D. Belluzzo, 1 F. Mancosu, 1 R. Sangalli, 1 Fo Cheli, 2 and S.

Bruni 2

New Predictive Model for the Study of

Vertical Forces (up to 250 Hz) Induced on
the Tire Hub by Road Irregularities 3

REFERENCE: Belluzzo, D., Mancosu, F., Sangalli, R., Cheli, F., and Bruni, S., "New
Predictive Model for the Study of Vertical Forces (up to 250 I-Iz) Induced on the Tire
Hub by Road Irregularities," Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 30, No. 1,
January-March 2002, pp. 2-18.

ABSTRACT: A physical model has been developed in order to study the forces induced on
the tire by road irregularities. It works in a range of frequencies 0-250 Hz, i.e. up to
frequencies that are felt by the passengers as noise and vibrations, but it can be easily
improved to 400 Hz. The model can resolve road irregularities with wavelength greater than
5 cm (pavement megatexture). The parameters of this model have been identified by
comparison with special virtual tests performed on a 3D finite element model of the tire, i.e.
without using any experimental data. Once built, the model can be used to analyze the forces
transmitted by the tire to the vehicle while passing over various pavement textures for testing
both the tire-vehicle system and the pavement textures. Since the model doesn't require any
experimental data, it can be used to predict the dynamical characteristics of tires which
haven't been built yet, speeding up the optimization process of fires under development. Due
to its characteristics, this model appears to be a powerful tool for a joint analysis of vehicle
and tire, but it would require vehicle models with a similar frequency response range,
currently not reported in literature. Comparisons with the results of indoor cleat tests and with
measurements on a test car with an ins~umented wheel hub have shown that the mathematical
model reproduces with good accuracy the behavior of the tire in the frequency range of
interest.

KEY WORDS: computer simulations, vehicle comfort, finite element analysis, road
irregularities

C o m p u t e r simulations and virtual tests o v e r the past f e w years h a v e b e e n

attracting m o r e and m o r e attention f r o m industry research and d e v e l o p m e n t , due
to their characteristics o f flexibility and predictability that b o t h p e r m i t a reduction
in the n u m b e r of prototypes and p r o v i d e a detailed description o f the processes
under study. This trend is e n c o u r a g e d also by the increasing c o m p u t e r p o w e r /
price rate that allows the setup o f v e r y detailed models.
In the field o f tire engineering, d y n a m i c analysis w i t h finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d s
recently has b e c o m e affordable in terms o f both accuracy and c o m p u t i n g time:

1 Pirelli Pneumatici Spa, Viale Sarca 222, 20126 Milano, Italy.

2 Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Meccarfica, Via La Masa 34, 20158 Milano, Italy.
3 Presented at the nineteenth annual conference of The Tire Society, Akron, Ohio, April 25-26, 2000.
 BELLUZZO ET AL, ON VERTICAL FORCES 3

steady-state frequency response and modal reductions still require considerable

computing resources, but some particular dynamic simulations [1] are becoming
part of the standard development methodologies.
Vehicle comfort [2-5], i.e. the ability to attenuate the acoustic and mechanical
vibrations arising during motion, is strictly related to tire dynamical character-
istics, because tires are the unique interaction elements between road and vehicle.
In general, comfort dynamics is intended to be restricted to vertical and
longitudinal motions (the so-called in-plane vibrations); the problem, character-
ized by a great complexity, has been faced in the past with simplified physical
models [1,6-8] that give good performances in terms of computational effort
required by the simulation, but whose frequency range is too narrow (0-100 Hz).
In this paper an original approach to the study, in the frequency range 0-250
Hz, of the forces induced on the tire hub by road irregularities having wavelength
smaller than the footprint length, is presented (see Fig. 1): in the following we
will call it Road-noise Model (RM). To achieve such accuracy we have divided
the footprint obtained by a Finite Element calculation into several blocks
("tasseUi") arranged along rows and columns into the footprint. In order to clarify
the schematization, Fig. 2 reports a map of the pressures in the footprint, showing
the position and numbering of the tasselli. The dark contour of the map
corresponds to the border of road-tire contact area.
Starting from a detailed finite element tire model, the frequency response
function of the forces induced to the hub by displacements of each tassello have
been computed through a modal reduction process. The footprint frequency
response functions have been then used to identify a time-domain dynamical
system that links the footprint displacements induced by road irregularities to the
forces measured at the tire hub. This system, coupled with a simplified car model,
has been excited by different road profiles flowing under the footprint. The
spectral analysis of the displacements transmitted by the tire to the hub show the
relevant contribution of the principal vertical modes of the tire.

