluate
information from several sources. They pool their findings
and form conclusions. Group members discuss their work in
progress to exchange ideas and information, and to expand,
clarify, and integrate them.
STAGE 4. Preparing a Final Report
 This stage serves as a transition from data gathering and
clarification to the presentation of the most significant
results of the inquiry. It is primarily an organizational stage,
yet it entails such intellectual activities as abstracting the
main idea of the group investigation. Pulling together all the
parts into an integrated whole and planning a presentation
that will be both instructive and appealing. Presentations
can take the form of an exhibit. a model, a learning
centered, a written report, a dramatic presentation, a guided
tour, or a slide presentation, to mention only a few options.
STAGE 5: Presenting the Final Report discussion as a process for mutual inquiry and
 The groups are now prepared to present their final reports clarification rather than conflict.
to the class. At this stage, all the groups meet and 3. To develop such an attitude amongst the students that
reconstitute the whole class as a social unit. The schedule of
they begin to recognize that, each person is entitled to
presentations is posted, and each group knows how much
have his/her own opinion.
Time it has for its presentation. After each group's turn, the
4. To help students understand those values are complex
members of the -audience" voice their reactions to what
they saw and heard. and they can analyze the situation and rational
STAGE 6: Evaluation thinking.
 Group Investigation exposes students to constant A systematic orderly arrangement of the phases used in the
evaluation, by both peers and teacher. The discussions model
among group members at every stage of their work, as well 1. There are six phases
as the meetings with the teacher, always make students’ 2. These phases divided into two groups
grasp of their topic and of their work visible. During the 3. Analysis – (phases 1.2 and 3)
entire course of the inquiry, the teacher has many 4. Argumentation (phases 4.5 and 6)
opportunities to form reliable judgments based on frequent
conversations and observations of the students' academic
Phase I: Orientation to the Case
and social activity (Sham and Hertz-1.3zarowitz 1980).
 Teacher Introduces materials depicting the value
Investigation Teacher’s Role Student’s Note
Jurisprudential Inquiry Model of Teaching
 helps learners to acquire information, ideas, values, I.Class determined Leader of exploratory Generate
sub-topics and discussions that questions of
skills, problem solving, and critical thinking and means
organizes into determine sub- interest; sort
of expressing themselves. research groups. topics; facilitate of them into
 based on conception of society in which people differ awareness of categories; join
in their views and priorities, in which social values interesting aspects of research group of
the general topic choice.
legally conflict with one another's resolving complex, II. Groups plan their Helps groups Plan what to
controversial issues within the circumstance of a investigation: what formulate their study; choose
productive social order. they will study and plans; helps maintain resources; assign
 basically designed to develop skills of jurisprudentiality. how they will go cooperative group roles and divide
about it. norms; helps find the study tasks
These skills can be developed among the students through the resource materials. among
teaching of social science subject. It has been observed in most themselves.
of the schools, that the teaching of social studies is more of III. Groups carry out Helps with study Seek answers to
content oriented than skill oriented, it is very essential to study the investigation. skills; continues to their questions;
social skills. Oliver and Shaver emphasize that values can be used help maintain locate
on a dimensional as well as an ideal basis. If social values are cooperative norms. information from
a variety of
constructed as ideals, they have to be dealt with on an absolute
sources; integrate
basis; either one lives up to a value or one does not.
and summarize
The Jurisprudential Inquiry Model of teaching is based on a their findings.
pragmatic philosophy of life. It considers that values are IV. Groups plan their Organizes plans for Determine main
subjective and values change with the time and circumstances. presentation presentations and idea of their
The jurisprudential inquiry model, as the name shows and takes a coordinates them findings; plan how
person as a judge, who listens to the case, abstracts the with the steering to transmit it to
evidences so presented, analyses the legal position taken by both committee. the class.
sides, assesses the provision of law, and, at the end, makes the V. Groups make Coordinates Presenters; give
best possible judgment. their presentation presentations; feedback to
conducts discussions classmates about
