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 TABLE OF CONTENS

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 2

CHAPTER II
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE (ESP) 3
1. ESP goals 3
2. Characteristic of ESP 4

CHAPTER III
EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING 7

CHAPTER IV
LEARNING PRINCIPLES 12

CHAPTER V
LEARNING ENGLISH 21
1. Speaking Skill 21
2. Writing Skill 47
3. Learn And Teaching Listening 52
4. Learn Reading Skill 62

CHAPTER VI
MOTIVATION OF LEARNING 77
1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 81
2. Ingredient 1 Motivation For Students 82
3. Some Aspect Motivation 85
4. Ingredient Motivation For Teacher 88
5. Ingredient Motivation On Content 92
6. Ingredient Motivation Method And Process 95
7. Ingredient Motivation For Environment 101

REFERENCES 105
 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The teaching and learning of English are a vital part of any language education
classroom; not only does the spoken but reading, listening and writing are language offer
‘affordances’ for learning as the main communicative medium of the classroom, but it is
also an important component of syllabus content and learning outcomes.

This book consists of a compilation of various sources taken from the internet and
other sources, then compiled into a series of learning materials used for students, with
consideration of excellent writing quality and according to student needs, and student
characteristics, who require quality material, to be a guide and learning material for ESP,
in learning English, which consists of several aspects such as 1) .Introduction to ESP, 2)
Effective teaching and learning, 3) teaching and learning, principles 4) .Learning
English which consists of 4 aspects, writing, speaking, reading and listening then and 5)
Motivation for learning. It is hoped that this material can be learned and understood
properly and students can be applied when they carry out teaching practice in school

Language is the key to open the world insights to learn English as foreign
language it is difficult and the students need motivation, several factors contributed to the
alteration of their motivation. One of them is the learning experience. At school, the
learners did not have good learning experiences, for example, the teacher was not
interesting and the learning activities were boring and the student must be have
motivation to learn English and have good experience during learning process.

1
 2

CHAPTER II

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE (ESP)

Learning English for specific purpose (ESP) is an approach to teaching English

designed according to student needs, with the aim that students are able to master English
in the field they are working on, the English material being studied is material designed
based on the results of an analysis of student needs. with the aim of students being able to
communicate properly and correctly in speaking English in oral and written form, being
able to read literature, being able to obtain the competencies they wanted to achieve in
the learning process.

ESP is a teaching approach and ESP is an attitude of mind. It has to do with

turning learners into users. According to Hutchinson et al. (1987: 19) states, ›”ESP is a
language teaching approach in which all decisions about content and methods are based
on students' reasons for learning”.

David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP: English as a restricted

language, for example. a pilot, or a waiter. Only used for certain contexts. Knowing this
type of English may not help to communicate effectively outside certain contexts.
English for Academic and Work Purposes, English for Academic Purposes (EAP), eg.
English for medical studies. English for Work Purposes (EOP), eg. English for
Technicians. English with a specific topic. Uniquely concerned with anticipating future
English language needs, eg. Scientists who need English for postgraduate study or attend
conferences.

1. ESP goals

ESP-English for specific purposes has emerged as a significant field in Applied

Linguistics. This is mostly related to the needs of students for specific academic or
occupational fields. Limited word and expression skills, the goal of language learning is
an area that should be considered in ESP.

2
 3

2. Characteristic of ESP

Some ESP experts provide various and varied characteristics and features of ESP
in learning English. (Strevens, 1988) in Kristen Gatehouse, Key Issues in English for
Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development says that there are four main
characteristics of ESP as an approach to learning English, namely a) ESP is designed to
meet the needs of learners, b) the substance and content of ESP associated with themes
and topics in certain fields of science, certain types of work or activities, c) centering on
the form of language appropriate to activities and fields of knowledge or work such as
syntax, lexical, discourse, semantics, and so on, and d) ESP is different from General
English.

Carter (1983) discusses three characteristics of ESP courses. ›Authentic material.

Subject matter must be authentic. ›Orientation related to objectives, lesson orientation
must be in accordance with the needs of students. ›Self-direction. Students should have
the freedom to decide what, when and how they will learn.

The word SPECIAL refers to: ›The learner's goal of language learning; not the nature of
language. ›A restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from across
languages.

Robinson went on to say that there are three main characteristics of ESP that distinguish
it from General English or English a Foreign Language (EFL) or English as a Mother
Tongue (EMT).

The three characteristics are 1) ESP is goal oriented learning. In this context,
learners learn English not for reasons of wanting to know the language as a language and
culture contained in it, but learners learning ESP because it has specific, specific and
specific goals in one academic and professional field. 2) The substance of the ESP is
designed and developed based on the concept of needs analysis. The concept of needs
analysis aims to specialize and link and get closer to what learners need in both the
academic and professional fields. 3) ESP is aimed more at adult learners than children or
adolescents. This is logical because ESP is generally taught at the intermediate and higher
academic and professional levels or the workplace.
 4

Somewhat different from (Strevens, 1988) and Robinson, Evens and Maggie
proposed the characteristics of ESP by using two main terms, namely a) absolute
characteristics and b) variableistic characteristics. Absolute characteristics are intrinsic
characteristics and are typical of ESP. They further say that the absolute characteristics of
ESP are:

ESP is designed to meet needs of the learners; ESP makes use of the underlying
methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves; ESP is centered on the language
(grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse, and genre appropriate to these activities.

From the above quotation, it can be concluded that there are three things related to ESP:

First, the ESP must be designed and designed to meet the needs of the learner.
With regard to meeting the needs of learners, they added that the essence of ESP to meet
the needs of learner’s means that it focuses on the needs of learners, is effective, is in
accordance with the needs of learners, and allows learners to learn successfully in a
designed time span. In connection with the needs analysis so that the substance of ESP
really fits and meets the needs of learners, (Hoadley-Maidment, 1980) in McDonough
(1984) suggests that there are three main sources of information in conducting needs
analysis, namely a) instructors, b) learners, and c) stakeholder).

Second, ESP realizes methodologies and activities in accordance with the targeted
fields of knowledge or is studied and taught. This means that the methods and activities
that are carried out in classroom learning must be in accordance with the field of science,
work, and profession that reflects the variety and diversity of the essence of ESP itself.

Third, as a new approach, the focus of ESP is the use of typical languages
(grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourses, genres that are appropriate to the
activity. In this case, the language coverage in ESP at the level, grammar, lexical and
register is different from General English.

In addition, another fundamental characteristic of ESP, according to Evens and

Maggie, is language skills, discourse and genre. In ESP learning, the consideration of
language skills being taught is an important issue that must be considered. In the context
 5

of academics and professions or work, the focus of skills tends to differ from one
academic field and profession to another. There are academic fields or professions that
focus and prioritize speaking skills on the one hand, but there are also academic fields or
professions that are dominant with writing skills. Then the fundamental feature, ESP also
has variables that also show other essences of ESP when compared to GE or ESL and
EFL. These variables are for example:

• a) ESP should use specific learning situations and teaching methods that are different
from general English,

• b) ESP seems to be more suitable and suitable for adult learners in both high academic
level and professional or professional workplaces, but ESP may also be used for
intermediate level learners.
 6

CHAPTER III

EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Effective teaching is learning processes that streamline the learning atmosphere

through various activities by using various means to increase interest and spirit and good
achievement of learners to do learning objectives, makes use of lesson time, coordinates
classroom resources and manages the behavior of students – was noted as important. The
best teachers have a deep knowledge of their subject, and if that falls below a certain
point it has a “significant impact” on students’ learning, classroom instruction as a factor
contributing to teacher success. The Effective teaching and learning success when the
teacher could apply some aims:1) teacher prepare and arrange instructions and deep know
their subject;2) apply good and interest model, methods, strategies of teaching and
learning that suit with the learner needed; 3) students as center of the study, the learner
active in the process teaching and learning; , 4) use media for increase interest and spirits
of the learner 5) apply Fun game and educated game, 6) quiz

1) Teacher should be preparing instruction and mastering and deep the subject. it is
important for the teacher to develop he knowledge through read some books,
magazine, watching TV, and searching in internet find some material that he
needed, make plan what he want teach base on the curriculum . Selecting
the materials can help participants learners quickly master and understand
the material. Test needs to the level of difficulty, to decide the level of
understanding of learners. Effective questioning and assessment are at the heart of
great teaching. This involves giving enough time for children to practice new
skills and introducing learning progressively.

2) Applying good models, methods, strategies that suit the needs and characteristics
of learners, Discovery learning, inquiry and problem or base learning as
cooperative learning that make the learner active in learning process. Putting
students in groups depending on their ability makes little difference to their
learning, make the learner active with the some activities, the learner as the

6
 7

center of study, they active find some problems and give solution of the problem,
discuss with their friend and presentation their answers and the
other group give comment, the teacher give comment and correction for
the learner answer.

3) the student as center of study, make some group of the learner, teacher give some
task to the group for discuss and answer, teacher give them chance for discuss
some task, presentation their task and other group give comment , teacher guide
the learner during discussion and correction the learner answer, teacher give
reward for the best group .

4) Media can be a component of active learning strategies such as group discussions

or case studies. Media could be radio, VCD, Picture, interactive media or an
interesting media, contextual media. It is important in teaching and learning
process, it is to increase interest and enthusiasm of learners and they easy
understanding of the material delivered. This approach works best when students
are primed. If students are not adequately informed about what they are expected
them to learn, they will struggle to make the connection between the learning
objectives and the media that they are exposed to. The one way of effective
learning use internet for finding some material that the learner needed, the teacher
give the individual task or group task and give the learner chance to sending
report the task by email.Next meeting the teacher discuss the repot of learners
tasks in the classroom and the teacher correction and guides the in the learning.

5) Use of fun games or educated game in the learning process makes

the learner fun and enjoys to learn and increases the attractiveness of learners to
the material, the interactions teachers have with students has a big impact
on learning,

6) Prepare some quiz for three times. Before begin the study of subjects, in process
learning and teaching, and before the final of study, when the learner receives
some quiz from the teacher, so that they find out the answer some quiz with the
communicate with them friend, discuss, or using dictionary, etc. quiz make the
 8

learner actively and increase the attention of learners in the learning process for
do the learning objectives.

The nature of effective learning is the process of teaching and learning that is not
only focused on the results achieved learners, but how effective
learning process can provide understanding, intelligence, persistence, opportunities and
quality and can provide behavioral changes and apply them in their lives. when teachers
are too active in the learning process the learner passive, so that the interaction between
teachers and students in the learning process is not effective. If the learning process is
more dominated by the teacher, then the effectiveness of learning is not achieved. To
create effective learning conditions, teachers are required to be able to manage the
learning process that can increase the activity to learner so as to be able to learn.

The nature of effective learning is the process of teaching and learning focuses on
the process and results achieved learners, effective learning process can provide a good
understanding, intelligence, perseverance, opportunities and quality and can provide
behavioral changes and apply them in their lives.

Effective learning trains and instills democratic attitudes for students, creating a
fun learning atmosphere so as to enhance the creativity of students to be able to learn
with their potential is to provide freedom in implementing their own learning

Effective teaching is learning processes that streamline the learning

atmosphere through various activities by using various means to increase interest and
spirit and good achievement of learners to do learning objectives, makes use of lesson
time, coordinates classroom resources and manages the behavior of students – was noted
as important. The best teachers have a deep knowledge of their subject, and if that falls
below a certain point it has a “significant impact” on students’ learning, classroom
instruction as a factor contributing to teacher success. The Effective teaching
and learning success when the teacher could apply some aims: 1) the teacher clarified the
proposed of the subject and the learning goals, and give appreciation 2)The teacher
prepares and arranges instructions and deep knows their subject;2)Apply well and interest
model, methods, strategies of teaching and learning that suit with the learner
 9

needed; 3) students as center of the study, the learner active in the process teaching and
learning;4) use media for increasing interest and spirits of the learner 5) apply
Fun game and educated game, 6) quiz 7) Feedback and summary or conclusion of the
subject

1) Teacher give appreciation to greet students and encourage students in learning

activities, asking back the past material and related to the material to be taught,

2) The teacher should be preparing instruction and mastering and deep the subject. it is
important for the teacher to develop he knowledge through read some books, magazine,
watching TV, and searching for the internet find some material that he needed, make plan
what he wants teach base on the curriculum. Selecting the materials can help participants
learners quickly master and understand the material. Test needs to the level of difficulty,
to decide the level of understanding of learners. Effective questioning and assessment are
at the heart of great teaching. This involves giving enough time for children to practice
new skills and introducing learning progressively.

2) Applying good models, methods, strategies that suit the needs and characteristics
of learners, Discovery learning, inquiry and problem or base learning as an active
learning that make the learner active in learning process. Putting students in groups
depending on their ability makes little difference to their learning, make the learner active
with the sum activities, the learner as the center of study, they active find some problems
and give solution of the problem, discuss with their friend and presentation their answers
and the other group give comment, the teacher give comment and correction for the
learner answer.

3) The student as center of study makes some group of the learner. Teacher give some
task to the group for discuss and answer, teacher give them chance for discuss some task,
presentation their task and other group give comment , teacher guide the learner during
discussion and correction the learner answer, teacher give reward for the best group .
4) Media can be a component of active learning strategies such as group discussions or
case studies. Media could be radio, VCD, Picture, interactive media or an
interesting media, contextual media. It is important in teaching and learning process, it is
 10

to increase interest and enthusiasm of learners and they easy understanding of the
material delivered. This approach works best when students are primed. If students are
not adequately informed about what they are expected them to learn, they will struggle to
make the connection between the learning objectives and the media that they are exposed
to. The one way of effective learning use internet for finding some material that
the learner needed,the teacher give the individual task or group task and give the learner
chance to sending report the task by email. Next meeting the teacher discuss the repot
of learners tasks in the classroom and the teacher correction and guides the in
the learning.

5) Use of fun games or educated game in the learning process makes the learner fun and
enjoys to learn and increases the attractiveness of learners to the material, the interactions
teachers have with students has a big impact on learning,

6) Prepare some quiz for three times. Before begin the study of subjects,
in process learning and teaching, and before the final of study, when
the learner receives some quiz from the teacher, so that they find out the
answer some quiz with the communicate with them friend, discuss, or using dictionary,
etc. quiz make the learner actively and increase the attention of learners in
the learning process for do the learning objectives.

Give feedback for the subject and ask some question for the learner for test their
understanding and make the conclusion and summary in the end of the learning and give
chance the learner for summary these lesson or subject and the teacher to completed the
summery, and closed the lesson with the good expected for the future and give the
learner high spirit for learn and arrived to their home
 11

CHAPTER IV

LEARNING PRINCIPLES

The following list presents the basic principles that underlie effective learning. These
principles are distilled from research from a variety of disciplines.

1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in other
courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our
classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they are learning. If students’
prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it provides
a strong foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert,
insufficient for the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or
impede new learning.

2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what
they know.

Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. When those

connections form knowledge structures that are accurately and meaningfully organized,
students are better able to retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively and efficiently.
In contrast, when knowledge is connected in inaccurate or random ways, students can fail
to retrieve or apply it appropriately.

3. Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.

As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over what, when, and how
they study and learn, motivation plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity,
persistence, and quality of the learning behaviors in which they engage. When students
find positive value in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired

11
 12

learning outcome, and perceive support from their environment, they are likely to be
strongly motivated to learn.

4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice

integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned.

Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge necessary to
perform complex tasks, they must also practice combining and integrating them to
develop greater fluency and automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to
apply the skills and knowledge they learn. As instructors, it is important that we develop
conscious awareness of these elements of mastery so as to help our students learn more
effectively.

5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality

of students’ learning.

Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in practice that
focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of challenge, and is of
sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice must be
coupled with feedback that explicitly communicates about some aspect(s) of students’
performance relative to specific target criteria, provides information to help students
progress in meeting those criteria, and is given at a time and frequency that allows it to be
useful.

6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional,

and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning.

Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they
are still developing the full range of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While we
cannot control the developmental process, we can shape the intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical aspects of classroom climate in developmentally appropriate
ways. In fact, many studies have shown that the climate we create has implications for
our students. A negative climate may impede learning and performance, but a positive
climate can energize students’ learning.
 13

7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust

their approaches to learning.

Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes to monitor and

control their learning—assessing the task at hand, evaluating their own strengths and
weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strategies, and
reflecting on the degree to which their current approach is working. Unfortunately,
students tend not to engage in these processes naturally. When students develop the skills
to engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that not only improve their
performance but also their effectiveness as learners.

The Seven Principles Of Teaching

1) Encourage contact between students and faculty

2) Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students

3) Encourage active learning

4) Give prompt feedback

5) Emphasize time on task

6) Communicate high expectations

7) Respect diverse talents and ways of learning

a. What are the Seven Principles?

How can undergraduate education be improved? In 1987, Arthur W. Chickering

and Zelda F. Gamson answered this question when they wrote "Seven Principles for
Good Practice in Undergraduate Education." They defined what good education means at
the undergraduate level. The seven principles are based upon research on good teaching
and learning in the college setting.

These principles have been intended as a guideline for faculty members, students,
and administrators to follow to improve teaching and learning. Research for over 50 years
on practical experience of students and teachers supports these principles. When all
 14

principles are practiced, there are six other forces in education that surface: activity,
expectations, cooperation, interaction, diversity, and responsibility. Good practices work
for professional programs as well as the liberal arts. They also work for a variety of
students: Hispanic, Asian, young, old, rich, poor.