The FET Model

The predictive characteristic of the RM model presented in this paper is based

on thefinite element tire model (FET~i~co), shown in Fig. 3. It contains a detailed
description of the tire characteristics: the geometrical features of the cross section
(position and shape of tire components) are the same as in real tire; tire materials
are conveniently modelled: the Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic model [9] describes
the static properties of rubber materials, while a viscoelastic model (both elastic
and loss moduli dependent on frequency) governs their dynamic properties [9];
the air in the cavity [10] is not modelled, thus the results presented in this paper
do not include the cavity resonance components. Since the FETvisco model is a
discretized version of reality, the goal of an accurate representation of the tire in
4 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FET model
Local Transfer Functions u t

Frequency

111 112 113

System identification

Simulation with multibody codes n parallel systems

(ICLE) ,,,i

•
u.~

Road irregularities
FIG. 1 - - Scheme of the RoadNoise model.

the frequency domain imposes a fine discretization, giving a model of about 8000
degrees of freedom.
The aim of the RM model is to study how the tire footprint f e e l s the road
irregularities flowing under the tire; to implement this idea in the FETvis~omodel,
we have subdivided the footprint area in several tasselli (see Fig. 2), and studied
the contribution, due to displacements of the footprint, of each tassello on forces
transmitted to the hub by the tire; the study has been restricted to the vertical
components of the observables (displacements and forces) [11].
 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 5

FIG. 2 - Subdivision of the footprint into 71 blocks ("tasselli"). The center of each tassello is
indicated by a white dot. Numbering of tasselli is partially reported.

This approach is based on the hypothesis that a superposition principle holds,

i.e.

Htot(CD) = ~ /-/lo~(OJ),
(i)
/@setof tasselli

where Htot(O~) is the Frequency Transfer Function (FTF) between the displace-
ment of the whole footprint and the force measured at the tire hub and H~)~(~o)
is the FTF between the displacement of the i-th tassello and the force at the hub.
Before the FETvisco model dynamical characteristics can be studied, a
preliminary static analysis has been carried out: mounting of the rim, inflation of
the fire to the nominal pressure, and vertical loading. Starting from this
configuration the dynamic analysis has been carried out. A direct computation of
H~(o~) for each tassello using the complete viscoelastic FET~i~co model would
have lasted too long, because the dependence of the elastic models of the rubber
compounds on frequency imposes a continuous change of the stiffness matrix. A
particular procedure has been set up to overcome this inconvenience (see Fig. 4):
1. Global damping coefficients identification. Using the FETvisco model, the
FTF Htot(W) has been computed and the damping coefficients of the
principal vertical modes have been identified in the frequency range 0-250
6 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 3 - - The F E T model.

Hz. This operation has been carried out after the verification that the lateral
and longitudinal displacements of the footprint nodes give an insignificant
contribution to the vertical component of the force at the hub.
2. Modal reduction. To speed up the computation, the stiffness dependence on
frequency of the FETvi~co model has been frozen to the frequency of the
most relevant vertical mode ( - 7 0 Hz), obtaining the FET7o H~ model, and
then a modal reduction has been performed.
3. Local FTF computation. Joining the above modal reduction with the
corresponding damping coefficients obtained with the FETvisco model, the
computation of the local FTFs [H~/~ vo(w)], has been then extremely fast.
In this procedure two main approximations have been taken: a) since the
FETvisco elastic moduli increase with frequency, the respective FET7o Hz eigen-
frequencies are underestimated; b) the damping factors extracted from the
FETvis~o model take into account processes that depend on frequency, while the
frequency dependence is not considered in the FET7o Hz model.
 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 7

FIG. 4 - Scheme for the computation of the local Frequency Transfer Functions via modal
reduction.