Similarly in the classroom, the teacher presents controversial of feedback. their
issues before the students. The students analyse the issues with presentations
respect to various values involved in it. They take a stand, and VI. Teacher and Evaluates learning of Refine awareness
the teacher challenges the stance which taken, and helps the students evaluate new information, of performances
students to understand the logical basis on which he had taken a Groups Investigation higher level thinking as investigators
stand. In this way, teacher maintaining his/her authoritative role individually in and cooperative and as group
in the classroom functions as a challenge to the stand taken by groups and behaviour. members.
the students. classwide.
controversy (This speaks about out lining the events,
analysing who did, what, why and how), Historical
Objectives of the narration or Watching areal incident.
Jurisprudential Inquiry Model
1. To develop skills of Phase II: Identifying the Issues
dialogue, where the  Student synthesizes facts into a public issues or issues.
primary aims are the Students select one policy issue for discussion, Student
clarification and problem identify values and value conflicts and Students
solving. recognize underlying factual and definitional questions.
2. To develop such skills in students where they look at Phase III: Taking Positions
 Student expresses their position and Student state the
basis of their position
Phase IV: Exploring their Position
 Students to establishing the point at which value is
violated. Try to prove desirable and undesirable
position with facts. Clarifying the value conflicts with
similar examples, Setting priorities and insisting the
priority of one value over other.
Phase V: Refining and Qualifying the Positions
 Students state positions, to give reasons for positions
and examine a number of similar situations and qualify
positions.
Phase VI: Testing Factual Assumptions determine if they are
Relevant
 Determine the predicted consequence and Examine
their factual validity.
PSSIM MODULE 13: Models Associated with Interests and
Needs/Activities
Independent Learning-a method or learning process where
learners have ownership and control of their learning – they
learn by their own actions and direct, regulate, and assess their
own learning. The independent learner is able to set goals, make
choices, and decisions about how to meet his learning needs,
take responsibility for constructing and carrying out his own
learning, monitor his progress toward achieving his learning
goals, and self-assess the learning outcomes.
Why is independent learning important? 
 It can develop inquisitiveness, by providing opportunities for
long term research and other work. 
 It can develop collaboration, by involving parents and others
in the learning process and so providing an important
motivational function. 
 It can develop persistence, by allowing students to develop
their ability to work independently. 
 It can develop discipline, by allowing valuable practice and
extension of skills, knowledge and understanding learned in
the classroom. 
 It can develop imagination, by allowing students to use
materials and other sources of information. 
What were the benefits of independent learning for students? 
 improved academic performance; 
 increased motivation and confidence; 
 greater student awareness of their limitations and their
ability to manage them; 
 enabling teachers to provide differentiated tasks for
students; and 
 fostering social inclusion by countering alienation. 
How do teachers promote independent learning? 
• scaffolding: this refers to the supportive structure provided
by skilled others, in this case teachers, which  aids students
in their learning. The objective is the gradual transfer of
responsibility from the teacher to the  student step by step,
the teacher responding flexibly to students’ responses rather
than following a  predetermined teaching path; 
• providing students with opportunities to self-monitor: the
review suggested self-monitoring depends on the  two
processes of establishing goals and receiving feedback from
others and from oneself. Teachers  encouraged students to
self-monitor by helping them use internal and external
feedback to see whether the  strategies they were using
were effective for achieving learning goals; 
• offering models of behaviour: independent learning was
promoted by encouraging students to model the  behaviour
of their teachers, including, for example, teachers showing
students how categorising information  made it easier to
remember;
• developing communication that included language focused
on learning: this helped students become more aware of
the steps involved in learning, understand their own learning
styles and helped students and teachers share their
thinking;
• providing feedback on homework: this was found to
improve students’ confidence in working independently and
Ad
to help them develop the reflective aspect of Independent