Teachers and students have the most responsibility for improving undergraduate
education. However, improvements will need to be made by college and university
leaders, and state and federal officials. It is a joint venture among all that is possible.
When this does occur, faculty and administrators think of themselves as educators that
have a a shared goal. Resources become available for students, faculty, and
administrators to work together.

The goal of the seven principles is to prepare the student to deal with the real world.

Principle 1: Encourage contact between students and faculty.

Building rapport with students is very important. The contact between students and
teachers are vital to the students' success. One of the main reasons students leave school
is the feeling of isolation that they experience. The concern shown will help students get
through difficult times and keep working. Faculty has many avenues to follow to open up
the lines of communication.

For the regular classroom:

1) Invite students to visit outside of class.

2) Know your students by name.

3) Help students with problems in their extracurricular activities.

4) Personalize feedback on student assignments.

5) Attend student events.

6) Advise students regarding academic courses and career opportunities.

 15

7) Seek out students you feel are having a problem with the course or are frequently

absent.

8) Encourage students to present their views and participate in class discussions.

9) Have regular office hours.

10) Help students to work with other faculty. Let them know of options, research, etc.

of other faculty.

11) Share personal experiences and values.

12) Use the one-minute paper at the end of class to get feedback on what the student

is learning and how well they are learning it.

13) Talk to students on a personal level and learn about their educational and career

goals.

For distance and online courses:

1) Try computer conferencing.

2) Use list serves.

3) Clearly communicate your email response policy.

4) Encourage e-mail correspondence and discussion forum use, especially beneficial

for those that are shy or are from different cultures because it allows them a
different avenue of communication that might be more comfortable.

5) "Chat time" online with faculty (at various times, scheduled weekly).

6) Use pictures of faculty/students.

7) Visit the distance sites, if possible.

8) Have an on-site support person.

9) Maintain eye contact with camera and local students.

 16

10) Arrange for group work at a distance site.

Principle in action:

1) A York College (PA) professor has incorporated an invitation in the syllabus to

encourage contact during office hours: "You are encouraged to stop in during
office hours to talk about any problems or suggestions you may have concerning
the course; about careers (especially graduate school or the benefits of majoring
or minoring in (Insert your course here); or just about things in general. If you
want to talk to me and find the schedule hours to be inconvenient, feel free to
schedule an appointment."

2) Faculty at St. Norbert College, Wisconsin, use electronic mail discussion groups.

Many instructors find that the students are more willing to participate in a written
discussion than to speak up in class. The instructor monitors the discussions and
participates along with the students, adding personal perspectives and ideas to
those of the students.

3) The Residential College of Winona State University has implemented a "living-

and-learn" environment to encourage student and faculty interaction. It is located

12 blocks from the main campus and houses 400 students in large, mostly single
rooms. Academic activities at the Residential College include freshman seminars,
sophomore common reading seminars, and an in-resident program with notable
scholars or artists participating with students in a variety of experiences.
Residential College faculty are located there and hold office hours. The
interaction between students and faculty are enhanced because of the increased
interaction.

Technology, like e-mail, computer conferencing, and the World Wide

Web/Internet, now gives more opportunities for students and faculty to converse. It is
efficient, convenient, and protected. It allows more privacy so that students are able to
discuss more openly without fear that other students are going to hear. E-mail also gives
student more time to think about what they want to say. With these new alternatives to
 17

face-to-face communication, interaction from more students should increase within the
classroom.

Resources:

 Building awareness and diversity into student life: Pomona College. (1991).
Liberal Education, 77 (1), 38-40.

 First year experience creates a community of learners: Augsburg College. (1989).

Liberal Education, 75 (5), 28-29.

 Furlong, D. (1994). Using electronic mail to improve instruction. The Teaching

Professor, 8 (6), 7.

 O'Neill, K.L. and Todd-Mancillas, W.R. (1992). An investigation into the types of
turning points affecting relational change in student-faculty interactions.
Innovative Higher Education, 16, (4), 227-290.

 Wilson, R.C., Gaff, J.G., Dienst, L.W., and Bavry, J.L. (1975). College Professors
and Their Impact on Students. New York, NY: John Wiley.

Principle 2: Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.

When students are encouraged to work as a team, more learning takes place.
Characteristics of good learning are collaborative and social, not competitive and
isolated. Working together improves thinking and understanding.

For the regular classroom:

1) Use cooperative learning groups

2) Have students participate in activities that encourage them to get to know one

another.

3) Encourage students to join at least one organization on campus.

4) Assign group projects and presentations

 18

5) Utilize peer tutoring.

6) Encourage students to participate in groups when preparing for exams and

working on assignments.

7) Distribute performance criteria to students is that each person's grade is

independent of those achieved by others.

8) Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on

topics shared in class.

For distance and online courses:

1) Use chat sites and discussion forums for student-to-student communication.

2) Set up teams to interact through e-mail or phone bridges with enough people at

each site.

3) Encourage students to respond to their peers' work by posting it on the internet.

4) Have a question and answer time online.

5) Use teleconferencing for idea sharing.

6) Encourage online discussion groups that require interaction.

7) Work on group projects through phone and e-mail.

8) Team-teach courses.

9) Include an "ice-breaker" activity to allow students to share their interest and to

learn about others.

Principle in action:

1) Students in communication courses at Miami University develop a group "code of

conduct" to help facilitate cooperative learning. A sample code is given out as a

model. The sample code includes: respect each other, criticize ideas instead of
people, listen actively, seek to understand before being understood, contribute to
 19

group discussion, keep an open mind, share responsibility, and attend all
meetings. Students are encouraged to customize the code to address other shared
concerns the group may have. Students refer to the code after each class or group
session to assess their performance and identify areas for improvement.

2) At Naugatuck Valley Community-Technical College, students are tested both

individually and collaboratively. Students are given a test date but are not told in
which fashion they will be tested. Group tests are highly structured and a
unanimous decision must be reached for the answer. The collaborative testing
method helps students experience a sensitivity for diversity and others' point of
view; develop and refine skills in persuasion, listening, and reading; and share
responsibility and accountability. This method also reduces test anxiety among
students.

3) In a first-year composition class at University of Minnesota students videotape

themselves discussing apprehensions before taking the course, their feelings when
they received their papers back, and what they learned from the class. Next
quarter, the video is shown to new students in the course to show that the feelings
they are experiencing are shared by others and helps motivate them to succeed.

Cooperative learning has several benefits. Students care more about their learning
because of the interdependent nature of the process. Retention is higher because there is a
social and intellectual aspect on the content material. Students also find the method more
enjoyable because there is no competition placed upon them. Cooperation, not
competition, is more effective in promoting student learning.
 20

CHAPTER V

LEARNING ENGLISH

This is learning that combines reading, listening and writing and speaking. It is
very important for all students to practice English by some activities it make them active
in learning process. I try to make the student more actively by individual learning use
some media and Cooperative Models in my E- learning or online teaching, it has affect to
the student actively in their learning Process.

1. Speaking Skill

Speaking is a productive skill in the organs of speech to express meaning which

can be directly and empirically observed (Cameron, 2001: 40; Brown, 2004: 140). There
are three important points within this definition of speaking skills.

Speaking is the verbal use of language to communicate with others. Speaking is

concerning putting the ideas into words about perception, feeling and intention to make
the other people grasp the message that is conveyed. It can also be said that speaking is
people’s ability in expressing their idea to other people. People engage in speaking for
having a good communication. Many experts propose definitions of speaking.

Fulcher (2003: 22) states that speaking is an ability that is taken for granted,
learned as it is through a process of socialization through communicating. Linse (2005:
47) states that speaking is equally important in young learners’ language development.
Moreover, Cameroon (2001: 40) states that speaking is the active use of language to
express meaning so that speaking is much more demanding than listening language on
learners’ language resource and skills. It is because speaking activities require careful and
plentiful support of various types, not just support for understanding, but also support for
production.

Celce-Murcia (2001: 163) states that for most people the ability to speak a
language is synonymous with knowing the language since speech is the most basic means

20
 21

of human communication. She also states that speaking in a second or foreign language
has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four skills. It is clear that speaking is
a verbal use of language that is important for communication. Speaking is people’s ability
in expressing their ideas to other people to understand each other. It is a demanding skill
that should be developed in order to communicate with others

First, by productive skill is meant the ability of a person to actively produce the
language by coordinating the organs of speech such as the lips, tongue, teeth, vocal cords,
larynx, pharynx, etc. Second, to express meaning means that the purpose of producing
language in verbal communication is to deliver ideas and experiences so that the speaker
can convey meaning to the listener. Third, being able to be directly 8 and empirically
observed means that the implementation of speaking can be directly heard or seen and
empirically measured in the speaking process by looking at the correctness and
effectiveness of the speaker.

Two Aspects of Speaking Skills Experts have proposed various aspects of

speaking skills. Brown (2001:268) proposed four aspects of speaking skills namely
fluency, accuracy, pronunciation, and vocabulary

a. Fluency

The first aspect is related to fluency. It is the ability to speak quickly and automatically
that has signs including the speed of speaking and few pauses which are used to
characterize a person’s level of communication proficiency (HarrisandHodges, 1995:14;
Brown, 2001:10; Richards, 2006:108-109). In this definition, a person is said to be a
fluent speaker of a language if he/she can use the grammatical structures and patterns
accurately, quickly, and automatically at the normal conversation speed when they are
needed. Fluency is considered to be the ability to keep going when speaking
spontaneously. It also has signs that indicate that the speaker does not spend a lot of time
to search the language items needed to express the message.
 22

b. Accuracy

The second aspect is related to accuracy. Accuracy is the ability to produce correct
sentences using correct grammar and vocabulary in natural interaction (Brown,
2001:268). It means that accuracy is achieved by allowing the speaker to 9 focus on the
elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output. The aspect of
accuracy in the speaking class is set by providing opportunities for the learners to be
engaged in the context of daily life. The teacher should give the students communicative
tasks and activities such as games, conversation, role play, debates, etc. Those kinds of
activities can engage the learners in the natural interaction process whenever possible.

c. Pronunciation

The third aspect is related to pronunciation .Having a good pronunciation of the language
can be helpful in a normal communication, particularly for intelligibility (Derwing and
Munro, 2005).Pronunciation deals with phonemes, phonemic patterns, intonation,
rhythms, and stresses. It is the way for speakers to produce clearer language when they
speak. To be able to have a successful communication, the speaker of the language needs
to be able to understand each other’s skills and competences. It should be taught
interactively with the other skills and competences in the class.

d. Vocabulary

The fourth aspect is related to vocabulary. It is one of the important aspects in learning a
foreign language. With limited vocabulary, anyone will also have a limited understanding
in terms of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Willis (1990: 42) stated that without
grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.
Vocabulary has to do with the appropriate diction which is used in 10 conversations.
Without having a sufficient vocabulary, someone cannot communicate effectively to
express ideas in both oral and written forms.

3. Teaching Speaking Skills to Children As children understand more easily what people
say, they also become proficient in expressing their own thoughts, ideas, and wishes. This
proficiency does not exist by itself. There are several factors including better organs of
 23

speech such as the mouth and tongue, the syntactic and semantic knowledge, the
awareness of the people who are appropriate to know and believe acquisition of the
abstract things, etc. Therefore, the important thing in developing the speaking skills of
children is through practice. To make students able to speak English, the teacher should
provide appropriate activities for them to practice. Those activities should be well
organized according to the level of difficulty and teacher’s roles.

Scott and Ytreberg(1990:34) divided speaking activities into four stages. They
are presenting new language orally, controlled practice, guided practice, and free
activities. They also put dialogue works to bridge between guided practice and free
activities. The stages are presented below. a. Presenting New Language orally when
children start learning, they need to be given language before they can produce it by
themselves. There are some ways that teachers can use to present new language orally
such as involving the children by using mascots, pictures, puppets, silhouettes, drawing,
etc.

Below is an example of presenting new language orally by using a mascot called Teddy.

“Teddy, do you like an apple?”

“Ugh, no!”

“Do you like an orange?”

“Yes, I like it.”

“What about bananas?”

“Yes, I love them.”

Example 1:The Example of Presenting New Language Orally (Scott and Ytreberg,
1990:35)

From the example above, the teacher does not have to present oral work by
herself. Most oral work directed toward someone and asked for a response from someone
and having another speaker of English around can make the situation get across more
 24

easily. b. Controlled Practice Controlled practices are related to presentation since it is

sufficient for children to try out new language as soon as they have heard it. The aim is to
train children to use correct, simple, and useful language within a situation or context.
Children may have to repeat sentences, be corrected, and practice them frequently.

Teaching English, it is necessary to discuss some theories that are related to

children’s characteristics, children development, and principles in teaching English to
children. 1. Children’s Characteristics Children have unique characters which
differentiate them from adults. Some experts have identified their characteristics such as
presented below. a. Talkative One of the children’s characteristics is love to talk. Most
children at this age (7-10 years old ) love to talk and want to get responses and can carry
on lengthier discussions about a single issue or event (Grugeon,et al., 2005:84;Owens,
2008 in It means that children like to have conversation with others. Besides, as children
grow older, their conversations with others increase in depth and length. However, they
tend to be short in the early conversation. Most of them are quite willing and able to
introduce new topics into a conversation, but they have different ways in maintaining the
interchange of the topic.

One of the main differences between adults and children is related to attention
span. It is an extent to how long a person is able to hold full attention in a teaching
learning process (Spratt, et al., 2005:53, Brewster et al., 2004: 28). At this point, attention
span is related to the concentration that influences children to develop their ability. It is
generally connected to the age of the person. Children around nine to ten have the
attention span of 30 to 35 minutes. They have the characteristics of getting bored easily,
like to move, and cannot concentrate for long time. Children can be categorized as having
a short attention span. They are likely to be impatient while listening and waiting for their
turn to speak and have a hard time returning to an unfinished task interrupted.

At this point, the teacher should give interesting and fun activities. It can be done
by giving animated and enthusiastic materials, giving a sense of humor, and increasing
the students‟ curiosity toward the lesson. By knowing the students‟ attention span, it will
enable to the teacher to appropriately schedule the steps in the process of language
teaching.
 25

Full of Creation, Expression, and Imagination In their own language, children

enjoy playing language in some ways to express emotions; communicate intensions,
reactions, fantasies, imaginations; explore language; and make fun of it (Owens, 2008 in
McDevvit and Ormrod,2010: 333; Scottand Ytreberg, 2004:33; Pinter, 2006:2). Even
with limitation of the language, children have the willingness to express ideas, wishes,
gestures, and expressions through the ways. They express it freely without referring to
grammatical aspects. They usually insert their mother language when they cannot find the
words in their second language. Children often use narratives or pretend to play in order
to exercise their imagination.

Their creativities in speaking skills can be expressed in many ways including

stories, jokes, poems, and songs. Sometimes, they do the activities beyond the
expectation of adults. For example, a seven-year-old Mario tells his parents a joke that he
gets after he feeds a bird. He relates the jokes in English, What did the bird say when his
cage got broken?” His parents have no idea what the bird said, so he tells him “cheap,
cheap!”( McDevvit and Ormrod, 2010:334). The sound of “cheap” is similar with the
sound of a bird. Therefore, no one even the parents will guess this answer. Those kinds of
jokes and other activities not only encourage the children to be creative but also help the
children to identify parallels between seemingly dissimilar objects or events. d. Having
Multiple Sensory Inputs Children use all of their five senses to acquire language (Brown,
2001:89).

Therefore, the teacher should give activities that stimulate their sensory input.
They should be supported by auditory and visual modes that the teacher considers
sufficient for a classroom. Such activities as having children act in a role play and playing
games or participating in Total Physical Response activities are suitable to stimulate the
physical senses of the children. In addition, project and hands-on activities help the
children to internalize the language. Besides, the sensory aids here and there help the
children develop the concepts of language in their mind. For example, the activities that
can be used are singing a song, doing Total Physical Response (TPR), etc.

In these activities, the students are engaged to use their senses such as seeing,
hearing, and touching. The students need to have all of the five senses stimulated. At this
 26

point, the activities should provide visual and auditory modes that are sufficient in the
classroom context. Without an understanding of the child’s perceptions and characters,
effective learning environments will not occur. 2. Children’s Developments Middle
childhood (6-10 years) has specific developments. This stage is the time of sustained
attention to real word activities that become the turning point of children’s cognitive
development Piaget in Pinter, 2006: 7). It means that children develop the ability to apply
logical reasoning in several areas. They have an effort to master the customs and tools
and accumulate knowledge from their community and culture. They build commitments
in peers and compare their performance with others.

For example, when they play marbles in the school, they find friends, measure the
capacity of their friends, and compare the ability with themselves. From those games,
they accumulate the knowledge of the 20 procedure of playing marbles, the use of motor
skills, and the relationship among friends. The illustration above shows that children have
several domains in their development. They can be divided into physical development,
cognitive development, and social and emotional development proposed by some
theorists. a. Physical Development Physical development means the changing in the
system of the body, brain, and age which are related to the change of motor skills and
health behavior. As their physical development occurs, children find so many challenges.