As a proof of the validity of this procedure, the comparison between the sum
of the local FRFs, obtained by FET7o Hz model and the identified damping
coefficients and the FRF computed with the FETvisco model is represented in Fig.
5, showing a good matching whose accuracy decreases with increasing fre-
quency.

1800

1600

1400

1200
i

E 1000

z 800

600

400

200

00 50 100 150 200 250 300

Frequency (Hz)
FIG. 5 - Comparison between the frequency response between the displacement of the whole
footprint and the force on the hub (SISO) and the sum of all frequency responses for single tassello
displacement (MIMO).
8 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

System Identification
As mentioned in the introduction, the procedure for the evaluation of the
vertical forces induced by road unevenness is defined in time domain, in order to
allow an easy interface to models of the vehicle [11-13].
Therefore, for each i-th tassello in the footprint an equivalent time domain
state system has been identified, based on the frequency response functions
between the vertical displacements applied to each tassello and the force on the
wheel hub computed through the FET model, as described in the previous
section.
This task has been accomplished in two steps: first, for the i-th tassello, an
analytical expression of the transfer function in the s-variable (Laplace) domain
between the displacement of the tassello and the force on the hub has been
assumed in the form of the ratio between two polynomials, respectively hi(S) and
di(s):
hi(s)
G,(s) - d,(s) (1)

The coefficients of the two polynomials have been identified in order to match
the values of the frequency response function obtained from finite element
calculations. A transfer function with eight poles and eight zeros has been found
to be suitable to reproduce the dynamic behavior of the tasselli in the 0-250 Hz
frequency range; this identification procedure has been carried out using the
MATLAB TM "Frequency Domain Identification Toolbox" [Ii]. As an example,
the comparison between the target frequency response provided by the FET
model for a tassello placed near the center of the footprint and the one provided
by the equivalent identified system in the form Eq 1 is shown in Fig. 6. The
frequency response of the identified system matches so well the finite element
calculation in the whole frequency range that the difference between the two
curves cannot be appreciated.
As a second step, a transformation from the Laplace domain into the time
domain has been performed for each tassello, thus obtaining a formulation of the
model in terms of state equations:

( Xi = [Ai]xi q- [ni]ul .

Fi [Ci]xi _~ [Oi]ui ,
= i = 1, 2 , . . . n z (2)
where xz is the vector collecting the state variables of the i-th tassello, u~ is the
displacement applied to the tassello, F i is the contribution of the tassello to the
force on the wheel hub, and n r is the total number of the tasselli. Correspond-
ingly to the number of poles in the identified transfer function Eq 1, eight state
variables are introduced in Eq 2 for each dynamic system.
Finally, the state equations of all tasselli are collected into a single set of
equations of the whole fire:
 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 9

4
xlO
10

9 .................................................... ~................................................... ~...................................................... ~........ Identified ~.

6
i
U.
3
2
1

0 50 100 150 200 250

Frequency (Hz)
FIG. 6 - Comparison between the target (FEA) and identified (Identified)frequency response
(modulus) for one tassello into the footprint.