learning.
Self-instruction -the ability of one to cognitively plan, organize, 
direct, reinforce, and evaluate one’s own independent learning
without a teacher’s prompting. Students can manage themselves
as learners and direct their own behavior, including their
attention.
Self-instruction techniques -involve the use of self- 
statements to direct or self-regulate behavior (Graham et
al., 1992). Put simply, children quite literally learn to “talk
themselves through” a task or activity. Self-instruction
techniques grew from Vygotsky’s (1934/1962) observation
that children used overt verbalizations to help regulate
behavior. Self-talk (often termed “private speech”) is used
by children to self-regulate and guide behavior and is a part
of the normal developmental process (Harris, 1990). Self-
instruction techniques mimic the manner in which
language is normally used to self-regulate behavior.
Nature of Self Instructional
Strategies
 The learner will be
learning by himself
 There will not be the
help or guidance of a
teacher
 The learner can learn at
his own pace
 The learner can choose
an appropriate time for
him to study
 The learner can make
use of study tools like
books and technology
 The students can study
at any place
Synectics Teaching Model -In 1961, William J.J. Gordon and his
colleagues designed a model of creative thinking called
‘Synectics’. Synectics is a Greek word synectikos which means the
joining together of different ideas. The model was originally
designed to increase creative expression, empathy and insight
and help ‘creativity groups’ in industrial and other organizations
to develop quality products and solve problems.
What is Synectics?
 Synectics is an instructional strategy that uses metaphor and
analogy to stimulate diverse and creative thinking to deepen
the understanding of concepts.
 Synectics is a problem solving method that involves the
creative thinking of a group of people from different areas of
experience and knowledge. What is unique about Synectics
is that it employs the use of metaphor and analogy to spark
creativity.
The Process Of Synectics
• Using synectics in the classroom may be done by working through
the following steps.
1. Establish an understanding of a word or topic through the use
of a dictionary or other reference. Alternately, if the word or
topic is well understood, have the students briefly describe it
individually through writing or through discussion in small
groups.
2. Ask the students to brainstorm direct analogies. In this step,
the word or topic being examined id compared to something
totally unrelated.
3. Have the students work with a direct analogy to create a
personal analogy.
4. To explore contrast, ask the students to identify differences.
5. Create a new analogy by asking the students.
6. Return to the original word or topic so that the students may
use the ideas produced to create their new product.
PPSIM MODULE 14: Planning, Development, Production and
Evaluation of Instructional Design in Social Studies.
Instructional Design
 often known as instructional system design (ISD), is the
process of creating learning experiences and resources in
such a way that knowledge and skills are acquired and
applied. Assessing needs, devising a method, developing
materials, and evaluating their usefulness are all part of the
process.
What is Instructional Designer?
 An instructional designer uses this systematic process (based
on instructional theories and models) to create content,
experiences, and other solutions that aid in the acquisition
of new knowledge and skills. To determine the needs of the
learning event, instructional designers should conduct a
needs assessment, which should include what the learner
should know and be able to do as a result of the training or
learning solution, as well as what the learners already know
and can do.
 The course design and all instructional materials, including
presentation materials, participant guides, hand-outs, and
job aids or other materials, are then the responsibility of
instructional designers. They are frequently in charge of
analysing training, which includes determining what was
taught and whether the learning solution resulted in
measurable behavior change.
 Instructional designers follow a strategy of identifying needs,
devising a process, developing materials, and evaluating
efficacy, according to the ATD's Talent Development
Capability Model. To maximize the learning experience and
knowledge transfer, instructional design necessitates the
analysis and selection of the most effective tactics,
methodologies, and technologies. The knowledge and skills
required to build a successful learning endeavor should be
included in an instructional design and portfolio.
Instructional Design Models
 While ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation, and Evaluation) continues to be one of the
most widely used ISD models, there are number of other
models to consider. In recent years, there has been a push to
utilize more agile, iterative approaches, including Michael
Allen’s Successive Approximation Model (SAM). Agile
models, such as SAM involve shorter design sprints where a
prototype is quickly created, reviewed, and revised, with the
process repeating until stakeholders are satisfied.