The middle childhood (6-10 years) typically shows slow but steady gain in height
and weight, improves further in motor skills, and is aware of their physical appearances
(McDevvit and Ormrod, 2010:161; Chu,2000;Dohnt and Tiggemann, 2006 in McDevvit
and Ormrod,2010:162). In this stage, the physical development of the middle childhood
grows faster without changing the structure. They grow more slowly than they do in
infancy or early childhood (2-6). For example, their height increases slowly. In addition,
their motor skills improve further with the psychological maturation and cognitive
advances. These can be seen from their abilities of riding a bicycle, imitating complex
physical movements, or participating in organized sports. Their writing becomes more
detailed, smaller, smoother, and more consistent.

In addition, self-consciousness increases as they get close to puberty. They notice

the physical appearance because it is related to the social relationship. It affects how
 27

children assume themselves. By knowing the physical development of the middle 21

childhoods, the parents and the teacher can understand the needs and obstacles in the
teaching and learning process so that they can decide on the appropriate activities. b.
Cognitive Development Cognitive development is the systematic change in reasoning,
concept memory, and language. Children’s cognitive development in the concrete
operational stage (7-11 years old) begins to resemble „logical‟ adult-like thinking in the
current level, deal with assimilation and accommodation, and use variety of different
strategies spontaneously (Piaget in Pinter, 2006:7; Siegler, 2006 in McDevvit and
Ormrod, 2010: 14). It means that in this stage, the children develop the skills to apply
logical reasoning in several areas of knowledge and in immediate contexts. Assimilation
means that children construct knowledge by making sense of their environment.

Accommodation means that children change their way of thinking to

accommodate new ideas when they get explanation from adults. For example, when they
see a bird is hatched from an egg, they think that all animals come from eggs
(assimilation). However, their way of thinking will change when they make conversation
or see the birth of a cow. From these, they will conclude that not all animals are hatched
from eggs. In cognitive development, children solve problems impulsively by trying a
range of solutions and repeating procedures which seem effective and adaptive for them.
For example, in solving the problem of 2+3=?, children may count using their fingers,
using the arithmetic tools, recalling their memory, or asking questions to adults. There are
several concerns to support children which are related to the theories above in achieving
educational needs. Here, adults can sustain the children by helping them acquire habits
and expectations that facilitates them in assigning academic work, promoting mastery of
basic academic skills, and enhancing their education through family involvement and
recreation. c. Social and Emotional Development Social-emotional development refers to
the change of emotion, self-concept, motivation, social relationship, moral reasoning, and
behavior of a person. Children‟ social and emotional development is influenced by the
environments and people surrounding them.

These developments are divided into 1) social development and 2) emotional

development supported by some theorists. 1) Social Development Children gradually
 28

develop understanding about themselves and other people. It is influenced by the sense of
self and social cognition. The sense of self is related to children‟s knowledge, beliefs,
judgments, and feelings about themselves. Middle childhoods (ages 6-10) are more aware
in physical and psychological terms and more realistic (Bouffordet.al., 2003in McDavvit
and Ormrod, 2010:450). Children at that age can describe themselves in terms of traits
such as kind, responsible, handsome, pretty, etc

Micro- and Macro-skills of Speaking as well as other skills has a list of various
components. The purpose is to serve taxonomy of skills from which the teacher will
select one or several that become the objectives for the students to acquire effective
speaking strategies. Those are micro-skills and macro-skills. 1) Micro-skills the micro-
skills refer to producing the smaller chunks of language such as phonemes, morphemes,
words, collocations, and phrasal units (Brown, 2004: 142).

The students have to orally produce the different English phonemes and
allophonic variants; produce chunks of language of different length; produce English
stress patterns, words in stress and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and
intonation contours; produce reduced forms of words and phrases; use an adequate
number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes; produce
fluent speech at different rates of delivery; monitor their own oral production and use
various strategic devices- pauses, fillers, self-corrections, backtracking- to enhance the
clarity of the message; use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g.,
tense, agreement, and plurallization ), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms;
produce speech in natural constituents – in appropriate phrases, pause groups, breath
groups, and sentences; express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms; use
cohesive devices in spoken discourse.

Macro-skills the macro-skills imply the speaker’s focus on the larger elements
such as fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and
strategic options (Brown, 2004: 143). The students have to accomplish appropriately
communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals; use appropriate
registers, implicated, pragmatic conventions, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-
face conversations; covey links and connections between events and communicate such
 29

relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information,

generalization, and exemplification; use facial features, kinesthetic, body language, and
other nonverbal cues along with verbal language to convey meanings; and develop and
use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing,
providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and
accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding you.

Van Ek and Trim (1998) explain six categories of language-functions for threshold level.

The first is imparting and seeking information. This category includes reporting
(describing and narrating), correcting, asking, and answering question. The second is
expressing and finding out attitudes. This category includes expressing agreement and
disagreement; expressing about pleasure, happiness, displeasure, unhappiness; expressing
likes and dislikes; expressing about satisfaction/dissatisfaction; expressing surprise/lack
of surprise. The third is deciding on course of action (suasion) includes expressing hope,
disappointment, fear, gratitude; reacting to an expression of gratitude; offering and
accepting of apology; expressing about approval/disapproval. The fourth is for
socializing. This category includes attracting attention; greeting people when meeting a
friend or acquaintance; replying to a greeting from a friend or acquaintance; and
addressing a friend or acquaintance; addressing a stranger. The fifth is structuring
discourse includes asking someone’s opinion; showing that one is following a person’s
discourse; interrupting; asking someone to be silent; giving over the floor; indicating a
wish to continue; encouraging someone to continue; indicating that one is coming to an
end; closing; and telephone opening. The last is communication repair includes signaling
understanding/non-understanding; asking for repetition of sentence; and paraphrasing.
One of the implications of the list is the importance of focusing on both the forms and
functions of language. In teaching speaking, the teacher does not limit students’ attention
to the whole picture but he/she also help students to see the small parts of language that
make up the whole. As the teacher plans a specific technique, such a list helps the teacher
to focus on clearly conceptualized objectives. The teacher can select one or several from
the list as the objective to teach speaking to the students and to assess their speaking
ability.
 30

The challenges of teaching English around the world are huge for many native
and non-native EL teachers. By definition, a context where English is not widely spoken
can hardly provide the practice opportunities or authenticity that is virtually unlimited in
English speaking teaching contexts. The most difficult aspect of our job as teachers is
trying to replicate real-life communication in the classroom between peers sharing the
same L1 through an English-only environment, or realistically create sufficiently
motivating, purposeful opportunities for learners to use English out of the classroom.
While this is hard when teaching adults to learn how to read or write, it is even harder
when teaching YLs to speak or listen effectively.

I’m going to be brave and address two of the biggest challenges of current ELT
debate: teaching oral skills (both receptive and productive) and teaching lower secondary
learners in a non English speaking environment. Why is it so difficult to teach oral skills
to teenagers? What factors affect the way we teach speaking/listening in the language
classroom?

Motivation

What motivates YLs to learn is socializing. Even the most withdrawn learners try
to establish some personal ways to express their feelings, their world and their ideas to
others. Talking, chatting and sharing is what teens really enjoy. How can we help them
do that in a foreign language?

If we aren’t providing our learners with what they need to communicate with each other
or the world, we will not be able to motivate them to speak. Not only motivating learners,
but also avoiding their ‘demotivation’ (Littlejohn, 2008:215) is our responsibility.

I genuinely believe that learners’ involvement in some level of classroom

decision-making, task design and purposes is one way to achieve that and ‘promote a
sense of competence and success’ (ibid. 223). If learners are given the opportunity to
negotiate topics, tasks and activities types, it will be easier to keep them engaged and
motivated. Using cued questions, role-plays and simulations of communicative events
that happen in their real life out of class will build their confidence and encourage
 31

realistic language use through peer interactions. Information gap and problem solving
activities will make language tasks cognitively challenging and more motivating.

Lack Of Authentic Listening Materials

For years I’ve been providing my learners with endless, useless listening
comprehension tasks, taken from one of my favourite course books, in which teenagers
chatted about a great (fake) experience somewhere in the world. I was often frustrated to
see that they were not engaged at all. Why should they be motivated to listen to a
conversation they are not part of? Why should they listen to information they won’t
practically need out of the classroom and that they didn’t ask for in the first place?

We only learn when we need it. If there’s a trigger to meaningfully store language
items for future use and communicate to others what we need, we’ll learn effectively.
This is how first language acquisition takes place. Why should second/foreign language
acquisition work differently? If learners don’t need to speak a foreign language in their
real life, teachers should create a realistic context of use in the classroom that resembles
the outside world as much as possible. How can we do that? Use the technology and
bring the real life into the classroom! I think it’s crucial to design graded, realistic tasks
that learners can do with real people and in real-life situations, in which they are required
to listen actively, respond and participate. For example, you can ask your learners to call
a shop in the UK on Skype and find out if they sell their fancy t-shirts online, how much
they are, delivery, special offers etc.

This type of interactive listening tasks will provide authenticity to the classroom
as learners will be exposed to real, authentic language use. Learners can do such things in
their L1. Helping them prepare for the encounter in English can be a great confidence
booster:

Set the context very clearly e.g. You won a gift voucher to spend on clothes
Arouse their interest in the topic e.g. Check out a few shop websites and choose what to
buy, Set purposeful tasks e.g. Call the shop to find out prices/sizes/delivery etc. and
complete a grid, Ask learners to prepare the questions they need to ask and Provide a
model as appropriate depending on learners’ age and level e.g. you can make the call first
 32

This way learners will perform pre-planned speech (asking a list of questions) and
will do a purposeful, manageable task (completing a grid). The focus will be on
completing the task successfully rather than understanding every word or irrelevant
information. From ‘overhearers’ or passive listeners learners will take on the role of
active, selective listeners like in real life in their L1 (Field, 2008). The unpredictability
and interactivity of a speech event like that will provide the opportunity to manage
‘unpredicted’ situations such as misunderstandings, noise or speed. Learners’ predictions,
guesses and communicative strategies from both L1 and L2 repertoire will be easily
transferred to and applied to new situations. Learners will learn from their first hand
experience with the language what strategies to adopt and how to recycle vocabulary and
expressions in the appropriate social context.

Oral Practice Opportunities

Surely, it has happened to you to quickly practise some key vocabulary through a
reading or a short listening and move swiftly to the ‘It’s your turn’ or ‘Speak up’ section
of your worksheet with the genuine expectation that learners would be able to ‘speak’ and
‘use’ the language on the spot. How many times have you realized that they were
avoiding the task instead? Learners’ only anchor seem to be reading aloud any given
examples or resorting to L1. Why is that? How can they reactivate prior knowledge in a
new situation and experiment with new language so quickly?

Teaching around the world where English is a foreign or an additional language

often means that you (especially as a native speaker) or the internet are the only source of
exposure to L2. The only opportunities for learners to practise real language in authentic,
spontaneous interactions might be a chat with teachers in the school café or to a lost
tourist at the bus stop. On the other hand, the supposedly unlimited self-access materials
online do not always boost learners’ confidence: I’ve often heard my learners say that
they had been watching their favourite celebrities’ interviews on YouTube for hours
without managing to understand them. While lucky YLs travelling to the UK for
intensive summer courses seem to acquire the language more naturally and a lot quicker
because they’re ‘surrounded by the language for many hours each day’ (Lightbown &
Spada,2006:111), it’s quite hard for learners around the world to receive the same amount
 33

of natural language input at home. Language learning in a classroom environment does

not always reflect real life as language input is modified, at times oversimplified by
teachers, who try to make it comprehensible and learnable for their learners (Krashen,
1981). Video talks like TED talks are a perfect example of ungraded, real language
material that can be exploited in class both as ‘naturalistic’ language input and as a model
for meaningful language production. They’re great oral, content-based texts that promote
discussion and provide useful material for class questionnaires, surveys and peer
interviews. As self-access material they can be selected by teachers and become a self-
study opportunity that feeds back into the classroom in various ways: news broadcasts,
presentations, impossible interviews with inventors, instant interviews on a negotiated
topic etc.

I strongly believe that maximising learners’ talking time in the classroom through
peer interactions is the key. As ‘learners acquire language in conversation’ (Hatch,1978
cited in Richards,1990:77), the language classroom should provide opportunities to learn
conversation through interactive tasks that focus on

‘using the language to complete a task’ (ibid.78)

negotiation of meaning

purposeful information exchange

For instance, you can ask your learners to make a 3 minute video interview to a
partner with their mobile phone about their dream school trip. The class will then decide
the best ones to be posted on the school blog. It’s a fun activity that motivates learners to
prepare their speech, perform and finally review their own as well as their partners’
performances for a realistic purpose.

While attending to the social purpose of language learning, communication both

in the classroom and in the real world can be promoted if there’s an information gap and
an immediate feedback to motivate learners to interact. The idea is to create a variety of
communicative contexts that allow natural acquisition as opposed to conscious learning
or language mastery (Littlewood,1981).Teaching oral skills should therefore aim at
 34

performance-oriented language reception and production through realistic and

manageable tasks.

The teaching and learning of speaking are a vital part of any language education
classroom; not only does the spoken language offer ‘affordances’ for learning as the main
communicative medium of the classroom, but it is also an important component of
syllabus content and learning outcomes. However, teaching speaking remains challenging
for many English teachers. A key issue here is whether what happens in a speaking
classroom is concerned with ‘doing’ teaching or ‘teaching’ speaking. In this paper, I
consider some of the essential elements that comprise speaking competence and present a
teaching-speaking cycle designed to address the teaching of speaking systematically. The
paper finishes with a brief analysis of the key aspects of the teaching-speaking cycle
identifying how it covers areas that are central to planning a holistic and sequenced
approach to the teaching of speaking.

Speaking is a fundamental language skill. It is the primary way in which we

communicate information. When we ask how well we can function in a second language,
we ask the question “how well do you speak…?”, so it is the ability to speak well which
best represents our proficiency in another language. As teachers, however, we must be
mindful that speaking involves more than simply using words to articulate what we are
thinking, and there is more at play than simply asking students to say the words that they
know.

1. Communicative competence

Being a ‘good speaker’ requires a range of skills beyond accurate grammar,

vocabulary and pronunciation, though these are the basic building blocks that enable a
message to be understood. An effective communicator chooses the words they use, and
the way in which they speak to different people in different situations, whether that is
ordering a sandwich at a snack bar or giving a keynote speech at an academic event. The
skills involved in how we interact with others in different ways are called communicative
competencies: teachable skills which frame the language used in interaction in different
settings.
 35

Speaking as a language skill involves these competencies much more than it

requires accuracy of language, so when we talk about ‘teaching speaking’, we are talking
about something different from grammar or vocabulary practice. Speaking can be used to
practice new language (as is common in question-answer tasks or role-plays held after
specific language instruction, but this kind of activity may not teach the skill of speaking
itself.

2. Teaching speaking as a set of competencies

Just as we can instruct, present and practice specific grammar features to students,
the component competencies which make up speaking as a pure language skill can also
be broken down and presented systematically.

Some useful language sub-skills which can be turned into practice activities are:

Avoiding repetition

Responding appropriately while listening

Turn-taking techniques

Politeness

Circumlocution (talking around unknown words using known language)

Extending ideas

Notice that none of these sub-skills make specific reference to grammar,

vocabulary or pronunciation, though obviously these are necessary for students to
communicate what they want to say.

In order to bring the focus onto these competencies, it is therefore advisable to

lead speaking tasks on topics that are familiar to students, and using language that is
within their ability. Taking the strain of new language out of speaking activities allows
students to focus on the pure sub-skills listed above. This is similar to the way in which
native speakers are ‘trained’ for public speaking or assertiveness in social situations: as
 36

native speakers, they are comfortable with the structure of their own language, but want
to develop other skills which go along with that.

3. Discourse and organization of message

Many of these features of speaking fall into the category of discourse – the
organization and style of a message as it is delivered in different situations. When
teaching speaking in a given context, think about how people actually speak in that
situation.

Find recordings of people interacting in restaurants, banks, or wherever your

lesson will be set, and think about the functional steps of the interaction as it happens.
You will probably find that most interaction that you listen to is quite formulaic and
predictable, so can be used as a structure for the dialogues that you present and practice
in class, only with the organization and ordering of the speech as the focus of the class
rather than the specific language used.

Taking an opposite approach, think of situations where the above list of

competencies is common. For example: we often use circumlocution when we are talking
about complex, technical subjects, like when we describe a problem we are having with a
gas cooker, car engine or plumbing; we may not know the exact name of the part which is
not working, but we can still communicate it to a gas fitter, mechanic or plumber. This is
a useful life skill, and one which can be used to harness second-language speaking for
language learners.

4. Restricted and free speaking

Again, as with grammar and vocabulary, we can incorporate these target

competencies into standard formats of lessons – we can present the feature of speech
through an audio or video task, and then ask students to practise applying the feature in a
restricted task.

Gapped dialogues, ordering lines in a script, or choosing the best alternative from
three different responses in a conversation, for example.
 37

Again, as long as the learners are playing with language they already know, their
‘discourse brains’ will be more engaged and they will have more focus on the
competencies they are learning.

Free speaking tasks should be exactly that: student-student interaction

which does not have too many limitations. Give students a topic or situation and ask them
to script out a typical interaction in that situation. Assign roles to different students, so
that they can practise speaking to different ‘people’, and see how they flex their ideas
when talking to their boss as compared to their 7-year-old daughter. This will open up the
features they are learning in application to different types of speech.

