chapter one

composite materials and AlMMCs

1.1 introduction
Advanced materials have offered the materials designer a wide range of options in the
specification and selection of materials for various applications. Material properties
are continually being improved to meet safety and operational standards in line with
prevailing technological developments. Modern technological requirements, together
with the consumers’ demands for systems and machines that are more energy
efficient, stronger, light-weight, cost-effective, etc., dictate that the search for new and
advanced materials will remain a subject of interest all the time. The difficulty in
designing materials for such stringent specifications cannot be overstated, owing to
the conflicting nature of these specifications. Aluminum metal matrix composites
(AlMMCs) are a class of materials that have proven successful in meeting most of the
rigorous specifications in applications where light-weight, high stiffness and moderate
strength are the requisite properties. With a variety of reinforcement materials and
flexibility in their primary processing, AlMMCs offer great potential for the
development of composites with the desired properties for certain applications.

This project aims to study (AlMMCs) and develop their mechanical properties by
adding oxides in different weight ratios so that we can create alloys suitable for
different application.

1.2 composite materials

A composite material is a combination of two materials with different physical and
chemical properties. When they are combined they create a material which is
specialized to do a certain job, for instance to become stronger, lighter or resistant to
electricity. They can also improve strength and stiffness. The reason for their use over
traditional materials is because they improve the properties of their base materials and
are applicable in many situations.

Fig.(1-1) composite material

1.3 Brief History

Humans have used composites for thousands of years. In 3400 B.C the first man made
composites were engineered by the Mesopotamians in Iraq. The ancient society glued
wood strips on top of each other at different angles to create plywood. Following this,
in around 2181 B.C the Egyptians started to make death masks out of linen or papyrus
soaked in plaster. Later on, both of these societies started to reinforce their materials
with straw to strengthen mud bricks, pottery and boats.

In 1200 A.D, the Mongols began to engineer composite bows which were incredibly
effective at the time. These were made out of wood, bamboo, bone, cattle tendons,
horn and silk bonded with pine resin.

Following the industrial revolution, synthetic resins started to take a solid form by
using polymerisation. In the 1900s this new-found knowledge about chemicals led to
the creation of various plastics such as polyester, phenolic and vinyl. Synthetics then
started to be developed, Bakelite was created by the chemist Leo Baekeland. The fact
that it did not conduct electricity and was heat resistant meant it could be widely used
across many industries.

The 1930s was an incredibly important time for the advancement of composites.
Glass fiber was introduced by Owens Corning who also started the first fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) industry. The resins engineered during this era are still used
to this day and, in 1936, unsaturated polyester resins were patented. Two years later,
higher performance resin systems became accessible.

The first carbon fiber was patented in 1961 and then became commercially available.
Then, in the mid-1990s, composites were starting to become increasingly common for
manufacturing processes and construction due to their relatively cheap cost compared
to materials that had been used previously.

1.4 Classification of composite materials

(based on matrix material)
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium,
iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead,
tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers
of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset (Unsaturated
Polyester (UP), Epoxy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate
(PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or
Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).
1.5 Aluminum
Aluminum is a soft, lightweight, silvery metal. It is an element in the boron group on
the periodic table of elements, with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. On the
earth’s crust, aluminum is the most abundant metal, and the third most abundant of all
elements on the earth’s crust, after oxygen and silicon. It accounts for 8% of the
weight of the Earth’s solid surface.
Because aluminum is a highly reactive metal, it doesn’t occur in nature in a pure
form. Aluminum forms a high-energy chemical bond with oxygen, so pure aluminum
can only be found in environments that lack abundant oxygen. On the Earth’s crust,
aluminum is found in over 270 minerals, the most common of which is bauxite ore.
Since it is so reactive, aluminum is useful as a catalyst or additive in chemical
mixtures.

One of aluminum’s special properties is that it is able to resist corrosion. This is

because a thin surface layer of aluminum oxide forms when the metal is exposed to
air; this layer prevents the additional oxidation that would otherwise cause rust.

Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor. It is a lightweight metal, having

about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is ductile and malleable, which
means it can be easily machined, cast, and extruded. Under normal circumstances,
aluminum not soluble in water or alcohol. Aluminum also has a high reflectance,
making it useful for mirrors. In addition, because aluminum retains its full silvery
reflectance in powdered form, it is often used for silver paints.