{ ~F = [A,dxF + [~]"~
F F = [CF]XF + [DF]UF (3)

where xF is the vector collecting the state variables of the whole tire model:
X F = [X~ Xr "" x~r~]r

UF is a vector containing the displacements imposed to all tasselli:

,~=[u~ u2 ... u~ ~
and F F is the total force on the wheel hub. Equation 3 has been obtained by
properly assembling the n r Eq 2 and therefore the matrices in Eq 3 have the
form:

[Ad [B,]

[AF] =
[A2] [BF] =
[B2I
".~
' [AoT]]; [B~]
(4)
10 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

It must be remarked that the transfer functions used in the identification

procedure have been computed on the FET model assuming the wheel hub to be
fixed. Therefore, Eq 3 can be directly used for the simulation of some typical
indoor tests which are commonly carried out in order to investigate the dynamic
behavior of the tire, such as cleat tests, where the wheel hub is connected to a
fixed frame and the tire rolls over a drum carrying on its surface an obstacle of
known shape and dimensions.
On the other side, the simulation of tire dynamics in the case of moving hub,
as is for the tire mounted into the vehicle, will be discussed in the next section.

Simulation of Wheel-Road Interaction

Since final scope of a tire is to be mounted on a car, the need to couple the RM
model with a vehicle model arises: tire reactions are not simply recorded by the
hub, but they are transmitted to the car and, on the opposite, vehicle reactions are
sent back to the tire [14].
In this section the problem of coupling the RM model with a vehicle is
presented: first the state equations of a single tire for the case of moving hub are
derived, and then the sets of equations derived for each tire are assembled with
the equations of motion of the vehicle. Moreover, the definition of the time
histories of the displacement impressed to each tassello is described.
Owing to the linearity of the model, the force with moving hub F M can be
expressed as the sum of the force F F due to road unevenness with fixed hub and
the force F H due to the motion of the hub without excitation from the road, as
schematically represented in Fig. 7:

O=Q+
i=l,n i=l,n

FIG. 7 - - Computation of the force on the moving hub.

 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 11

FM = Fy + FH (5)
The F F contribution can be easily obtained by feeding into Eq 3 appropriate time
histories of tassello displacements u~, as will be discussed later. In order to
calculate the force due to the motion of the hub, an additional transfer function
G u between the motion of the hub and the force on the hub itself can be
computed by the FET model. Also in this case the transfer function has been
assumed to have eight poles and eight zeros.
Following the same procedure described in the previous section, an equivalent
set of state equations accounting for the motion of the hub can then be derived
in the form:
{ 2H = [An]xH + [BH]uH
F . = [CH]XH + [DH]UH (6)
Using Eq 5, the state equations 3 and 6 can be collected into a single set of equations
describing the force F r generated by the tire when subjected to contemporary
excitation from road unevenness uF and hub motion uH. Having defined:
xM = I x ; xy,]~
The state equations of the moving hub model of a single tire assume the form:

I XM= [AM]XM+ [BM] ur

(7)
FM= [CM]XM+ [DM] [ uF

where matrices appearing in Eq 7 can be obtained by assembling the matrices of

Eqs 3 and 6. As a final step, the equations of the full vehicle system are obtained;
to this end, a vector x T collecting the state variables of all the tires of the vehicle
model and a vector uR of the displacements impressed by the road to all tasselli
in the four tires are defined:
XT=[XTM1 X~12 xTM3 xT4]T; /AR = [/AT1 /AT /AT /AT4]T

moreover, a vector F v of the forces on the four vehicle hubs and a vector u v of
the corresponding displacements are defined:
Fv=[FM1 FM2 FM3 FM4]T; /AV ---- [/AH1 /An2 /AH3 lIH4]z
and the complete set of equations of the whole vehicle assumes the form:

2 r = [Ar]xr + [Br] uv

Uv = [K]xv
Joy = f(xv, Fv, t)
12 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

The integration of the state equations of the tire + vehicle model can then be
performed through standard numerical procedures, such as adaptive Runge-Kutta
methods.
The time histories of the displacements u R due to road irregularity can be
obtained by flowing a spatial distribution of road unevenness through the contact
patch. The displacement pertaining to each tassello is then defined as a weighted
average of all the physical displacements of the points inside the area of the
tassello, where the weighting function consists of the shape functions of the finite
elements used in the FET model.