Finally, be aware that although your learners have been focusing on these great
features of spoken communication, they have not yet had the opportunity to fully apply
these until they have spoken totally freely, without a script, or notes to work from (after
all, native speakers don’t carry scripts around with them to use in sandwich bars, though
they do have an ‘expected script’ in their mind which informs their use of language), by
participating in a speaking event with another student or students. The same dialogue that
was used in free practice can be repeated, though with different participants to ensure
spontaneity and flexibility with language. Only then can you say that students have truly
applied what they are learning by the end of the class.

All in all, when planning a speaking skills lesson, be aware that using language in
speech is not necessarily practice of speaking as a language skill. Developing the range of
competencies that make ‘a good speaker’ takes focus on the ways that we speak to
different people, and the ways we construct what we are saying. This is independent from
the grammar and vocabulary we use in real life, so should be kept separate from pure
language input in the language classroom.

The mastery of speaking skills in English is a necessary for many second

language and foreign language students (Richard, 2008). Therefore, learners often
appraise their language learning on how much they think they have developed their skill
in spoken language skill. Besides, the proficiency of speaking becomes one of the five
skills that should be acquired by every child in this 21 century era which is called as a
 38

communication skill (Seamolec on line course 2, 2006). Further, communicating and

collaborating and language boundaries become a necessity in diverse and multinational
communities. Mutually beneficial relationships are a central undercurrent to
accomplishment in Business (Partnership for 21st century skills: 2008). In preparing
every child to have a good communication skill, teaching speaking is a primary
requirement to be taught not only for adult learners but also for young learners. As stated
by Slattery and Willis (2001), cited in Hakim (2011), English is being provided into
initial classroom, such as Kindergarten and Elementary school, so that the teachers are
needed to teach it into young learners.

Further, to make the children to be able to speak English in communication,

teachers need to guide the students to acquire the vocabulary and structures (Richard,
2008). In line with (Richard, 2008), Harmer (2007a, p. 123) proposes three major reasons
for getting students to speak and to acquire new vocabulary in the classroom: 1).
Speaking activities provide rehearsal opportunities 2). Speaking tasks in which students
try to 20 use any or all of the languages they know provide feedback for both teachers
and students. 3). the more students have opportunities to activate the various language
elements they have stored in their brains, the more automatic their use of these elements
to become. Meanwhile, teaching speaking to young learners may give some difficulties to
the teacher especially in Indonesia, since the young learners also consider speaking as a
great challenge since it requires them to speak and think at the same time (Pinter, 2000).
Besides, young learners are not necessarily competent communicators even in their
mother tongue, and it reveals an idea that teaching speaking in Indonesia must be
developed in EFL context.

The Nature of Speaking is a complex cognitive process (Graham-Marr, 2004)

and an active use of language to express meaning (Cameron, 2001). It requires the
language users to speak fluently, to be able to pronounce phonemes correctly, to use
appropriate stress and intonation patterns, and to speak in connected speech (Harmer,
2007). In line with Harmer (2007), Chaney (cited in Kayi, 2006) defines speaking as a
process of building and sharing meaning and information through the use of verbal and
non-verbal symbols in variety context.
 39

In EFL context, the language users are also urged to speak in different genres and
situation, and they will have to be able to use a range of conversational and
conversational repair strategies (Harmer, 2007a). Teaching Speaking The goal of
teaching speaking is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make
themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to
avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and
to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation. To
this relation, it is worth voting to what Nunan (2003) believes, which particularly dealing
with teaching speaking. In his perception, to teach speaking can be defined as to teach the
students to: - Produce the English speech sound and sound patterns - Use words and
sentences stress, intonation patterns, and the rhythm of the second language - Select the
appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience,
situation and subject matter - Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical
sequence - Use language as a mean of expressing values and judgments - Use the
language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency.
To help the students in developing communicative efficiency in speaking, teachers can
use a balanced activities approach which combines language input, structured output, and
communicative output (Richard, p. 2008).

First, Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities,
reading passages, and the language in which the students hear and read outside the class.
It gives learners the material they need to begin producing language themselves.
Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.

Second, structured output focuses on correct form. In structured output, students

may have options for responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific
form or structure that the teacher has just introduced. Structured 21 output is designed to
make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced,
sometimes in combination with previously learned items. Instructors often use structured
output exercises as a transition between the presentation stage and the practice stage of a
lesson plan. Textbook exercises also often make good structured output practice
activities.
 40

Third, communicative output, the learners' main purpose is to complete a task,

such as obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a video. To complete
the task, they may use the language that the instructor has just presented, but they also
may draw on any other vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that they
know. In communicative output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learner
gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes
with the message.

Teacher Roles in Teaching Speaking Paul (2003, p. 77) lists several principles
that teachers need to consider in preparing students to communicate in English: 1.
Introducing and practicing patterns in ways that feel meaningful to the children, such as
in games, in situation where the children genuinely want to express themselves, and
through personalization. 2. Practicing new patterns in combination with the other patterns
the children have learned, so the children can internalize them more easily. 3. Giving the
children many opportunities to guess how to use the patterns flexibly in novel situation.
4. Giving the children confidence to speak out in front of others by talking independently
with other children and the whole class. 5. Building the children’s inner strength to deal
with confusing and novel situations, by presenting them with puzzles to overcome and
solve, and making sure they are finally successful. Focusing on the question forms of new
patterns, so the children can ask about things they do not know.

They can learn Who is it? before or at the same time as learning, It’s a cat, and,
What’s she doing? before or at the same time as learning She’s sleeping. In line with Paul
(2003), Harmer (2007b) and Terry (2008) classify roles of teacher in teaching speaking,
as follows: 1. Prompter: The teachers provide the students with discrete suggestions,
leave them to struggle by themselves, and give them chunks not words, without
disrupting the discussion. 2. Participant: The teachers participate in the discussion by
introducing new information and by ensuring the continuation of students’ engagement.
The main point is the teacher should not monopolize the conversation. 3. Feedback
provider: The teachers can give some feedbacks by giving helpful and gentle correction
and by telling the students about their performance.
 41

Besides that, they should avoid over-correction, since it might lead to students’
reluctance to continue the dialogue. 4. Assessor: The teachers can write down some
written samples of languages produced by students, or memorize some of it, then tell it to
their students. 5. Observer: The teachers should observe the class speaking activity and
find out what makes the activity breakdown. 6. Resource: The teachers have to provide
some tools to improve their students’ oral competence. 7. Organizer: The teachers
manage the classroom to set the activities and get the students engaged. In one teaching
activity, the teachers might play more than one roles in the classroom. They can be a
prompter in the middle of speaking of activity then in the end of the class they will play a
role as feedback provider.

Characteristics of Young Learners Young learner is categorized as students from

ages three to eight years old (Wilson, 2003; Alianello, 2004). Pinter (2006) limits the age
groups of young learners from five to fourteen years old. However, she offers an idea that
age of categorization is not a big deal in teaching language to young learners. The main
issue in teaching language to young learners should begin with the consideration that
every child is unique and they have substantial differences within, such as the culture
differences (Pinter, 2006). Moreover, Paul (2000) adds that all children deserve the
chance to achieve their potential both as learners and as whole people, and become
broad-minded members of a truly international society. Further, Harmer (2007b, p. 82)
classifies the characteristics of young learners as follows: (1) They respond to meaning
even if they do not understand individual words; (2) They often learn indirectly rather
than directly; (3) Their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from
what they see and hear, and crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with; (4) They
find abstract concepts such as grammar rules difficult to grasp; (5) They generally display
an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them; (6) They have a
need for individual attention and approval from the teacher; (7) They are keen to talk
about themselves and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as
main topics in the classroom; and (8) They have a limited attention span unless activities
are extremely engaging, they can get easily bored. Based on those classifications, various
teaching approach in teaching young learners are significantly developed.
 42

The finding of an effective approach is usually correlated with the particular

needs of the young learners. In this context, teacher should develop a general approach
based on their views on how young learners learn most effectively and consistently (Paul,
2003). Since the teaching English to young learners become a universal consideration due
to the expansion of English, there must be specific approaches in teaching them
(Hudelson, 1989; Pinter, 2006). Strategies in Teaching Speaking to Young Learners
Teaching speaking to young learners is very rewarding since they are less-conscious than
older learners (Phillips, 1993).

However, the teachers find it difficult since the learners have to master
vocabularies, pronunciation, structure, function in order to say what they want. Cameron
(2001) holds an assumption that the major part of teaching and learning to young learners
will be oral. Furthermore, she proposes two guiding principles in teaching speaking to
young learners: (1) Meaning must come first: if children do not understand the spoken
language, they cannot learn it; (2) To learn discourse skill, children need both to
participate in discourse and to build up knowledge and 23 skill for participation. It means
that the young learners should be involved in a situation where they will practice
speaking with real people for real purposes. Graham-Marr (2004) provides some of the
speaking skills that merit classroom time include: fluency, phonological clarity,
strategies, being able to produce chunks of language, appropriacy (register),
understanding elliptical forms, and the use of interconnected devices. Based on the
explanation above, teaching speaking to young learners should rely on children
characteristics to make the learning meaningful. The use of song and cants will be useful
for teaching stress patterns and rhythm of English (Phillips, 1993). Kayi (2006) endorses
thirteen activities to promote speaking, namely: Discussion After a content-based lesson,
a discussion can be held for various reasons.

The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find
solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose
of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are
relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other
about irrelevant things. Simulations Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what
 43

makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In
simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For
instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on.
Role Play Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social
roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who
they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are
David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and." (Harmer, 2007b)
Brain Storming On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending
on the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate
ideas quickly and freely.

The good characteristic of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for
their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas. Storytelling Students can briefly
summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their
own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps
students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the
characters and setting a story has to have. Information Gap In this activity, students are
supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that other partner
does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities
serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information. Also, each
partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do
not provide the information the others need. Interviews Students can conduct interviews
on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a rubric
to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to follow,
but students should prepare their own interview questions. After interviews, each student
can present his or her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and
"introduce" his or her partner to the class.

Story Completion For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few
sentences he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point
where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten
sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on. Reporting
 44

Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class,
they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also
talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their
daily lives before class. Playing Cards In this game, students should form groups of four.
Each suit will represent a topic. For instance: diamonds represent earning money, hearts
represent love and relationships, spades represent an unforgettable memory, and card
represent best teacher.

Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5
questions about that topic to ask the other people in the group. For example: if the topic
"diamonds: earning money" is selected, here are some possible questions: .Is money
important in your life? Why? Or .What is the easiest way of earning money? Or what do
you think about lottery? Etc. However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of
the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying
yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask
open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete sentences. Picture
Describing For this activity students can form groups and each group is given a different
picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, and then a spokesperson for each
group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and
imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills. Find the Differences
For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different
pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing
tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures. Picture
Narrating This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell
the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria
provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they
need to use while narrating.

Methods in Teaching Speaking to Young Learners Audio Lingual Method (ALM)

The principle of Audio-lingual Method (ALM) can be applied in teaching speaking to
young learners, since it holds an assumption that one can learn language by developing
habits based on pattern of language (CelceMurcia 2001, in Linse 2005) and by
 45

emphasizing repetition and habit formation (Saville-Troike: 2006). The two important
features of ALM are drill 25 with choral response and dialogues. In drilling with corral
response, the students will drill certain language feature, and then there will be a sentence
substitution named choral response. Moreover, the dialogue provides the learners with
grammatically controlled scripts. It can be applied in a child-friendly role-play. Besides,
the teacher can also use puppets to introduce dialogue. It will be very beneficial for
reluctant or shy students who tend to feel comfortable to speak with puppets, rather than
with adults (Slattery and Willis 2003, in Linse 2005).

Furthermore, the fishbowl technique can also be used to introduce young learners
to work with partners or small group. This technique requires teachers to invite one
volunteer to do the model activity with them, let the rest of the class see, and then the
students will know what they are expected to do. Communicative Language Teaching
CLT is an approach and philosophical orientation that connects classroom-based
language learning with the language that the learners need in order to enable the students
to be able to speak outside classroom (Nunan, 2003 see also Richard, 2006). Further, one
of the goals in CLT is to develop the fluency of the learners (Richard, 2006). Therefore,
the teacher should be able to build classroom activities in which students must negotiate
meaning, use communication strategies, correct misunderstanding, and work to avoid
communications breakdown. The strategies in focusing on fluency in the classroom
activities are summarized as follows (Richard, 2006): - reflect natural use of language -
focus on achieving communication - require meaningful use of language - require the use
of communication strategies - produce language that may not be predictable - seek to link
language use to context Techniques in Teaching Speaking to Young Learners To make an
interactive teaching and learning, designing and promoting various techniques become a
crucial part in teaching speaking.

Brown (2001, pp. 275-276) proposes seven principles in designing speaking

techniques, as follows: 1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learners needs, from
language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and
fluency. 2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques 3. Encourage the use of authentic
language in meaningful contexts. 4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. 5.
 46

Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. 6. Give students
opportunities to initiate oral communication 7. Encourage the development of speaking
strategies. Assessing Young Learners’ Speaking Proficiency Assessment is an integral
part of teaching and learning process. It can be described as the process of data analysis
that teacher use to get evidence about their learners’ performance and progress in English
(Pinter, 2006). Assessment has several roles, such as: to change people’s lives (Shahamy
2001, in McKay 2006), to examine, monitor and aid children’s progress (Hudelson, 1989;
Ioannou-Georgiou & Pavlou, 2003), to build an accurate and effective communication
between teacher and 26 parents (Hudelson, 1989; IoannouGeorgiou & Pavlou, 2003), to
provide feedback on pupils’ learning (Cameron, 2001), and to monitor teacher’s
performance and plan future work (Ioannou-Georgiou & Pavlou, 2003). It is important to
assess young learners’ speaking performance, since speaking is considered as the most
rewarding and motivating skill for them.

The young learners usually get excited when they are able to express a few things
in target language. Therefore, Ioannou-Georgiou and Pavlou (2003) propose the criteria
in assessing young learners’ speaking performance, namely: pronunciation, intonation
and turntaking. Overall, the aim is to achieve oral communication, and the teacher should
assess their communicative proficiency in basic functions, such as asking questions or
introducing themselves.

2. Writing Skill

English as a foreign language, the part of English is writing, it is one of the

productive language skills, like speaking. The difference between writing and speaking
mainly lies on the product. In speaking, the product is a spoken text may be in the form of
monologue or dialogue. On the other hand, in writing, the main product is a written text.
Spratt, Pulvernes and Williams (2005, p. 26) said that “Writing is one of the productive
language skills which deals with conveying messages with the use of graphic symbols.”
Moreover, Meyers (2005, p.2) said that “writing is a process of discovering and
organizing ideas, putting them on paper and reshaping and revising them. By doing
writing, language learners will be able to measure how good their English is, because it
deals with their grammar and vocabularies mastery. According to them, writing is an
 47

activity to communicate the ideas by using letters, words, phrases, and clauses to from a
series of related sentences. This definition shows that writing is conveying a message
through a written text. In other words, writing is a communication between a writer and a
reader with the use of printed symbols.

a. Aspects of Writing

In short, writing comprises five important elements namely content, organization,

vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. However, they can be simplified into three
aspects namely ideas, grammatical features, and organization.

From the statements above, my opinion is students can improve their writing skill by
having good understanding those aspects. Because those aspects are the prior knowledge
for beginning to write.

b. Types of Writing Skill

According to Finnochiaro (1974, p. 85) said “Type of writing system exists in the
native language in an important factor in determining to easy of speech with which
students learn to write. There are two types of writing ( Finnochiaro 1974, p.85) :

1). Factual or Practical Writing

This type of writing deals with facts. The writer can find it in the writing of letter and
summaries.

2). Imaginary Creative Writing

This type of writing usually exists in literature. The examples of imaginary writing are
novel, romance, fantasy, science fiction, adventure, etc.

Type of writing is given to the students to do will depend on their age, interest and level.
For example, we can ask beginners to write a simple sentence. When the teacher sets a
task for young learners students, teacher will make sure that the students will get enough
words to do it and also for intermediate and advance students.
 48

c. Text

According to Feez and Joyce (1998: 4), a text is any stretch of language which is
held together cohesively through meaning. Whether a stretch of language is a text or not
has nothing to do with its size or form. It has to do with the meanings of the stretch of
language working together as a unified whole.

According to Mongot (2008, p.3) said “Genre or „Text-type‟ is kind of text that is
not divided base on traditional literature, but more direct to social function. ”There are
many genre of text that we are study in school. The genre of text divided into two that is
story genres and factual genres. There are six text-types in story genres that are narrative,
news story, exemplum, anecdote, recount and spoof. While in factual genres consist of
procedure, explanation, report, exposition, discussion, description, review, news item,
and commentary. In this case the writer took Procedure text as a genre in reading.

d. Procedure Text

Definition of Procedure Text According to Nystrand (1986, p. 81) said “A text is

explicit not because it says everything all by itself but rather because it strikes a careful
balance between what needs to be said and what may be assumed.

Text is to an anticipated outcome that is intended or that guides your planned actions. A
particular course of action intended to achieve a result. Or to help us do a task or make
something. They can be a set of instructions or directions.

Especially, the social purpose of Procedure Text is to show how something is done
through sequence of steps which enable the reader to achieve the goal.