Disadvantages
 Vocabulary of the model may inhibit
students. Terms like synectics,
metaphor, analogy and compressed Common Instructional Design Models
conflict maybe imposing at any
 ADDIE
grade level.
 Process may be difficult to explain to  Cathy Moore’s Action Mapping
the students.  Dick and Carey Model
 Teacher may not know the best way  Kemp Design Model
to explain the process.  Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction
 The number of steps required to  SAM (Successive Approximation Model)
conclude the exercises and may  Agile or rapid prototyping
intimidate the teacher and the
students.

Dick and Carey Model
 This model was originally published in 1978 by Walter
Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The
Systematic Design of Instruction. Dick and Carey made
a significant contribution to the instructional design
field by championing a systems view of instruction as
opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated
parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire
system, focusing on the interrelationship between
context, content, learning and instruction.
 According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the
instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities,
delivery system, and learning and performance
environments interact with each other and work
together to bring about the desired student learning
outcomes". 
The components of the Systems Approach Model, also
known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:
 Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes
a skill, knowledge or attitude (SKA) that a learner will
be expected to acquire   Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is
 Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner
must recall and identify what learner must be able to
do to perform particular task.
 Analyse Learners and Contexts: Identify general
characteristics of the target audience including prior
skills, prior experience, and basic demographics;
identify characteristics directly related to the skill to be
taught; and perform analysis of the performance and
learning settings. 
 Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a
description of the behavior, the condition and criteria.
The component of an objective that describes the
criteria that will be used to judge the learner's
performance.  training or learning solution is required, is usually part of a
 Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry
behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of
post testing, purpose of practice items/practice
problems.
 Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional
activities, content presentation, Learner participation,
assessment.
 Develop and Select Instructional Materials.
 Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of
Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the
instructional materials that are in need of
improvement. 
 Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to
identify poor instruction  training.
 Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation 
Merrill's First Principles of Instruction
Many current instructional design models suggest that the
most effective learning environments are those that are
problem-based and involve the student in four distinct
phases of learning:
a. activation of prior experience,
b. demonstration of skills,
c. application of skills, and
d. integration of these skills into real world activities.
The figure below illustrates these five ideas. Much
instructional practice concentrates primarily on phase 2
and ignores the other phases in this cycle of learning."
At the top level the instructional design prescriptions based
on first principles are as follows:
 Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in
solving real-world problems.
activated as a foundation for new knowledge.
 Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is
demonstrated to the learner.
 Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is
applied by the learner
 Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is
integrated into the learner's world." 
Basic Components of Instructional Design
While there are number of instructional design models and
processes, many of their components are similar. They
include analysis, design, development, and evaluation.
Analysis
Understanding the needs and learners, as well as why
needs analysis. It's possible that training isn't the answer,
and a different type of performance enhancement or non-
training solution will be suggested instead. You'll also start
developing the training's goals, such as learning objectives,
and deciding how the training will be delivered at this
point.
Design & Development
The actual design and development of instructional
materials, as well as identifying the distribution modalities
to be employed, fall under the category of design and
development. It usually include writing curriculum and
lesson plans, as well as creating any instructional
resources, such as presentations, e-learning, learners' or
participants' guides, and anything else needed for the
Evaluation
The process of determining whether or not your training or
learning solution was successful is called evaluation. Did it
have a demonstrable impact on the learner's behavior and
result in the expected outcomes?
PSSIM MODULE 15: Planning, Development, Production
And Evaluation of Instructional Designs in Social Studies
Kemp's Instructional Design Model
 Jerold Kemp defines nine different components of an
instructional design and at the same time adopts a
continuous implementation/evaluation model. The
oval shape of Kemps model conveys that the design
and development process is a continuous cycle that
requires constant planning, design, development and
assessment to insure effective instruction.
 The model is particularly useful for developing
instructional programs that blend technology,
pedagogy and content to deliver effective, inclusive
(reliable) and efficient learning. Kemp identifies nine
key elements of Instructional Design.
 Identify instructional problems, and specify goals
for designing an instructional program.
 Examine learner characteristics that should receive
attention during planning.
 Identify subject content, and analyse task
components related to stated goals and purposes.
 State instructional objectives for the learner.
Sequence content within each instructional unit for
logical learning.
 Design instructional strategies so that each learner
can master the objectives.
 Plan the instructional message and delivery.
 Develop evaluation instruments to assess
objectives.
 Select resources to support instruction and
learning activities.
Kemp's Instructional Design
Model