Results

Validation of the Model for Fixed Hub

A first stage of validation of the model has been performed by comparing the
numerical resuks, provided by the mathematical model of the tire, with the
results of some cleat tests performed on a laboratory testing facility; the facility
is composed of a tire connected to a fixed hub, rolling over a drum bearing on its
surface an obstacle with known shape and dimensions [14-16]. The hub of the
tire is instrumented in order to measure the forces induced by the obstacle. The
cleat tests have been performed on a 165/65 R14 tire, with the following testing
conditions: 4J~ hub, tire inflation pressure equal to 2.3 bar (0.23 Mpa), radius of
the drum equal to 1.25 m, triangular obstacle shape, obstacle base length equal
to 15 ram, obstacle height equal to 15 mm, normal pre-load on the tire equal to
4512 N.
As an example of the results of these tests, Fig. 8 shows the force recorded on
the hub as function of the distance travelled by the wheel. The zero value of
abscissa corresponds to the position of the obstacle leading edge. Two results are
shown on the same graph: one refers to a quasi-static test performed at very slow
speed (base curve), while the second has been obtained at the speed of 30 km/h
(dynamic curve).
It can be seen that in the quasi-static and in the dynamic tests the force on the
hub shows two distinct peaks during the passage of the obstacle into the
footprint: the ratio between the maximum value of the dynamic force is about 2.2
times the corresponding maximum of the quasi-static force.
After the cleat has left the footprint, a decay of the dynamic force is started,
where the main contribution is provided by the 80 Hz frequency, which
corresponds to the first vertical resonance of the wheel, as pointed out also by
calculations performed on the FET model.
The cleat tests can be simulated using the state equations for fixed hub (3). The
results of a simulation at the speed of 30 kngh are shown in Fig. 9, together with
the results obtained in the simulation of the quasi-static passage of the obstacle.
The results of the simulation at speed 30 km/h show a satisfactory agreement
with the corresponding measure: the maximum value of the force is very close to
 B E L L U Z Z O ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 13

J I
II .... Base Curve
--- Dynamic Curve
1500 ;;
II
II
1000
I I .iI

zv III
e'l
tl ,,,,,
;I
e-. IL

0
U_
b 1'i ' l l J II',
i; il ti 't/
r
V
t
V
-500 I, II II
il II '1
i I II ~
,i I

0 0.5 1.5

meters
FIG. 8 - - Measurement o f the force on the hub during a cleat test at 30 lon/h.

the measured one, and also the shape of the time history is very similar: in
particular two peaks of force occur during the passage of the obstacle, and are
then followed by a decay where the prevailing contribution of the first mode of
vibration of the tire is clearly recognizable.
The results of the quasi-static test show on the contrary some discrepancies, as
the maximum value of the force provided by the simulation is greater than the
measured one (1200 N against 850 N), and also the shape of the two peaks of
force appear to be sharper in the results of the simulation.
These discrepancies can be due to the fact that in the quasi-static tests some
non-linear effects such as partial losses of contact between obstacle surface and
tire may have a greater impact on test results than for the dynamic tests. These
non-linear effects cannot of course be accounted for by the tire model, which is
assumed to be linear.

Simulations with the Moving Hub System

The main goal of the RD model is its implementation in a car model, in order
to be tested in the operative environment of a complete vehicle model. The
importance of an accurate modelling of the tire in a frequency range of 0-250 Hz
is based on the evidence that high frequency tire excitations, in a frequency range
14 TIRE S C I E N C E & T E C H N O L O G Y

~ ~ L ~
I-- Base curve I
, J--- Dynamiccurvel_
,,oo II

.o 5o0 II !i,! ,.
J~

iI_t I I . I ,,'~
9 i | I '~l \ / -I ". '." "1'
0
kL
-50O !! ,i ll! ,, ~
!
.looo " !i'
,I I
II w
|i

IIt
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Meters
FIG. 9 - - Simulation o f the force on the hub during a cleat test at 30 km/h.