In teaching English, the teacher must understand how to teach the four skills to
the students. It is very important to teach those skills in the English class especially
teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). In this case, the teachers have to know
how to teach writing. Harmer (1998, p. 79) said that “There are several reason why
teacher should teach writing. The reasons are reinforcement, language development,
learning style, and writing as a skill.” Moreover, the several reasons will be presented as
follows:
 49

a) Reinforcement .The visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable and it

is used as an aid to commuting the new language to memory. b) Language development

It seems that the actual process of writing helps the students to learn. c) Learning style ,
writing is appropriate for such learners. It is a reflective activity instead of the rush and
bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication. Because students expected that
producing language in a slower way is invaluable. d) Writing as a skill, the important
reason for teaching writing is that it is a basic language skill.

3. Video

Video is a small section of a larger video presentation A series of video frames are run in
succession to produce a short video

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Video in Teaching Speaking

Teaching by using video, video gives potential impact on foreign language study. It is
beneficial to present both linguistic and non-linguistic aspects. A video is a resourceful
tool for teaching foreign language speaking. Harmer (2007: 308) states that a video can
provide language in use. For example, the students can see how intonation matches facial
expression and what gestures accompany certain phrases. Another great advantage of 30
video is that it provides authentic language input for the students. Cakir (2006) states
movies and TV programs are made for native speakers, so in that sense video provides
authentic language input.

Smaldino, Lowther, and Russell (2007: 316) say that one of the advantages of
using video is cultural understanding. It means that the teacher can develop a deep
appreciation for other cultures by seeing depictions of everyday life in other society. A
video offers some exceptional qualities that make it particularly useful in education.
Lever-Duffy and McDonald (2008) say that video can appear to alter both time and space
as it captures events. They also state that video has the potential to shift the viewer’s
location as well as the time frame experience. Video travelogues, documentaries, and
docudramas can seem to shift where viewers are located, from the classroom to the
location they are viewing.
 50

Harmer (2007: 282) says that learner motivation increases when learners learn
language using video. Most students show an increased level of interest when they have a
chance to see language in use as well as they hear it, and when this is coupled with
interesting task. The use of authentic material can enhance students’ interest in classroom
activities and increase their motivation to listen, understand, and learn.

Busà (2010) states that listening to real people speaking about real-life
experiences and interacting with other speakers in a natural way may be considered more
stimulating than listening to actors reading scripts elaborated by EFL (English for
Foreign Language) 31 writers. A video can be effective way to get students’ attraction
and increase their motivation.

Furthermore, Brewster et al (2002: 204) concludes some benefits of using videos

for young learners into four aspects as follows: 1) Psychological aspect Video adds
variety in the teaching and learning process so that students find it fun, stimulating and
highly motivating. It can make learning experience successful and thus develop positive
attitudes and confidence to the target language and to language learning. 2) Linguistic
aspect Video presents or revises new words, phrases, and expressions. It shows all factors
of communication; the language forms, nonverbal codes, negotiation of meanings, and
interaction. Video also provides a full context of language use so that the learning is more
accessible and memorable. 3) Cognitive aspect Video can improve the students’ curiosity
and provide up-to-date information. It enables students to maximize their abilities to infer
form context. Moreover, video can develop students’ motor skills, information and
research skills, and communication skills as well as independent learning. 4) Cultural
aspects From cultural aspect, video enables students to see the world beyond the
classroom and improve their cultural awareness. It helps bridging the cultural gap by
providing background cultural information. However, above all the advantages of using
video to teach speaking,

Riddel (2003: 223) states that there are also the disadvantages of using video.
The disadvantages of using audio-visual media are the concern of the using of equipment
such as students may not see it as a real learning. Students sometimes are frustrated with
the ‘stop-start’ nature of lesson, and with a very big class not everyone may be able to see
 51

the screen. The teacher may have to prepare their own materials and tasks. Riddle also
suggested not overusing video type of lesson. From the theories above, it can be
concluded that video brings many advantages in teaching and learning speaking. Using a
video in teaching speaking gives authentic model of English. It can also provide language
in use. Moreover, a video in speaking allows students learning correct pronunciation,
improving their vocabularies and understanding different culture. A video is generally
easy to understand because of the available visual clues. Using it in learning is interesting
and motivating for the students to learn. However, the teacher should also concern about
the equipment used in teaching video. Teacher should also manage the use of video and
the impact for the students, so they can see it clearly and become aware of what the aims
of video for their learning.

3. Learn And Teaching Listening

English today is very important to learn, because English is an international

language that is commonly used to communicate with people who come from abroad.
Even the young children, they are using English in their daily activities now, although
there is still some of those who mix the native language to English. They consider the use
of English was cool, so they are eager to learn English and use them in everyday
activities. English has four basic capabilities that Listening, Speaking,

Reading and Writing. As well as having three additional capabilities namely

Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation. All components are very important and must
be learned if you want to master English well. Listening proficiency is a skill that is very
important because these skills that allow humans to gain insights, understanding,
knowledge, and information, as well as achieving success in communicating with others.
Therefore, listening skills are very important skills in the language. However, listening is
not a simple process.

Most students encounter difficulties in learning listening because listening can

only be done in one shot without being able to repeat it. To decrease in listening, teachers
must be able to create a favorable condition in teaching and learning process in order to
make the students comprehend and use English easily.
 52

Listening is an important component of learning. A student’s ability to actively

listen has a major impact on building the communication skills needed both inside and
outside of the classroom. Listening is one of the receptive skills and as such it involves
students in capturing and understanding the input of English. Reading, the other receptive
skills, involves students in understanding and interpreting the written word. Listening is
probably more difficult than reading .

Listening is one of the receptive skills and as such it involves students in

capturing and understanding the input of English. Reading, the other receptive skills,
involves students in understanding and interpreting the written word. Listening is
probably more difficult than reading because students often recognize the written word
more than they recognize easily the spoken word. Furthermore, when reading, students
can go back and reread a phrase with listening whereas they only get one chance. With
reading, it's the reader who sets the pace whereas with listening it's the speaker or
recording that sets the pace listening.In some respects, listening is a very individual
activity. A speaker does not implant a message in the listener's mind. The listener has to
remake the message: trying to gauge what the speaker's intentions are and extracting from
the message whatever seems relevant to the listener's own goals”

Listening and reading are equally able to receive in the language, but has a
different difficulty level. If the readings we still do not understand the essence, we can
repeat to read. This is contrary to listen, because listening can only be done in one shot
without being able to repeat it. Therefore, listening is far more difficult than reading.

Teaching Listening is not an easy job. Listening is the activities where the hearer
should pay attention to and trying to get meaning from something we hear.Teaching
listening to students should be careful and step by step. Some problems that faced by the
students in teaching listening process are they are afraid of making something wrong, the
student are also confused about what they should study, or they have to check some word
on the dictionary. So far, one thing that is very important is less motivation. The students
feel bored to study because the material is monotonous and teacher technique must
increase the student interest. Using suitable method, technique, media and materials
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which are appropriate to study English, so the students feel interested and pay attention to
that subject.

Video can be a valuable tool through which multiple foreign language skills can
be taught. Using video can enhance conversation, listening, and pronunciation skills and
promote authentic vocabulary development. Even reading and writing activities can be
structured around videos. As such, these videos may be used for inspiring or motivating
students to learn so that students enjoy the materials.

Consequently, they will get better achievement. One of the main advantages of
video is that learners do not just hear the language, they also see it too. Videos make a
particularly powerful contribution to both the content and the process of language
learning; especially contribute to interest and motivation, sense of the context of the
language, and a specific reference point or stimulus. This greatly aids comprehension, as
for example, in general meaning and moods are often conveyed through expression,
gesture and other visual clues. Active listening is an important “soft skill”, like problem-
solving, leadership, and teamwork. It’s a skill that can be acquired and developed but it
takes time and patience to master.

Listening Process Brown (1990, p.54) points out that there are three aspects from
which one can interpret an utterance. First, before listening, one uses background (top-
down) to predict the utterance. While listening, we use the phonological system and other
discrete aspects of the utterance (bottom-up) to confirm/reject our predictions and also
get information/details we did not predict. After the utterance, we try to infer what the
speaker meant.

In our everyday listening we usually employ all three nearly all the time. While
listening, as we confirm or reject predictions, we make new predictions and are drawing
inferences at the same time, as we continue listening and deciphering the phonological
code. It means that Top-down processes involve the listener in going from the whole their
prior knowledge and their content and rhetorical schemata to the parts. In other words,
the listener uses what they know of the context of communication to predict what the
message will contain, and uses parts of the message to confirm, correct or add to this. In
 54

top-down process the listeners should have other background information that they bring
to the text.

The listeners can predict what kind of information from the text if they have
prediction about the text that they will hear before. While bottom-up process more focus
on grammatical relationship in the words. So the listeners understand with the sounds,
words, intonation, grammatical structure, and other components of spoken language. The
researcher concludes that bottom up process only focused on linguistic such as lexical,
phonemic, and syllabic.

a. What Is Active Listening?

Active listening means giving full attention to the speaker and trying to
understand the complete message being sent. Active listeners show verbal and nonverbal
signs of listening. Positive reinforcement, remembering, and questioning are all verbal
signs of active listening. Nonverbal signs include smiling, head nods, posture, and
avoiding all distractions. Active listening also involves encouraging positive
conversation. This means acknowledging the other person’s point of view and being able
to repeat back what was said in your own words.

There are several language experts who support the idea of the importance of
listening the skills of listening comprehension and pronunciation are interdependent: if
they are not able to understand spoken English well, or if they cannot be understood
easily, they are cut off from the language, except form the written form.

Listening is assuming greater and greater importance in foreign language

classrooms. There are several reasons for this growth in popularity. By emphasizing the
role of comprehensible input, second language acquisition research has given a major
boost to listening and Listening is thus fundamental to speaking. Therefore, listening is
the prior skill in foreign language learning, because the first step that the students must do
in language learning process is listen. Before the students learn, they should listen first
before they speak, read, and write.
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Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting
the conditions for learning. It means that, teaching is a process for the learners to gain
information from their learning activity. In teaching process, the teacher should facilitate
and make the learning process more interesting to make the learners comfortable in the
learning process. The principles can be standard to limit teachers when they teach
listening.

Harmer (2001, pp. 111- 112) states that the principles of teaching listening are
stated below: 1) The tape recorder is just as important as the tape 2) Preparation is vital 3)
Once will not be enough 4) Students should be encouraged to respond to the content of
listening not just to the language 5) Different listening stages demand different listening
tasks 6) Good teacher exploit listening texts to the full Based on definition above, it
means that teaching listening is process in which listeners play an active role in
discrimination between sounds, understanding vocabulary and grammatical structures,
interpreting intonation and stress, and finally. Teaching is process of collaboration of
teacher and students, it is should be the process of transferring knowledge.

Video in language learning may mean the use of popular films on video to
provide content, and the use of smaller pieces of broadcast materials such as short
documentaries and television advertisements. Video materials can be a learning
alternative because they contain dialogues from highly proficient English speakers, which
could contribute to an easier understanding of their pronunciation, using video were
selected and reviewed to determine the effects of video on students achievement and
attitude.

b. Why Is Active Listening Important?

Having active listening skills has many benefits; besides better comprehension in
the classroom, active listeners tend to be better communicators and problem solvers.
Being an active listener also shows good character, commitment, and is an essential
component of being a leader.

Benefits of being an active listener include:

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a), Fewer misunderstandings

b). Faster work rate

c.) Improved resourcefulness

d). More self-reliance

e). Improved productivity

c. Active Listening vs Passive Listening

Passive listening is simply hearing what the speaker is saying without really trying to
understand it. When students passively listen, they don’t retain information because they
are easily distracted, but active listening requires the listener to understand the point the
speaker is trying to communicate, not just hearing the words he or she is saying.
Becoming a better listener is an important skill that students need to actively develop and
practice.

d. How can you help your child improve his or her listening skills?

Five Steps to Active Listening

Teachers can teach students how to become an active listener by becoming active
listeners themselves. Through modeling active listening to students, he or she is able to
see the value and importance of being an active listener. It also gives the students a
reference to develop his or her own listening habits to improve the active listening skills
of both you and your child by following these 5 tips:

1). Maintain Eye Contact

People who maintain eye contact are seen as reliable, warm, sociable, honest, confident,
and active. Focusing your eyes also helps improve concentration. This helps you fully
understand what the speaker is saying.
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2). Don’t Interrupt

Let the speaker complete his or her thought before you try to respond. Do not interrupt,
finish sentences, or rush him or her. Avoid guessing or assuming where his or her
thoughts are going this can create a negative impact on effective communication.

3).Ask Questions

One way to show you are listening (and make sure you hear correctly) is to ask specific
questions about what is being said. This provides clarification, ensures understanding,
and shows that you are listening.

Try asking these four types of questions:

a. Open-ended: expand the discussion further

Example: “How was your day at school today?”

b. Close-ended: prompt for specifics

Example: “Are you finished your homework?”

c. Leading: prompts the respondent to answer in a particular way

Example: “Do you have too much homework?”

d. Reflective: expand and extend thinking

Example: “You mentioned math is your favorite subject in school, tell me more about
that.”

4). Repeat Back What the Speaker Says

Repeat what has been said back to the speaker in your own words. This helps
make sure you have understood what he or she is saying. Summarize by repeating the
main points of the message. This gives the speaker a chance to correct you, if necessary.

5) Listen for Total Meaning

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Any message has two components: the content of the message and the underlying
feeling or attitude. Both parts are important and give the message meaning. Listen for
both for content and the underlying emotions. Sometimes the real message is in the
emotion rather than the content. Teacher is developing the skills both need to be better
active listeners. Practicing these steps with students will continue to help him or her
improve his or her listening habits.

e. Teaching Active Listening Activities for Students

Showing the young learner how to be an active listener by example is only the
first step. It is also important to practice these skills. Try these activities to help develop
and sharpen your young learner listening skills.

Read stories to students. Ask him or her to predict what will happen next. The prediction
requires listening to the details to make a logical guess.

Cook with them. Read the recipe to him or her, having their listen to and follow each step
to complete the recipe correctly.

Have conversations about things the students is interested in. This gives them a chance to
engage in a real conversation, practicing both speaking and listening.

Play the telephone game. Get together with a group and have one person whisper a
sentence to the next person. Each person repeats it to the next until the final person. Have
this person say the sentence aloud and see how much the two sentences have changed.

Create a list of questions with students for him or her to ask you or a sibling. After
one person has answered, see how many the others can remember. Switch roles and see
how well the other person does. Play the “spot the change” game. Read your child a short
story. Then read it again, making some changes. Each time hears a change have him or
her clap or raise his or her hand. Get creative with “follow the directions.” Give short,
simple instructions and have them draw according to the directions they hear. It takes a
lot of concentration and determination to be a better listener. Practicing active listening
techniques will help students become better communicators and build listening skills they
will use for life.
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When it comes to teaching effective listening skills, it’s not so much about the
ears as it is about being observant. “Listen” is a single word with such big implications. A
good listener receives information, processes it, gives feedback for clarity, and decides
how they will act on it—and all this happens in a flash.

Words are simply inadequate for true communication. At best, they are symbols
for elusive deeper meanings and ideas. So how does one go about teaching effective
listening skills? In a word, we model them.10 ways of teaching effective listening skills
with all students. As you employ them in your practices, be sure to take young learner
along for the ride by listening, observing, and telling them what you’re doing where
appropriate and comfortable.

1). Stop talking: If you’re talking, you’re not listening. Quiet yourself, your responses,
and your interjections. Be open and available to what is being sought by the other person
through your listening.

2). Get into your listening mode: Quiet the environment. Mentally open your mind to
hearing by getting comfortable and engaging in eye contact.

3). Make the speaker feel comfortable: Examples of this might be nodding or using
gestures. Seating is also important. Decide if the speaker will feel more comfortable if
you stay behind your desk, or if you took a chair beside them. For smaller children, get at
their eye level instead of towering over them.

4). Remove distractions: This is something you might not think of at first. It means things
like clearing the room, quieting screens, and silencing your phone, If the speaker requests
privacy, honor that by closing the door or asking others to give you a few minutes in
private.

5). Empathize: At the very least, try “learning instead to embrace and wonder at their
“otherness.”

6). Be comfortable with silence: Some people really need time to formulate a thoughtful
response. Rushing them through, or suggesting what they want to say, robs them of the
opportunity to communicate honestly.
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7). put aside personal prejudice: This is also quite difficult, as our experiences form who
we are. Putting all those experiences aside is a skill which requires help and practice.

8). Heed the tone: Sometimes the tone can hide the meaning of the words, and sometimes
the tone enhances the meaning of the words. Know which is which.

9). Listen for underlying meanings, not words: Listen first for comprehension, and then a
second time for ideas.

10). Pay attention to non-verbal communication: People communicate through body

language and facial expressions. This is why eye contact is necessary.

f. Some considerations for classroom listening

These are some of the things I consider when I try to develop my students' listening.
(Brewster, Ellis & Girard)

a) Give the children confidence. We should not expect them to always

understand every word and they should know this.

b) Explain why the children have to listen. Make sure the learners are clear about
why they are listening, what the main point or purpose of the activity is.

c) Help children develop specific strategies for listening. An important strategy

that the teacher should teach is 'intelligent guesswork'. Pupils are used to
drawing on their background knowledge to work out something they are not
sure of.

d) Set specific listening tasks. I try to think of listening in three stages, pre-
listening, while-listening, post listening and have activities for each stage.

e) Listening does not have to rely on the availability of a cassette or pre-recorded

material. Most listening is teacher talk.

g. What I do to be more comprehensible

There are a number of ways that I try to make easier to understand.