1.6 Aluminum 6061

6061 (Unified Numbering System (UNS) designation A96061) is a precipitation-
hardened aluminum alloy, containing magnesium and silicon as its
major alloying elements. Originally called "Alloy 61S", it was developed in 1935. It
has good mechanical properties, exhibits good weld ability, and is very
commonly extruded (second in popularity only to 6063). It is one of the most
common alloys of aluminum for general purpose use.

Table.(1-1) Aluminum 6061 alloy composition materials.

Constituent Minimum Maximum

element (by weight) (by weight)
Al 95.85% 98.56%
Mg 0.80% 1.20%
Si 0.40% 0.80%
Fe 0% 0.70%
Cu 0.15% 0.40%
Cr 0.04% 0.35%
Zn 0% 0.25%
Ti 0% 0.15%
Mn 0% 0.15%
(others) 0% 0.15% total
1.7 reinforcement materials
In materials science, reinforcement is a constituent of a composite material which
increases the composite's stiffness and tensile strength.

Following are the functions of the reinforcement in a composite:

 It increases the mechanical properties of the composite.

 It provides strength and stiffness to the composite in one direction.

That is why we chose iron oxides and aluminum oxides as reinforcement materials,
because it possess a properties that can improve the mechanical properties of
AlMMACs.

1.Hematite
Heavy and relatively hard oxide mineral, ferric oxide (Fe2O3), that constitutes the
most important iron ore because of its high iron content (70 percent) and its
abundance. Its name is derived from the Greek word for “blood,” in allusion to its red
colour. Many of the various forms of hematite have separate names. The steel-gray
crystals and coarse-grained varieties have a brilliant metallic lustre and are known as
specular iron ore; thin scaly types are called micaceous hematite. Much hematite
occurs in a soft, fine-grained, earthy form called red ochre or ruddle. Intermediate
between these types are compact varieties, often with a reniform surface (kidney ore)
or a fibrous structure (pencil ore). Red ochre is used as a paint pigment; a purified
form, rouge, is used to polish plate glass.

The most important deposits of hematite are sedimentary in origin. The world’s
largest production (nearly 75 million tons of hematite annually) comes from a
sedimentary deposit in the Lake Superior district in North America. Other important
deposits include those at Minas Gerais, Brazil (where the hematite occurs in
metamorphosed sediments); Cerro Bolívar, Venezuela; and Labrador and Quebec,
Canada. Hematite is found as an accessory mineral in many igneous rocks; commonly
as a weathering product of siderite, magnetite, and other iron minerals; and almost
universally as a pigmenting agent of sedimentary and other rocks.

Fig.(1-2) A sample of hematite, trigonal iron oxide, from Ibitiara, Minas Gerais, Braz.
2. Alumina

Also called aluminum oxide, synthetically produced aluminum oxide, Al2O3, a white
or nearly colorless crystalline substance that is used as a starting material for
the smelting of aluminum metal. It also serves as the raw material for a broad range of
advanced ceramic products and as an active agent in chemical processing.

Alumina is made from bauxite, a naturally occurring ore containing variable amounts
of hydrous (water-containing) aluminum oxides. Free Al2O3 occurs in nature as the
mineral corundum and its gemstone forms, sapphire and ruby; these can be produced
synthetically from alumina and in fact are occasionally referred to as alumina, but the
term is more properly limited to the material employed in aluminum metallurgy,
industrial ceramics, and chemical processing.

Fig.(2-3) Translucent alumina. With the use of magnesia as a sintering aid, pores
diffuse from the material and remain on the boundaries between grains, contributing
to the translucence.

Some alumina is still produced by melting bauxite in an electric furnace, in a

process devised for the abrasives industry early in the 20th century, but most is now
extracted from bauxite through the Bayer process, which was developed for the
aluminum industry in 1888. In the Bayer process bauxite is crushed, mixed in a
solution of sodium hydroxide, and seeded with crystals to precipitate aluminum
hydroxide. The hydroxide is heated in a kiln in order to drive off the water and
produce several grades of granular or powdery alumina, including activated alumina,
smelter-grade alumina, and calcined alumina.