2.5

,-Jl L, i~

0.5

50 100 150 200 250 300

Frequency [Hz]

FIG. 10 -- Results o f outdoor tests: transfer function between the accelerations at the shock absorber
ends f o r two different tires.
 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 15

3 i =

I ...... rough
smooth
2.5

v
2 ,,
"5
O
E 1.5

- I '

t
0.5 ~ " " ''

50 100 150 200 250

Frequency (Hz)

FIG. ] ] - - R e s u l t s of outdoor tests: spectrum of hub accelerations on two different road textures,

0,4
..... rough [
0.35 smooth J

0,3
m
g 0.25
==
o 0.2
E
r
rl

.o
0,15
e
r
<0 0.1 'Ilia t I
.a-- l l~t /X
II | A /~'ll'.tltJ
0.05

0 f I i I
50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)

FIG. 1 2 - Results of outdoor tests: spectrum of the suspension upper mount accelerations on two
different road textures.
16 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

rv ks x"

Xm

)xf; 1 3

eii o

4 4
R o a d irregularities

FIG. 13 -- Quarter of vehicle model

of 100-250 I-Iz, are nearly not filtered by the shock-absorber system and thus
they enter into the car [17].
Some preliminary measurements have been performed on an insmmaented car,
mounting a 195/65 R15 fire (5J~ hub, tire inflation pressure equal to 2.3 bar, 0.23
MPa). As an example, in Ng. 10 the experimental FlY of the shock-absorber
response, recorded between the tire hub and the suspension upper mount, is shown;
observe that the suspension filters the 90% of the excitation amplitude with frequency
lower than 120 Hz, leaves almost unaltered the amplitudes in the range 120-200 H_z,
and filters not more than the 40% of the excitation amplitude in the range 200-250
Hz. In Figs. 11 and 12 the measured accelerations, recorded respectively at the tire
hub and at the suspension upper mount, are reported. It can be easily seen that, while
the spectrum of hub accelerations (Fig. 11) is characterized by a high contribution of
low frequency excitations, in the spectrum of upper mount accelerations (Fig. 12) all
the components appear to be equalized by the suspension filtering.
Preliminary tests, coupling the RD model with an elementary "quarter of
vehicle" model (see Fig. 13) and driving it on a simulated road profile with
known texture characteristics, have been performed. In Fig. 14 the spectral
content of hub accelerations is reported, showing the non-trivial contributions of
the first four vertical modes of the tire.
Future developments will be addressed to the implementation of the RD model
in a complete vehicle model and to its validation in a realistic operational
environment.
 BELLUZZO ET AL. ON VERTICAL FORCES 17

I
lO

c
0

<
10 o

-1
10
40 60 80 100 120 140 t60 180 200 220
Frequency (Hz)

FIG. 14 -- Simulated hub accelerations of the quarter of vehicle model at a speed of 120 km/h on a
rough road texture.

Conclusions

A mathematical model for the computation of dynamic forces induced on the

tire by road irregularities has been presented in this paper. The model is based on
a non-physical description of the tire, and the identification procedure used to
determine the model parameters is based on Finite Element calculations rather
than on experimental tests.
This allows to use the model to predict the behavior of the tire before a
physical prototype is built, thus enhancing the possibility of precisely predicting
the behavior of the tire from the earliest stage of its design.
At the current stage of the research, the model is defined in the 0-250 Hz
frequency range, but an extension up to 400 Hz can be easily performed.
Comparisons with the results of indoor cleat tests and with measurements on
a test car with an instrumented wheel hub have been presented in this paper,
showing that the mathematical model reproduces with good accuracy the
behavior of the tire in the frequency range of interest.
In order to be able to predict the transmission of noise and high frequency
vibrations to the passengers inside the car, more refined models of the vehicle,
including a description of car body deformability effects in the 0 - 2 5 0 Hz
frequency range, are needed.
18 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Acknowledgments
Special thanks must be given to Mr. Massimo Brusarosco for his support in
the performance of the vehicle preliminary measurements.

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