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a) Keep sentences short and grammatically simple

b) Use exaggerated intonation to hold the child's attention

c) Emphasize key words

d) Limiting the topics talked about to what is familiar to the child

e) Frequently repeating and paraphrasing

Listening is an active process, as the mind actively engages in making meaning. It

is therefore our duty as teachers to ensure that the materials we use are comprehensible to
our young learners, as well as within the range of what they are developmentally ready
for. Listening is also hard work! And can be stressful! So in order to maximise the
potential for acquisition of language, we need to ensure that our young learners are not
stressed about this process.

4. Learn Reading Skill

1. Essential Reading Comprehension Strategies For Students and Teachers

Reading comprehension is the ultimate goal when teaching your child to read.
After all, when a child struggles with comprehension, reading can be a miserable chore.
Wouldn’t it be nice if you could find some easy-to-follow ideas to help you nurture this
ability?

Reading comprehension is the ability to fully understand what is being read.

A person with great reading comprehension can visualize, question, and interpret what
they are reading, and they can think about their own feelings and opinions while reading
text. The comprehension process is mostly unconscious—it happens without our active
involvement or awareness.

There are some prerequisites for good reading comprehension. If any of these skills are
lacking, comprehension will be lacking as well:

a) Decoding skills
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b) Fluency

c) Vocabulary

d) Background knowledge

But even when these foundational skills are present, reading comprehension is not
necessarily automatic. Some important strategies may still be required.

2. What Reading Comprehension Strategies Are Helpful?

Good readers use many different strategies. Some strategies are used at a
conscious level, while others are employed unconsciously. Depending on the purpose for
reading and the difficulty of the text, effective strategies may include those listed in the
chart below.

Three things NOT to Do When Teaching Comprehension

While it is important to teach comprehension strategies to your student, it’s also

important to realize that these strategies are tools and not the main goal. It’s imperative
that you avoid focusing too much on individual comprehension strategies.

1) Don’t assume that your child is comprehending just because she can decode all the
words. Make sure that she understands what she is reading and isn’t just “word calling.”

2) Don’t confuse comprehension with being able to answer literal questions. When
working with beginning readers, it is sometimes helpful to ask a literal question such as
“what did Jack buy at the store?” but be sure to move on from shallow questions.
Focusing on literal questions not only bores your student, but also discourages in-depth
interactions with the text.

3) Don’t spend too much time teaching a single comprehension strategy. Good readers
use many different strategies, often simultaneously. Over-emphasizing a single strategy
will make reading harder than it needs to be. For example, when students are constantly
asked to compare and contrast, meaning can be lost (as well as motivation for reading).
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More time should be spent reading interesting books than working on comprehension
strategies.

3.Background Information Is Crucial for Reading Comprehension

In order to make sense of what you read, you need to have background
knowledge. Before a child can understand the short story “Pirate Food,” for example, it is
important that she have some familiarity with different foods and pirate dialects. Reading
aloud to your child is one of the best ways to help develop background knowledge.
Reading a wide variety of books helps build a storehouse of knowledge of places, events,
emotions, vocabulary, and language structure, other methods of building background
knowledge include travel, hands-on activities, workshops, and discussions. Your child
will later draw upon this information when she is reading independently.

Exposure to a wide variety of books and experiences help your child distinguish reality
from fantasy, recognize cause-and-effect, understand character motivation, and make
predictions about what she is reading.

4. How Does All About Reading Teach Comprehension?

In the All About Reading program, we work on reading comprehension from the
very first story your child reads, which is in Level 1, Lesson 3. The story contains only
words that have already been taught, using just eight letters (M, S, P, A, N, T, B, and J).
Would you like to see how we do it?

5. All about Reading Story Lesson

As you watch the video below, notice that even though there are only 20 words in
this first story, Linda is already helping her student work on comprehension through the
following:

a) expressive reading
b) introducing new vocabulary
c) activating prior knowledge
d) modeling comprehension strategies
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e) making predictions
f) skimming

Every story lesson in the All About Reading program focuses on reading comprehension.
A wide variety of methods are used, including graphic organizers, discussing literary
devices, providing background information, and relating stories to the child’s own life.
Students learn that reading is much more than just decoding the words—it is about
engaging in a conversation with the text.

To see an example of how we teach reading comprehension in the higher levels of

All About Reading,

The Bottom Line on Improving Reading Comprehension

When it comes to improving your child’s reading comprehension, here’s what you
need to keep in mind:

Build a foundation for reading comprehension with decoding skills, fluency,

vocabulary, and background knowledge.

Spend more time reading interesting books than on teaching comprehension

strategies.

Help build your child’s background knowledge with hands-on activities,

workshops, discussions, and exposure to a wide variety of books and experiences.

The All About Reading program walks you and your child through all the steps to
help your child achieve reading comprehension. The program is multisensory,
motivating, and complete, with everything you need to raise a strong reader. And if you
ever need a helping hand, we’re here for you.

6. Literacy strategies

Literacy is a skill that must be learned, not an innate talent. Good, effective
comprehension does not come naturally with the ability to read for everyone, and so
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teachers and parents must make the extra effort to teach young students the analytical
skills required to comprehend texts to their fullest.

In this guide, you’ll find an extensive list of literacy strategies to aid students in
their journey towards better comprehension skills. You can even practice them for
yourself, if you’re learning to speak a new language (most of these techniques can be
applied to any new language), or if you’ve struggled in the past with effective
comprehension. Discover more reading comprehension and literacy strategies with this
online prep course.

7. Minute Comprehension

This literacy strategy is best exercised early on in a classroom setting or in a self-taught

environment if you’re practicing reading comprehension skills on your own. Readers
should be given a page of text, or other relatively short passage that they can finish
reading within one minute. After the minute is over, the reader should turn over the page,
and take thirty seconds to write down everything they remember from the passage –
every single detail and piece of information that comes to mind. This isn’t about
prioritizing information, it’s about identifying how much information a reader is able to
absorb.

After those thirty seconds or so, the reader should then return to the passage for
another minute. After that minute, they should turn the page over again, and write out any
information they remember that they didn’t specify before. With this exercise, readers
can better gauge how much information they’re capable of absorbing at a time. Pacing is
as much a factor in reading comprehension is anything, and understanding where your
skills currently stand before a lesson is as important as knowing where you want them to
be after the lesson.

8. Learning to read is a complex skill that demands a lot from our students.

Once students have moved on from the relatively easy process of decoding the
words on the page and are able to read with a level of fluency and automaticity,
increasing demands are made upon their ability to comprehend their reading at evermore
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complex levels. One minute they’re being asked to unravel the threads of meaning in a
Shakespearean tragedy, the next to wrap their brains around the hard science in a Physics
textbook. There’s no doubt about it, research (not to mention experience) reveals to us
that students require more than a single comprehension strategy to become confident and
proficient readers.

In this article we will examine 7 cognitive strategies that you can use in the
classroom to help your students improve their overall reading comprehension. We’ll also
look at how these strategies can be taught in the classroom and provide you with a
straightforward activity to get your students started using the strategies right away.

The 7 Reading Comprehension Strategies

The 7 reading comprehension strategies we’ll look at in this article are:

1.Monitoring

2.Visualising

3.Activating

4.Questioning

5,Inferring

6.Summarising

7.Determining Importance

Now, let’s take a look at each of these in turn.

1. Monitoring Comprehension Strategy

What is the Monitoring Comprehension Strategy? Put simply, monitoring refers

to the process of assessing your understanding of something as you read it. It requires you
to pay attention to your own thinking as you read a text. As with all of our reading
strategies, this requires students to develop their metacognition - thinking about thinking.
 67

Employing this strategy asks us to notice our own thoughts and filter through
them to identify what is new in our reading, what questions arise, what background
knowledge do we have and what are the inferences that we are making as we read.
Monitoring requires us to do all this and observe how it all weaves together to help us
unravel the meaning of a text.

Essentially, the monitoring comprehension strategy requires us to pay close

attention and observe not only the text we are reading, but our own thoughts about and
observations on the text too. Done diligently, the monitoring comprehension strategy
encourages the reader to assess their understanding of a text on an ongoing basis.

This allows them to make adjustments to their approach to a text as necessary,

ensuring they don’t mindlessly scan through a text without understanding what they’ve
read. A student who is using this strategy will be an engaged student aware of their
current level of understanding and able to respond accordingly.

Though the monitoring comprehension strategy is only one of the strategies we will
explore in this article, it can be thought of as a kind of overarching strategy that can
encompass aspects of all the other strategies within it.

How Can I Teach the Monitoring Comprehension Strategy in the Classroom?

The earliest method of employing this strategy is most often reading aloud with our
students. We encourage interactivity while doing this. We model thinking about the text
as we read together, eventually passing over the responsibility for thinking about the text
to our students.

To do this, encourage your students to read with partners, to ask questions of each
other, and to draw and write about what they’ve read. This encourages the student to
think consciously about their reading and their comprehension of it. Be sure too to expose
them to a wide range of genres; both fiction and nonfiction. With enough practice, your
students will begin to employ this strategy independently and automatically each time
they read.
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2. Visualization Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Visualization Comprehension Strategy? Visualization involves the

construction of mental images with the purpose of drawing meaning from a text. When
engaged in visualization, students will form pictures in their minds of what they have
read as they read it.

However, visualization is perhaps a poor name for this strategy with its
suggestion of ‘seeing’ alone. Visualization is actually about engaging more than just our
sense of sight. Students who are adept at using this strategy will not only make mental
images in their minds, but they’ll conjure up in their imaginations the smells, sounds,
feel, and tastes of what they read too.

How Can I Teach the Visualization Comprehension Strategy in the Classroom?

The best method of teaching this strategy to your students is to use direct modeling.
Begin by reading aloud a familiar story. As you read, describe to the students the mental
images that you form in your mind.

Once you have given students an insight into your thought processes while reading, then
challenge individual students to have a go themselves with short passages, They should
read a sentence or two to begin with, then describe the images in their minds as they read
them. They should continue in this manner until they complete the passage. With time,
this too will become 2nd nature to the students as another string is added to their bow.

3. Activating Prior Knowledge Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Activating Prior Knowledge Comprehension Strategy? This

comprehension strategy encourages students to make connections between what they’re
reading and their own experiences. In the process, the student’s reading becomes more
personally meaningful.

Prior knowledge is the knowledge that students have already. It’s what the student
brings to their reading. The more prior knowledge they have in any given area, the better
able they’ll be to comprehend what they read. As students learn to make connections
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between the things they read and their own lives, they will begin to develop a scaffold on
which they can hang new ideas and concepts.

How Can I Teach the Activating Prior Knowledge Comprehension Strategy in the
Classroom? This strategy begins even before the book is opened. First, ask the students
to preview the book. Examine the cover and discuss what they see there. Flip through the
pages of the book together and read the blurb on the back. Discuss with the students what
they think the book might be about based on their observations. As you read through the
book, encourage students to point out when they read something they know already.
What else do they know about this topic? Can they share what they know with the class?

As with all the strategies in this article, activating prior knowledge gets us
thinking about reading, it is a metacognitive skill as well as a skill that is reliant on the
student’s own knowledge and experience.

4. Questioning Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Questioning Comprehension Strategy? This comprehension strategy

encourages students to think critically about what they read, as well as helps students to
develop their own sense of curiosity. Just as we ask our students questions in order to
stimulate their thinking, students ask themselves questions about a text to kick start their
exploration of the text in pursuit of understanding. Questioning ensures students engage
closely with a text, making reading more than just a passive pursuit in the process.

How Can I Teach the Questioning Comprehension Strategy in the Classroom?

Instruct students that questioning should take place before, during, and after their reading.
It will provide them with purpose and focus for their reading. In this strategy, students
will ask questions for several reasons, including to clarify meaning (What does this word
mean? Why did that happen?), to understand the events and characters better (Why did
she do that? What would happen if…?, and to understand the writer’s purpose (Why did
they write that?. Asking questions is especially important when a student finds themself
not understanding what is happening. Asking clarification questions helps the student to
seek out the information required to make their comprehension clearer.
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5. Inferring Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Inferring Comprehension Strategy? Using this strategy requires the
student to become something of a textual detective. It helps students to understand things
that are not made explicit in the text. It’s what we mean when we say to students “Read
between the lines!” Rather than simply relying on what the writer has articulated directly
in the text, inferring meaning requires the student to look for clues to figure out the
meaning behind the text. This demands critical thinking on the part of the student and
pushes the student to a higher level of comprehension.

How Can I Teach the Inferring Comprehension Strategy in the Classroom? As

with previous strategies, learning to use inferring as a comprehension strategy begins
with teacher modeling. Choose a section of suitable text, display the text on a whiteboard
or give students copies of it, and read aloud with students. At appropriate points in the
text, pause and ask the students what they think is really going on. Teachers should then
provide their answer, modeling for the students as they do so which clues in the text led
them to their conclusion.

Some Useful Prompts For Encouraging Inference Include:

a. What’s really going on here?

b. How do you think the character feels?

c. Why do you think that happened?

d. How do you know that?

e. What clues led you to that conclusion?

6. Summarizing Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Summarizing Comprehension Strategy? Summarizing means that

students retell the story or information in the text they’ve read in their own words. To do
this successfully, they need to be able to pull out the main points of the text and express
these in their own words. To summarize effectively, the student must express the gist of
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the text. This requires them to identify the essential ideas and consolidate the most
important elements of the text that support these ideas.

How Can I Teach the Summarizing Comprehension Strategy in the Classroom?

There are many activities to help students gain valuable practice at summarizing their
reading. One fun activity that can be used is the $2 Sum Up. In this activity each word
costs 10c and the student only has $2 to sum up the main idea of their reading. This game
is fun, but it also helps push the student to gain a clear grasp of the material they’ve been
tasked to summarize. It also offers the student a good opportunity for writing practice as
it forces the student to keep their writing lean and tight.

7. Determining Importance Comprehension Strategy

What Is the Determining Importance Comprehension Strategy? There is a sorting

process that students must learn if they are to successfully navigate their way through the
ocean of words that await them. They’ll need to learn to continuously prioritize the
information that they come across when reading. In the determining importance reading
comprehension strategy, students look for clues in the text to help them sort the bits of
information in the text into a hierarchy of relative value.

How Can I Teach the Determining Importance Comprehension Strategy in the

Classroom? Determining importance demands that the student pays attention to all
elements of the text. They must analyze everything from headings and bullet points, to
the language used in the text right down to the word level. A simple way to practice this
in class is to provide the students with Post-It notes. After reading a provided text,
students should make notes of the various bits of information in the text on the Post-It
notes. When they have done this they can sort the bits of information according to their
overall importance relative to each other.

1.Turn Over a New Leaf

So, there we have it, 7 reading comprehension strategies to help students get to grips with
even the most complex of texts.
 72

Teaching these strategies to your students can ensure they have enough tools in their
toolbox to ‘fix’ their comprehension of most texts they’ll be asked to read. If one strategy
fails, then they pull out the next one until they have eventually achieved a solid
understanding of the text.

While working on improving student reading comprehension, it is important to

remind them that the road to becoming a proficient reader demands that they don’t just
give up at the first hurdle to understanding. Nor should they plough onwards regardless
of the fact the meaning of the text has eluded them either. With practice and over time,
proficient readers develop competency in a range of strategies that they can alternate
between to unlock the meaning of even the most opaque of texts.

Ginny Osewalt stated that what helps kids understand what they read? Being an
active reader is key. That means focusing on the text, questioning it, and taking mental
notes. You can work on these skills with your child at home. Use these seven tips to help
improve your child’s reading comprehension.

5. Are you a teacher? Check out Understood for Educators.

a.. Make connections.

When kids connect what they already know to what they read, it helps them focus.
Show your child how to make connections when you read aloud. If a book mentions
places you’ve been to with your child, talk about those memories. Then have your child
give it a try.

b. Ask questions.

Asking questions encourages kids to look for clues in the text. When you read
together, ask questions to spark your child’s curiosity. Ask things like “What do you
think will happen?” or “How is that character feeling?”

c. Make “mind movies.”

Visualizing helps bring a story to life. That’s where mind movies come in. When
you read with your child, describe what the scene looks like in your head. Talk about how
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it makes you feel. You can use other senses, too. For example, if the scene takes place
outside, what does it smell like? Then invite your child to make a mind movie, too. Point
out how your child’s movie is different from yours. If your child likes to draw or color,
encourage your child to make a picture of the scene, too.

d. Look for clues.

When you combine what you already know with clues from a story, you can make
guesses or predictions. These are inferences. And making them is a great way to build
reading comprehension. For example, when we read “Kim’s eyes were red and nose was
runny,” we can infer that Kim has a cold or allergies. Help your child do this as you read.
If a character is wearing gym clothes and sweating, ask your child what the character
might have been doing before.

e. Figure out what’s important.

Ask your child: Who are the main characters? What’s the most important thing
that has happened in the story so far? What problem are the characters trying to solve?
When kids can point out what’s important, they’re more likely to understand what they
read. Your child can also use a tool called a graphic organizer to do this. A “story
element” organizer keeps track of the main characters, where the story is taking place,
and the problem and solution of the story.

f. Check understanding.

It helps to encourage kids to stop and ask themselves, “Is this making sense?” If
your child gets stuck, suggest rereading the part that didn’t make sense. What about it
was confusing? Were there specific words that tripped your child up?

g. Try new things.