Robert Gagne was an educational psychologist who

created a nine step process called the Events of
Instruction. 
 This model is a systematic process which helps to
develop strategies and create activities for
instructional classes. 
 The nine events provide a framework for an effective
learning process. 
 The steps essentially give designers an outline or
prototype to use prior to performing teaching or
training activities.
Gagne divides the conditions into two groups; internal and
external.
- Internal conditions are the already established learned
capabilities of the learner. Basically, what the learner knows
prior to the instruction. 
- External conditions deal with the stimuli that are presented
externally to the learner (e.g. instruction provided to the
 learner).
Gagne’s model allows instructional designers to consider
the possible internal and external conditions that have an
effect on the learning process.
The Conditions of Learning
 Gagne’s book, The Conditions of Learning, first
published in 1965, identified the mental conditions for
learning. These were based on the information
processing model of the mental events that occur
when adults are presented with various stimuli. Gagne
created a nine-step process called the events of
instruction, which correlate to and address the
conditions of learning. Keeping these stages in mind as
you plan for a class session can give your lesson plans a
strong foundation.
The following information includes an explanation of each of the
nine events as well as examples of how an instructor may
apply the Nine Events of Instruction in the development
and instruction of a course.
1. Gain attention: Obtain students’ attention so that they
will listen while the instructor presents the learning
content.
o Utilize ice breaker activities, current news and
events, case studies, YouTube videos, and so on.
The object is to quickly grab student attention
and interest in the topic.
o Utilize tools such as clickers and surveys to ask
leading questions prior to lecture, survey
opinion, or gain a response to a controversial
question.
2. Inform learners of objectives: Allow students to
organize their thoughts and prioritize their attention
regarding what they are about to learn and do.
o Include learning objectives in lecture slides, the
syllabus, and in instructions for activities,
projects, papers, and so on.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning: Encourage students
to build on previous knowledge or skills.
o Recall events from previous lectures, integrate
results of activities into the current topic, and/or
relate previous information to the current topic.
4. Present the content: Show and explain the material
you want students to learn.
o Utilize a variety of methods including lecture,
readings, activities, projects, multimedia, and
others.
5. Provide “learning guidance”: Provide students with
instructions on how to learn, such as guided
activities or common pitfalls. With learning
guidance, the rate of learning increases because
students are less likely to lose time or become
frustrated by basing performance on incorrect
facts or poorly understood concepts.
Include detailed information such as rubrics for
projects and activities. Provide expectations,
instructions, and timelines.
6. Elicit performance (practice): Allow students to
apply knowledge and skills learned.
Encourage students to apply what they are
learning in group or individual projects and
activities, written assignments, lab practicals,
and so on.
Scaffold high-stakes assessments with smaller
activities so students can practice and receive
feedback before turning in something for a
larger grade.
7. Provide feedback: Give the students feedback on
individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated
problems rather than having little idea of where
problems and inconsistencies in learning are
occurring.
Provide detailed feedback on assignments
showing students what was done correctly,
what must be improved, and include
explanations. Utilize rubrics when possible.
Give formative feedback on smaller
assignments as well as summative feedback on
larger assessments.
Utilize peer-evaluation and self-evaluation or
self-assessment methods.
8. Assess performance: Help students identify
content areas they have not mastered.
Utilize a variety of assessment methods
including exams/quizzes, written assignments,
projects, and so on. Utilize rubrics when
grading activities that are not standard exam
and quiz questions.
Ensure that students have practiced and
received feedback prior to high-stakes
assessments.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job: Prepare
students to apply information to personal contexts.
This increases retention by personalizing
information.
Provide opportunities for students to relate course
work to their personal experiences when designing
essays and projects.
Provide opportunities for discussion in small groups.
Allow students to reflect on what they have learned
and how they will use that knowledge or those skills
in the future.
Have students create a reference for their future
selves that summarize what they have learned.
Gagné's nine events of instruction can help you create PSSIM
a framework for planning and delivering instructional MODULE
content while also taking into account and managing 16:
learning situations. Before implementing the nine
events, you should develop course goals and learning
objectives—the goals and objectives will assist place
the events in their correct perspective. The nine
learning events can then be modified to fit the subject
as well as the students' level of understanding. Planning,

Development,
Production and
Evaluation of Instructional Designs in Social Studies
The ARCS Model
 The ARCS Model of Motivational Design was formulated by
John Keller in 1983. Keller was interested in exploring how
we might design learning experiences to create and to
sustain student motivation in learning new content. Keller
was interested in the concept of motivational design
because it could systematically produce replicable results
over time in improving a learner’s motivation to learn. Keller
(2016) defines motivational design as a “process of arranging
resources and procedures to bring about changes in
motivation.”
 ARCS Model of Motivation, is based upon the idea that there
are four key elements in the learning process which can
encourage and sustain learners’ motivation. These four
elements form the acronym ARCS of the model and stand for
Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction (ARCS).
Guidelines for Use

Guideline 1 – Attention Methods to Activate Attention:

Perceptual arousal or
inquiry arousal can be used to
grab the learners' attention.
Surprising, unexpected,
engaging, and unexpected
events at the beginning of a
class will elicit perceptual
arousal and engage learners'
attention. By stimulating
learners' interest, wonder,
and questioning by posing
difficult challenges and
questions, you can elicit
inquiry arousal and hold their
attention through intellectual
or cognitive engagement. Key
Question: Is the content
capturing and maintaining the
learner's attention?
 Active Participation: encourage active
participation by using games, role play,
simulations, and other hands-on
strategies to involve learners.
 Variability: use a variety of modalities
(e.g. video, infographics, audio, short
lectures, discussion groups) for
presenting content.
 Humour: use cartoons, humorous
anecdotes to maintain interest.
 Incongruity and Conflict: use debate
and play the devil’s advocate with
comments that go against the learners’
past experiences.
 Specific Examples: provide specific
examples of the content through
images, stories, and biographies.
 Inquiry: Ask questions, present
problems or dilemmas for the learners
to grapple with and discuss.