Activated alumina is a porous, granular substance that is used as a substrate

for catalysts and as an adsorbent for removing water from gases and liquids. Smelter-
grade alumina accounts for 90 percent of all alumina produced; it is transported to
aluminum plants, where it is electrolyzed into aluminum metal. Calcined alumina is
made into a variety of ceramic products, including spark-plug insulators, integrated-
circuit packages, bone and dental implants, laboratory ware, sandpaper grits and
grinding wheels, and refractory linings for industrial furnaces. These products exhibit
the properties for which alumina is well known, including low electric conductivity,
resistance to chemical attack, high strength, extreme hardness (9 on the Mohs
hardness scale, the highest rating being 10), and high melting point (approximately
2,050 °C, or 3,700 °F).

The toughness of alumina can be improved by the addition of zirconia particles

or silicon-carbide whiskers, making it suitable for industrial cutting tools. Also, the
normally opaque material can be made translucent by adding small amounts of
magnesia. Translucent alumina is employed as the gas container in high-pressure
sodium-vapour streetlamps.

1.8 Properties of aluminum and AlMMCs

Generally, aluminum has derived its importance in industrial and commercial
applications due to the following attributes, most of which are imparted to its alloys
and/or composites:

1. Aluminum is light; its density is only one-third that of steel.

2. Aluminum is resistant to weather, common atmospheric gases and a wide range of

corrosive liquids.

3. Aluminum is safe and can be used in contact with a wide range of foodstuffs.

4. Due to its high reflectivity, aluminum is usually employed in a number of

decorative applications.

5. The strength of aluminum alloys can equal (and sometimes exceed) the strength of
normal construction steel.

6. Aluminum is highly elastic, a property which qualifies it to be employed in

structures subjected to shock loads.

7. Aluminum has a unique behavior of maintaining its toughness down to very low
temperatures, unlike carbon steels which would otherwise suffer embrittlement.

8. Aluminum exhibits ease of workability and formability and can easily be rolled to
very thin gauges.

9. Aluminum conducts electricity and heat nearly as well as copper.

1.9 Applications of AlMMCs
1. Automotive industry

The automotive market represents the largest current market for AlMMCs on a
volume basis. The potential for AlMMCs in this area is barely tapped, however, and
represents a great opportunity for substantial growth. Through R&D, lighter,
engineered materials are being developed which offer better performance than the
existing materials. Replacement of steel and cast iron in internal combustion engine
applications as well as in unsprung weight components, such as the brake system, is
judged the most promising for the near term.

Fig.(1-4) using aluminum in body car design "Audi" A8 as example

2. Aerospace and aircraft industry

Aluminum alloys and composites have played a big role in the advancement of
aircraft and rocket technology. Right from the Wright brothers’ utilization of
aluminum in the engine of their first biplane to NASA’s use of an aluminum-lithium
alloy in the spacecraft, aluminum has created and enhanced the mankind’s potential to
fly around the Earth and into the outer space.

Fig.(1-5) using aluminum in airplanes industry "Boeing" 787 as example.

3. Rail transport

Aluminum railroad cars were pioneered for the railroad industry in the late 1950s and
are still the material of choice for this mode of transportation. Rail cars, designed with
aluminum-based extrusions, require one-third the number of components, have
reduced welding needs and are two-thirds the weight of comparable steel cars. The
higher carrying capacity of aluminum repays its higher initial cost in less than 2 years,
and the life-cycle fuel costs are lower due to the lighter weight of the car . Aluminum-
based materials offer excellent resistance to corrosion and high salvage value.

4. Marine transport

Marine transport has also been revolutionized with the use of aluminum alloys and
composites. The use of these materials has enabled an increase in the speed and size
of boats, yachts, ferries and ships while improving their fuel efficiency,
seaworthiness, safety and reliability and reducing maintenance costs. By substituting
aluminum for steel, weight savings of 35–45% in hulls and 55–65% in superstructures
can be achieved [42]. Higher vessel speeds and load capacities translate into extra
traffic volume and profits for a ship or boat operator.

5. Electrical transmission

Aluminum-based materials have many advantages for electrical applications.

Properties such as light-weight, strength, corrosion resistance and high efficiency in
electrical conduction (aluminum has twice the conductivity of copper) render these
materials the best choice for transmitting power from generating stations to homes
and businesses. Their ease of recyclability makes them a perfect fit for today’s
environment.

6. Building and construction industry

In 2009 the building and construction market constituted the third largest North
American market for aluminum. Strength and stiffness are the two most important
characteristics for structural applications of aluminum-based materials.

7. Offshore applications

Offshore platforms, helidecks and seawalls are other possible areas where aluminum-
based materials can be effectively utilized.