The more kids know about the world, the more they can get meaning out of what
they read. You don’t have to take an expensive trip or go to a museum to do this, though.
You can expand kids’ background knowledge and vocabulary in lots of ways. Shooting
hoops or watching a baseball game can help your child connect more with books about
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sports. Riding the subway might make your child interested in books that take place in
big cities. Even with these tips, some kids still have a hard time understanding what they
read. Learn more about how to help your child with reading. And get an expert’s take on
why kids may have trouble understanding or remembering what they read.

6 Strategies To Improve Reading Comprehension

Try these tips to help your child develop stronger literacy skills

Developing reading comprehension skills is incredibly important for growing

readers, starting as early as picture books. As children get older, it will help them
understand textbooks, newspapers, and other more complex texts.

Scholastic offers plenty of grade-appropriate reading comprehension activity books that

can help your child practice, but in addition, here are six tips to sharpen reading
comprehension skills in your early reader.

Want even more book and reading ideas?

1. Have them read aloud. This forces them to go slower, which gives them more time to
process what they read and in turn improves reading comprehension. Plus, they're not
only seeing the words — they're hearing them, too! You can also take turns reading
aloud.

2. Provide books at the right level. Make sure your child gets lots of practice reading
books that aren't too hard. They should recognize at least 90 percent of the words without
any help and stopping any more often than that to figure out a word makes it tough for
kids to focus on the overall meaning of the story.

If your child needs help transitioning from picture books to chapter books, try
Scholastic's Branches books, which are designed to bridge that gap for growing readers.

3. Reread to build fluency. To gain meaning from text and encourage reading
comprehension, your child needs to read quickly and smoothly — a skill known as
fluency. By the beginning of 3rd grade, for example, your child should be able to read 90
words a minute.
 75

Rereading familiar, simple books gives your child practice at decoding words quickly, so
they'll become more fluent in their reading comprehension. Learn more about the
multiple benefits of rereading books!

4. Talk to the teacher. If your child is struggling with reading comprehension, they may
need more help with building their vocabulary or practicing phonics skills. A teacher can
weigh in on the best next steps to take.

5. Supplement their class reading. If your child's class is studying a particular theme, look
for easy-to-read books or magazines on the topic. Some prior knowledge will help them
make their way through tougher classroom texts and promote reading comprehension.

6. Talk about what they're reading. This "verbal processing" helps them remember and
think through the themes of the book. Ask questions before, during, and after a session to
encourage reading comprehension. (Read about all the questions you should ask during
story time here!) For example:

Before: "What are you interested in about this book? What doesn't interest you?"

During: "What's going on in the book? Is it turning out the way you thought it would?
What do you think will happen next?"

After: "Can you summarize the book? What did you like about it? What other books does
it remind you of?"
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CHAPTER VI

MOTIVATION OF LEARNING

What is the best way to motivate students? The short answer is that all of these
strategies can be used, as often as possible. Understanding student motivation is much
like a group of blind men discovering for the first time what an elephant is like. One man
holds the tail and says that an elephant is like a broom. Another holds a leg and says that
an elephant is like a tree trunk. Others say an elephant is like a big pillow, a big hose, or a
spear. Each blind man has an accurate portrayal from his specific vantage point but not
the whole picture. This also seems to be the case regarding student motivation. Each of
the writers or theorists has another valuable aspect that contributes to the understanding
of student motivation. However, no theory seems to be complete in and of itself. As such,
maybe the best way to gain some new understandings about motivation is to hold all of
these theories simultaneously in mind, much like a giant puzzle, and see where there is
good understanding and where there are gaps. These new ideas then could be translated
into the classroom, using those specific items that are effective and useful in each
instructor’s unique classroom situation. At the very least, it seems that motivation in the
classroom is a function of five components: student, teacher, content, method/process,
and environment. Aspects of any of these five components could contribute to and/or
hinder motivation. Maybe educators could start just by choosing and trying three new
possibilities for enriching student motivation. Or, more importantly, educators could
watch themselves and their own behavior to become self-aware of new understandings
about motivation. Remember.

Ames (1992), Lepper and Hodell (1989) suggest some strategies to increase
students' classroom motivation. Turner and Paris (1995) term these the Six C's of
Motivation: choice, challenge, control, collaboration, constructing meaning, and
consequences. As we apply the Six C’s of Motivation to instructional design it is
important to remember that these strategies are extremely flexible and can be modified
and adapted as needed

79
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Given the importance of teachers’ motivational strategies for students’ motivation

and learning outcomes, the purpose of this small-scale exploratory study was to gain
more insight into how teachers negotiate their personal beliefs with contextual factors,
and how this affects the extent to which they adopt autonomy-supportive or controlling
teaching strategies. As such, this paper contributes to our understanding of why teachers
often rely on controlling motivational strategies even though these controlling strategies
have been associated with adverse student outcomes

According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan 1985),

motivational strategies can vary along a continuum that ranges from highly autonomy-
supportive to very controlling (Deci et al. 1991; Ryan and Deci 2000a; Vallerand 1997;
Vansteenkiste et al. 2004). Autonomy-supportive motivational strategies aim to nurture
students’ inner motivational resources and volitional intentions to act. In classrooms,
autonomy can be facilitated by transferring responsibility of the learning process to
students, providing choice, connecting to students’ interests, providing explanatory
rationales, and creating meaningful and relevant learning activities. Such strategies are
aimed at increasing students’ own willingness to engage in learning activities.
Conversely, controlling motivational strategies include compelling students to think, feel
or act in certain ways, and overruling students’ own perspectives. Controlling teachers
motivate students by external incentives, pressure or control instead of relying on
students’ inner motivational resources. Such strategies include the use of external rewards
such as grades or directive language (Jang et al. 2010; Niemic and Ryan 2009; Reeve and
Jang 2006; Reeve et al. 2004a, b; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004). Although it is often assumed
that autonomy-supportive strategies and structure are opposites, structure can be
delivered in autonomy-supportive ways (Reeve 2009) by communication of clear
expectations, giving directions, providing guidelines and setting limits. Control is
different from structure, however, because control implies that teachers exert pressure on
students (Reeve 2009).

Autonomy-supportive teaching strategies have been associated with higher

intrinsic motivation and more favorable learning outcomes (Jang et al. 2010; Reeve et al.
2004a, b; Ryan and Deci 2000b; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004, 2006). Autonomy-supportive
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teaching in combination with structure has been found to be most beneficial to students’
motivation (Sierens et al. 2009). Likewise, research from interpersonal theory has
demonstrated that teaching styles characterized by high affiliation with students in
combination with intermediate levels of control are associated with higher levels of
student motivation (Wubbels and Brekelmans 2005).

Moreover, various studies have indicated that constructivist teaching approaches

which include elements of autonomy-supportive teaching, such as personal relevance,
shared control and student negotiation, positively relate to student motivation (e.g. Fraser
2012; Henderson and Fisher 2008; Maulana et al. 2012; Ogbuehi and Fraser 2007). In
contrast, high levels of dominance or control have been associated with adverse
motivational outcomes, such as lower intrinsic motivation, more controlled motivation, or
even lack of motivation (Jang et al. 2010; Reeve et al. 2004a, b; Ryan and Deci 2000a;
Vansteenkiste et al. 2004, 2006; Wubbels and Brekelmans 2005).

Many studies have shown that, in practice, teachers often use controlling
motivational strategies even though research seems to indicate that autonomy-supportive
strategies are more favorable with regard to students’ motivation (e.g. Reeve 2009; Stroet
et al. 2013; Turner 2010). Thus far, many studies on teachers’ motivational strategies
have depended on survey research (Stroet et al. 2013). However, the choice to use
controlling or autonomy-supportive teaching strategies and their effectiveness could
depend on a variety of factors often not taken into account in survey research, such as
teachers’ personal beliefs, contextual factors and student characteristics (Furtak and
Kunter 2012; Iyengar and Lepper 1999). To gain more insight into these aspects, the
present study therefore qualitatively examined the role of teachers’ personal beliefs and
the contextual factors that teachers can experience in relation to their motivational
strategies.

Learning Environ Res (2015) 18:363–392 365 123 Teachers’ personal beliefs and
their motivational strategies Teachers usually hold very stable long-term beliefs about the
nature of student motivation and the particular motivational strategies that are effective in
motivating their students (Pajares 1992; Turner 2010; Turner et al. 2009). Teacher beliefs
are developed through teachers’ own experiences as learners (Mansfield and Volet 2010;
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Richardson 2003), their initial teacher training (Avalos 2011; Mansfield and Volet 2010;
Richardson 2003), as well as their professional experiences as teachers (Avalos 2011;
Turner et al. 2009). Often, teachers use controlling motivational strategies that can be at
odds with motivational theories (Reeve 2009; Turner 2010). Several reasons can account
for this difference between motivational theory and actual teacher behaviours.

Teachers’ personal beliefs about motivation and learning or their role as a teacher
can account for some differences (Eisenhart et al. 1988). Teachers can find controlling
strategies more effective when they seem to believe that students are not motivated. In
such instances, teachers consider lack of motivation to be an innate characteristic of
students, and they might resort to controlling strategies so that they can make students
work without having to encourage their inner motivational resources (Reeve 2009).
Furthermore, a teacher’s belief that extrinsic rewards encourage learning can be deeply
rooted and so, when students are not autonomously motivated, teachers could offer
extrinsic rewards such as grades to make students learn. Also, some teachers could feel
that they will more efficiently reach their instructional goals when using controlling
strategies (Reeve 2009). In other words, simply instructing students about what to do,
instead of explaining the relevance or providing choice through offering different
strategies, seems to be less time consuming for teachers. Previous research has also
shown that teachers’ motivational strategies do not always correspond with their own
motivational beliefs (Mansour 2009; Raymond 1997).

Some teachers could have personal beliefs favouring autonomy-supportive

motivational strategies, but there could be factors in the educational context that constrain
teachers from teaching according to those beliefs (Mansour 2009). Teachers’ perceptions
of contextual pressures and their motivational strategies Pelletier et al. (2002) described
several contextual conditions that can pressure teachers to teach in controlling ways.
Contextual factors can be divided into factors from above and factors from below.
Factors from above, with which teachers in many countries are faced, include
performance standards (Deci et al. 1982), high-stakes testing (Nolen 2011; Ryan and
Brown 2005; Ryan and Weinstein 2009) or pressure from school administrations,
colleagues and parents (Reeve 2009). In contrast, factors from below arise from the day-
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today interactions within the classroom and refer to the motivational characteristics of the
student population (Pelletier et al. 2002). Pelletier et al. (2002) found that teachers
resorted to more extrinsically-oriented controlling motivational strategies when students
appeared unmotivated.

When perceiving a lack of intrinsic motivation from students, teachers might try
to tell students what to do or motivate them by grades or other forms of rewards or
punishments. Furthermore, Oakes (1985) found that teachers in schools with many low
achieving students emphasized controlling motivational strategies, conformity and
obedience. Likewise, Solomon et al. (1996) found that teachers who worked at more
disadvantaged schools rated their strategies as more controlling, held more positive
attitudes towards teacher authority and held less positive attitudes towards student
autonomy.

1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Educational psychology has identified two basic classifications of motivation -

intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from a desire to learn a topic due to its
inherent interests, for self-fulfillment, enjoyment and to achieve a mastery of the subject.
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation to perform and succeed for the sake
of accomplishing a specific result or outcome. Students who are very grade-oriented are
extrinsically motivated, whereas students who seem to truly embrace their work and take
a genuine interest in it are intrinsically motivated.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Typical students bring varying degrees of both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to the learning arena. Intrinsic motivational factors
found to be at work with most students include involvement (the desire to be involved),
curiosity (find out more about their interests), challenge (figuring out the complexity of a
topic), and social interaction (creating social bonds). Extrinsic motivational factors
include compliance (to meet another’s expectation, to do what one is told); recognition
(to be publicly acknowledged); competition; and work avoidance (avoid more work than
necessary). Individuals who are motivated intrinsically tend to develop high regard for
learning course information without the use of external rewards or reinforcement. On the
 81

other hand, individuals who are motivated extrinsically rely solely on rewards and
desirable results for their motivation, e.g., tests and GPA. (Lei, 2010) Students who are
motivated externally are at a greater risk of performing lower academically than
intrinsically motivated students. It is interesting to note that nontraditional students report
higher levels of intrinsic motivation than traditional students. (Dean and Dagostino, 2007;
Daniels, 2010; Bye, Pushkar, and Conway, 2007; Afzal, et al., 2010)

2. Ingredient 1 Motivation For Students

Various individual and social factors: Overall academic motivation is affected by

various individual and social factors. For example, intrinsic motivation is affected by the
reason for preferring the school, the probability of finding a job after graduation, the
order of preference, the future expectation, the distinctiveness of testing and measuring
activities at the school, and desire to complete a Masters’ degree. In the simplest terms, it
is necessary to be motivated and to make an effort. Extrinsic motivation is significantly
affected by the probability of finding a job, the attitude towards the teacher, the peer
group, the level of income, the appropriateness of the classrooms, the adequacy of
teaching materials, and the number of siblings. The most effective extrinsic motivation is
the probability of finding a job. (Celikoz, 2010) Also, Gen Y students seem to be more
connected to their parents. As a result, it is important to involve the parents in
encouraging and motivating their children to do well in college. (McGlynn, 2008; Fulton
and Turner, 2008)

1) • Hierarchy of needs: Regarding lower level needs, if a student is hungry or thirsty, it

is more difficult to focus on learning. Also, if the environment is physically,
mentally, or emotionally unsafe, then it will be hard for the student to put all of his or
her attention on learning. If the teacher always is critical of the student, then the
student Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 4 probably
will not feel accepted or that he or she belongs. Low self-esteem and ego will make
the student feel unappreciated and unrecognized. As such, the educator must do what
is necessary to support the student to a higher level of need satisfaction so that the
student can focus his or her attention on learning. Even at the level of self-
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actualization, the educator may need to provide encouragement or opportunities.

(Maslow, 1943)
2) Perceived well-being: Students’ perceptions may be clouded by their perceived
wellbeing, e.g., bad mood, not being able to find parking, or having a disagreement
with someone before class. Well-being or life satisfaction is the degree to which a
student is content with his or her life including pleasure in daily activities,
meaningfulness of life, goodness of fit between desired and achieved goals, mood,
self-concept, perceived health, financial security, and social contact. To increase
satisfaction with the learning experience and in turn performance, these well-being
factors need to be extrapolated into the classroom. That is, factors beyond quality of
teaching can affect student satisfaction including student motivation, course level,
grade expectations, type of academic field, and workload difficulty. (Duffy and
Ketchard, 1998) At the very least, teachers will need to be compassionate and even
supportive of the personal life conditions of their students that surface in the process
of education.
3) Efficient use of energy and focus: Students should be taught how to produce results
while maintaining focus and energy. Businesses and organizations certainly focus on
getting the right results with the least effort or cost. Hence, educators need to train
students to “stalk” efficient and effective results. In another complementary vein
pertinent to the “greening” of business and the planet as a whole, each individual
ultimately will be required to become a master of focusing on and using skills such
as personal energy conservation and regeneration. This theme of efficiency should
serve the student in his or her studies as well as in his or her life and global citizenry.
4) Purposeful connection with work: Emergent motivation results from connecting
with work as a source of self-expression, exploration, and sustained creativity. It is
emergent because purpose arises out of the interaction between a student and what he
or she perceives as a significant and meaningful context. That is, students discover
their own rewards by mastering new challenges and making unique contributions in a
significant and meaningful context. To foster emergent motivation, educators need to
design variety into a learning system. This variety can overcome extensive individual
differences in student inputs and yield uniformly high levels of perceived personal
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effectiveness, organizational effectiveness, ability to apply course materials, and

satisfaction with both course results and the educational process. Also, students
become co-producers in the educational system because they are inherently
responsible for the learning work that takes place. (Lengnick-Hall and Sanders,
1997)
5) Conscientiousness and achievement: Conscientiousness and achievement motivation
are positively correlated with GPA. It is suggested that conscientious students may
do better because of differences in achievement motivation capacity. As such,
achievement motivation assessments and prior academic achievement could help
identify students likely to maximize their potential. On the other end of the
continuum, it also could alert educators to less conscientious and less achievement
oriented students. Then, in turn, educators could provide appropriate attention
incentives, or trainings that positively impact these students. In addition, it may be
possible to retrain students to self-regulate motivation for challenging academic
tasks, thereby enhancing their effort regulation capacities. Interventions could be
developed for this purpose. (Richardson and Abraham, 2009) It seems that success
does breed success.
6) Public speaking competence: Student motivation has been positively related to
public speaking competence, but not to the demonstration of communication
knowledge (Carrell, 1997). Because fear of public speaking is a prevalent phobia of
most people, continued practice in public speaking will teach students how to face
their greatest fears and get over them, hence, getting over unconscious blocks,
rebuilding traits, and enhancing self-concept. These positive results should make
students more confident and motivated.
7) Study time and study habits: Students lead very busy lives. As a result, evidence
shows that students are devoting less time to their studies (Higher Education
Research Institute, 2003). While the quantity of time spent studying has an influence
on performance, this influence is moderated by the students’ study habits. Also, the
ability to concentrate influences student performance positively. Having a good set
of notes is important, but it still depends on how study time is used. Ultimately,
 84