Methods to Activate Relevance:

Guideline 2 – Relevance
Finding ways to link
the content to the learner's
environment ensures that
the learning process is
effective. Relevance aids in
the connection between the
information and the real
world. Use concrete
language and situations that
the learners will be familiar
with to establish develop
 Experience: show learners how new
learning will use their existing skills and
experience.
 Present Worth: help to show how the
content will be immediately useful to
them.
 Future Usefulness: help to show how
the content will be useful to them in the
future.
 Needs Matching: show how the content
 The 3 Steps of Elaboration Theory
Goal: to allow learners to build necessary skill sets by
completing each lesson, and to fully understand the
concepts that are being taught during the learning process.
1. The learners will begin the lesson with a “broad
scope” picture of the problem or task. This will allow
them to see all of the steps or parts of the problem, so
that they can understand the relationship between
these components.
2. The learners will then be encouraged to focus on the
first step in the process, or a simplified version of one
of the problems/components that they had previously
viewed while examining the “broad scope” picture.
3. After the learners have examined and learned each of
the steps or mastered the components, they are then
asked to look at the larger picture (which is the whole
problem or task) once again.

ARCS Model

Methods to Activate Confidence

 Provide Objectives & Prerequisites: empower
learners to estimate their likelihood of
success. Objectives let learners see what is
expected of them. Prerequisites empower
learners to self-check if they have the
prerequisite knowledge or skills.
 Plan for Meaningful Success: scaffold and
organize the learning so learners can
experience success. The success should be
substantial enough, so it is meaningful and
represents some accomplishments. There is
a fine balance between too hard and too
easy.
 Grow the Learners: scaffold and organize
content so the learning increases in difficulty.
This allows for growth in the learner. Elaboration Theory
 Feedback: provide feedback that supports the
learner in attributing their effort to their The Fundamental Strategies of Elaboration Theory
success with learning the content.  The Elaboration Theory involves a variety of
 Learner Control: learners should have some fundamental strategies or tools that enable the
degree of control over their learning path and
learners to actively engage in the learning process
assessment. They need to see that their
success is a direct result of their choices and and grasp all of the concepts, which can be applied
effort. to any instructional design plan:
Guideline 4 – Satisfaction Methods to Activate Satisfaction Organizing the Structure of the Coursework
For the learner, learning
 Intrinsic Reinforcement: encourage The course must be organized in such a way that each
should be pleasurable and
the pleasure of learning for its own lesson elaborates upon the previous lesson in the
satisfying. Satisfaction sake or to achieve personal goals.
happens at the end of the sequence. This can be done in one of three ways:
Learning should be useful and
learning process when the beneficial to the learner. Help them conceptually, theoretically, or procedurally.
learner has met the learning's to see this benefit by applying the
goals and objectives, as well learning in a real-world setting. The simple to complex theory
as having their needs met.  Extrinsic Rewards: give unexpected Each lesson must go from simple to more complex,
Achievement and rewards and direct encouragement allowing the learners to build upon knowledge that they
appreciation can also provide to learn. collected from the previous step in the process.
satisfaction. Key Question:  Equity: keep standards high so
Does the learner feel satisfied learners know they are achieving. Do Sequences within the lesson itself
with their achievement in not over-reward simple tasks. The lesson must begin with a general overview, followed
mastering this content? by a more detailed look. This can also be applied to
abstract concepts, which are then viewed as more concrete
The Elaboration Theory or real-world based steps.
 introduced by Charles Reigeluth, an American
educational theorist in 1979. The Elaboration Summaries of the content
Theory supports that the content organization The teacher should encourage the learners to summarize
should be presented in increasing order of what they have already learned and provide them with an
difficulty. overview of all previously learned steps at the end of each
lesson.
Cognitive strategies
Learners acquire the knowledge better, when they use
cognitive strategies either consciously or unconsciously.
For example, the use of diagrams makes an impact on how
the learner processes and interacts with the learning
material (imbedded strategy). In addition, the instructor
may lead the learner to a previously acquired cognitive
strategy (detached strategy) by posing specific questions.

Learner Control
The learners are encouraged to have complete control over
how the instruction is carried out and the content being
learned.

Analogies or Metaphors
These allow the learners to relate the content to real world
scenarios or knowledge that they have already collected.