studying has quantitative aspects as well as qualitative aspects, that is, amount of
time studying and good study habits are both important. (Nonis and Hudson, 2010)
8) Lecture attendance: Lectures are viewed as positively associated with academic
performance. They also are perceived as valuable and interesting learning
experiences for students. Then, why is it that students skip lectures? Lectures may be
seen as only one of an array of student pressures. As a result, students engage in a
constant decision process that involves weighing the benefits against the costs of
attending lectures. Students generally see lectures as optional and not always as a
beneficial or enjoyable part of their college time. Non-attendance may simply be a
coping strategy that signals difficulty in coping with the content, processes, or
schedules associated with formal learning. (Moore, Armstrong, and Pearson, 2008)
9) Comprehensive, long-range educational plan: The development of a long-range
educational plan will help students to value education and to make the most of their
time in school. This plan also should contribute to their confidence and reduce the
fear of the unknown. That is, students who have compiled a long-range plan are less
likely to give up when difficulties occur. This plan is even more effective when it is
updated continuously and encompasses the transition from education to career.
Creating a vision of adulthood and who they want to become is very empowering.
This planning process can empower students to see the connection between school
and work. Ultimately, it prepares them for a lifetime of productive employment and
continual learning. (Dedmond, 2009)
3. Some Aspect Motivation

a. Make it real

In order to foster intrinsic motivation, try to create learning activities that are based on
topics that are relevant to your students' lives. Strategies include using local examples,
teaching with events in the news, using pop culture technology (iPods, cell phones,
YouTube videos) to teach, or connecting the subject with your students' culture, outside
interests or social lives. ([Brozo, 2005] ; McMahon and Kelly, 1996)
 85

b. Provide choices

Students can have increased motivation when they feel some sense of autonomy in the
learning process, and that motivation declines when students have no voice in the class
structure. Giving your students options can be as simple as letting them pick their lab
partners or select from alternate assignments, or as complex as "contract teaching"
wherein students can determine their own grading scale, due dates and assignments.
Kurvink, 1993 Reeve and Hyungshim, 2006 (Perkins 2002, GSA Abstract)

c. Balance the challenge

Students perform best when the level of difficulty is slightly above their current ability
level. If the task is to easy, it promotes boredom and may communicate a message of low
expectations or a sense that the teacher believes the student is not capable of better work.
A task that is too difficult may be seen as unattainable, may undermine self-efficacy, and
may create anxiety. Scaffolding is one instructional technique where the challenge level
is gradually raised as students are capable of more complex tasks. (Wang and Han) (more
info) , [Margolis and McCabe, 2006] [Adams, 1998]

d. Seek role models

If students can identify with role models they may be more likely to see the relevance in
the subject matter. For example, Weins et al (2003) found that female students were more
likely to cite a positive influence with a teacher as a factor for becoming interested in
science [Wiens et al, 2003] . In some cases, you can be a role model but it's unlikely that
you will connect on that level with everyone in the class due to differences in gender, age
and social circles. However there can be many sources of role models, such as invited
guest speakers, fellow students or other peers.

e. Use peer models

Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task. In this context, a peer means
someone who the student identities with, not necessarily any other student. Peers may be
drawn from groups as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles, interests, achievement
level, clothing, or age. [Margolis and McCabe, 2006]
 86

f. Establish a sense of belonging

People have a fundamental need to feel connected or related to other people. In an

academic environment, research shows that students who feel they 'belong' have a higher
degree of intrinsic motivation and academic confidence. According to students, their
sense of belonging is fostered by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and openness,
encourages student participation, is enthusiastic, friendly and helpful, and is organized
and prepared for class. [Freeman, Anderman and Jensen, 2007] [Anderman and Leake,
2005]

g. Adopt a supportive style

A supportive teaching style that allows for student autonomy can foster increased student
interest, enjoyment, engagement and performance. Supportive teacher behaviors include
listening, giving hints and encouragement, being responsive to student questions and
showing empathy for students. Reeve and Hyungshim, 2006 Also see how immediacy in
the classroom can be part of a supportive style of teaching.

Show me examples of supportive-style teacher behaviors

Show me examples of controlling-style teacher behaviors

Strategize with struggling students

When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficacy or low
motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline
specific strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an exam.
[Tuckerman 2003] [Margolis and McCabe, 2006] Specific learning strategies:

Pre-action phase (preparing for task) -take a reasonable risk, work toward goals
that are challenging but attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take
responsibility for your actions, believe in your own effort and capability, set a plan and
work from it.

Action phase - search the environment, ask questions, visualize it (?)

 87

Reaction phase (after one task, preparing for the next one) - use feedback from prior
tasks, monitor your own actions, give yourself instructions (see also Tuckerman, 2003 )

4. Ingredient Motivation For Teacher

Mark Twain Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 6
Students display more motivational benefits from teachers they like over teachers they
dislike (Montalvo, 1998). However, education is much more than a personality contest.
The role of teachers seems to be shifting from preprogrammed knowledge dispensers to
instead managers of student learning and the learning environment. Therefore, teachers
must be empowered to exercise professional judgment in the classroom to attain clearly
expressed goals. Professional educators should be given latitude to test individual
approaches based on strategic goals and incentive systems. Also, teachers should be
provided with training to support them in this expanded role including more time for peer
interaction to share views on what is effective. Overall, teachers should do unto the
students as they would want done unto themselves. The following suggestions are offered
regarding Ingredient 2 or teacher contributions to student motivation:

1) • Subject knowledge and motivational level: The professor’s knowledge of the

subject matter and the motivational level of the professor are most important to
motivate college students to do well in college. That may be because professors
could influence the student’s internal state of wanting to do well in college. While
high school students make statements like I want to get a job, to feel proud of
myself, to graduate with my friends, and to avoid feeling like a failure, college
students are motivated by the professor’s knowledge of the subject matter, the
professor’s sense of humor, the motivational level of the professor, high quality of
teaching, intellectual challenge, engagement in class, and academic help outside
of the class. (Weinstein, 2010)
2) Teacher skills: One important extrinsic factor in the educational environment is
the instructor. On examining the degree of learning whether taught by a Ph.D.
faculty vs. an M.A. faculty, there is no significant net association between
instructor’s degree and student assessments of amount learned or instructor
effectiveness. (Finegan and Siegfried, 1998) However, all else being equal,
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students perform better if they: (a) are educated in smaller schools where they are
well known, (b) have smaller class sizes, (c) receive a challenging curriculum,
and (d) have teachers with greater expertise and experience. For example,
curriculum quality and teacher skills make more difference to educational
outcomes than initial test scores or racial backgrounds of the students. (Darling-
Hammond, 1998) Teacher skills include staying calm, eliminating negative
thoughts or feelings, disengaging stress, remembering that students have their
own realities and are doing their best, not taking students’ actions personally,
remembering that students are not bad rather just in the process of development,
and maintaining a sense of humor. (Whistler, 1992)
3) Teacher qualifications: Qualifications of the teacher employed in universities
should be questioned and improved. Educators need to acquire new qualities and
continue to grow and evolve as they are role models for the students. (Celikoz,
2010) Given that there is variability across campuses, there need to be support
structures for educators as well as clear understandings that teaching involves
more than just subject matter knowledge and classroom management skills. In
particular, Shulman (1987, p. 8) calls the knowledge needed for effectively
teaching a specific subject “pedagogical content knowledge” (PCK) which
“represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how
particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to
the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction.”
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients,
4) Test giving: Teachers need to know how to give tests that are motivating to the
students. Tests need to have thematic relevance, that is, they need to aim at
checking what students have learned and whether they can apply it to real-life
tasks. In addition, tests that are more demanding or challenging than anything
practiced in class will have negative effects on student motivation. Also, tests
should be based on course objectives and should not involve surprise or novelty.
Specifically, test questions should be as easy as possible for test takers to process,
even when the content is very challenging. In general, test-taking instructions,
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terminology, layout, and item choices need to not be ambiguous, confusing,

illogical, unclear, imprecise, or poorly designed. (Trugman, 2007)
5) Scientific management and human relations: The educator must consider whether
to approach students from the viewpoint of scientific management, human
relations, or both. Here are some tips on how to add components of both scientific
management and human relations from Jamie Doran (1999), the Pennsylvania
Institute of CPAs 1998 Outstanding Accounting Educator Award: − Use inventive
teaching techniques, − Encourage your students to embrace technology, − Make
learning both interesting and entertaining, − Require significant effort both inside
and outside the classroom, − Convey a real sense of caring to the students, −
Make each student feel special, − Help students outside of the classroom and at
odd hours, − Teach them how to use information to make proper decisions for real
life, − Students need to know you are approachable, − Motivate them to achieve
at their maximum level, − Instill a fire in your students, − Create a classroom
environment where students are passionate about learning, − Go beyond the
confines of the academic setting, − Discuss contemporary topics, − Share personal
relevant experience, − Capture the interest of your students, − Be devoted to your
students, − Learn students individual needs and respond appropriately, − Develop
specialized assignments and schedules when needed, − Provide tools for their
careers, − Promote practical work experience, − Foster relationships with local
area professionals, and − Each semester ask the students to write down what
future students should do in order to be successful in the course and put some of
these on the next term’s syllabus.

Conscious of small details: Barbara McCombs states that “almost everything

(teachers) do in the classroom has a motivational influence on students - either positive or
negative.” This includes the way information is presented, the kinds of activities that
teachers use, the ways teachers interact with students, the amount of Research in Higher
Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 8 choice and control given to students, and
opportunities for students to work alone or in groups. Students react to who teachers are,
what they do, and how comfortable they feel in the classroom. (Olson, 1997)
Consequently, small details do make all the difference. Greet each student at the door by
 90

his or her first name. Make eye contact and smile. Actively listen to each student. Avoid
giving advice. Be genuine. Be clear in approval and disapproval. Let students know you
do not carry a grudge. Avoid sarcasm and criticism. Talk to students about negative
concerns privately as not to embarrass them in front of others. Walk around the room and
give the students an occasional pat on the back or catch their eyes or give them an okay
sign as appropriate. (Olson, 1997) Also, use stories, personal examples, and language that
engage the students and create rapport.

Reach out to students: Student engagement is a key to academic motivation,

persistence, and degree completion. Teachers are competing for the students’ attention,
that is, jobs, family, personal activities and interests, surfing the Web, instant-messaging,
social media, cell phones and apps, text-messaging, video games, and so forth. In
addition, students almost have a “consumer” attitude about learning; it is another
acquisition to purchase rather than a learning process. Also, students are use to 24-7
convenience and expect instant gratification from their teachers. Reaching out to students
will help in finding a connection between how students learn and how instructors teach.
(McGlynn, 2008)

Know your students and build on their strengths: Use the strengths that students
bring to the classroom. For example, Gen Y individuals like group activities and want to
learn information relevant to their lives and that can make a difference in the world. That
is, experiential and service-learning programs could be very effective with this group.
The learner-centered classroom is effective with this group in that it requires a shift from
teacher-driven and content-centered learning to seeing the classroom as student-centered
and process driven. Collaborative learning is effective with Gen Y. Also, it is important
to teach students how to find information and to evaluate the validity of the information.
(McGlynn, 2008)

Value and build relationship: “Relationships are at the heart of teaching since it is
an activity based on communication” (MacGrath, 2005, p. 57). Some of the necessary
elements that build and maintain constructive relationship include trust, be on their side,
treat everyone with respect all of the time, be in charge and lead them to achievement,
 91

work together, and show you can listen and accept what the student says. Empathy can
help to build a trusting relationship. (MacGrath, 2005)

Relational turning points: Relational turning points between the student and
teacher have been found to impact student motivation. A turning point is any event
associated with a change in the relationship. Six turning point event types have been
found: instrumental, personal, rhetorical, ridicule/discipline, locational, and other person.
These relational turning point events can be positive or negative. However, only the
ridicule/discipline category was most commonly judged as negative. In general, positive
turning points appear to entail acting on students’ interests and needs including providing
support and discussing common interests. On the other hand, negative turning points
typically involve failing to meet students’ needs or expectations, and are perceived as
giving harm to the students such as ridiculing a Research in Higher Education Journal
Five key ingredients, Page 9 student or being unavailable during office hours. It is
interesting to note that some 62% of students were able to readily identify a relational
turning point event with a teacher. As such, the ways in which teachers act toward their
students and the students’ perceptions of those events may have strong positive or
negative consequences. In particular, positive relational turning points have a positive
effect on student motivation. (Docan-Morgan and Manusov, 2009)

Enthusiasm: When the teacher is more enthusiastic about a topic, then the
students will be more inclined to believe that the topic has value for them. That is, teacher
enthusiasm can motivate students. Enthusiasm can be expressed by facial expressions,
body language, stating preferences, describing personal experiences or amazing facts,
showing collected artifacts, using humor, putting energy into their lesson preparation, and
meticulously preparing materials. The teacher also should balance his or her enthusiasm
appropriately for the audience. (Palmer, 2007)

5. Ingredient Motivation On Content

“What the mind of man conceives and he believes, he can achieve.” - Napoleon
Hill At the least, content must be accurate and timely. However, content also should be
relevant and useful to the student in his or her life. Olson (1997) notes that student
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motivation depends on the extent to which the teacher is able to satisfy the student’s need
for (1) feeling in control of their learning, (2) feeling competent, and (3) feeling
connected to others. As such, content also must be included to satisfy each of these
student needs. Following are some suggestions for Ingredient 3 or content contributions
that will build student motivation. That is, content needs to be developed and improved
with awareness of the factors listed below:

1) Students experience success and achievement: Ensuring that students experience

success is an extremely important strategy for motivation. Success creates
selfconfidence which in turn makes students more inclined to engage in learning.
This requires that tasks be moderate and have an achievable level of difficulty.
The goal is to have students experience success in their understanding. Some
techniques for ensuring this success include: state the goal for the lesson; provide
simple and clear explanations; ask the students to express their comments,
questions, and ideas; question the students; provide hand-on activities as often as
possible; and assessment tasks should be flexible. (Palmer, 2007)
2) Student ownership: Students feel some ownership of a decision if they agree to it.
Whenever possible, students should be allowed to determine class rules and
procedures, set learning goals, select learning activities and assignments, and
decide whether to work in groups or independently. Allowing students to select
learning partners has been shown to improve their motivation to learn. Also, it is
important to get students to accept the reasons why some aspects of the course are
not negotiable. (Olson, 1997)
3) • Student choices: Human beings are naturally curious and self-directed, that is,
they want to learn, make choices, and achieve (Truby, 2010). As a result, students
will be more motivated when they are given choices. Doing something one
chooses rather than what one has been told to do, can be very motivating. Having
some element of Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page
10 negotiation is better than a classroom that is completely permissive. Some
choices might include: who they work with, what book to read, their assignment
topic, how the assignment will be presented, and when the assignment is due.
However, when offering choices, instructors should construct options that meet
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the students’ needs. Choices should be offered in a manner and context that meets
students’ needs and that are offered in a non-controlling accepting atmosphere.
Guided inquiry is a technique that allows more flexibility in that they choose their
research question and methodology, yet the instructor provides some parameters.
(Palmer, 2007) As such, the various choice options need to be based on students’
needs, interests, goals, abilities, and cultural backgrounds. Choices need to not be
too numerous or complex as well as congruent with the students’ values. (Katz
and Assor, 2007; Simmons and Page, 2010; Garger, Thomas, and Jacques, 2010)
4) • Build competency: Content that builds students’ competency requires
assignments that challenge students’ beliefs, actions, and imaginations. This can
be done by having them investigate and respond to issues relating to survival,
quality of life, problem solving, and/or real products and situations. Lessons that
are more interesting and more personally relevant are more motivating to the
students. Internship and work study programs are useful in this regard. In any
event, the instructor must draw out the relevance of the class and class work to
future employment, quality of life, and/or life skills. (Olson, 1997)
5) • Creativity and critical thinking: Competence also is learned from experiences
that involve both creative and critical thinking. Creative and critical thinking
requires the student to define the task, set goals, establish criteria, research and
gather information, activate prior knowledge, generate additional ideas and
questions, organize, analyze, and integrate all the information. (Olson, 1997)
6) • Students feel connected: Content that contributes to the student feeling
connected may include advisory programs, cooperative learning, peer mentoring,
peer counseling, and community service. Regardless of whether or not students
participate in these programs, they need a sense of trust, respect, caring, concern,
and community with others. In student/teacher interactions even a single event
can determine how the student feels about a class and how he or she will perform.
(Olson, 1997) One way to build connection is to send a welcoming e-mail before
the first day of school. This has been shown to enhance student motivation,
attitude toward the instructor, and perceptions of the course. Whether it is an e-
mail or another computer contact such as instant messaging or social networking,
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the contact is relatively effortless and seems to improve student attitudes toward
the instructor and the course. (Legg and Wilson, 2009)
7) • Novelty: Novel content can introduce a surprising or unusual experience
creating a discrepancy in the student’s mind, and this can cause a short-term
arousal of interest in order to resolve the discrepancy. Some ways to increase
novelty might include using discrepant events and demonstrations, amazing facts,
fantasy, or games. (Palmer, 2007)
8) • Timely and relevant to real life: Making the content relevant to real life can
increase a student’s motivation. As such, teachers should emphasize the links
between real life and school subjects, design assignments, and experiments that
use everyday Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 11
materials and situations, and use personal anecdotes. (Palmer, 2007) Tasks that
are meaningful to the students’ real life motivate them. (Frey and Fisher, 2010)
9) • Variety: Variety is very relevant to student motivation. Variety can be brought
into the class by including activities wherein the students are physically active
with a thinking component. Other forms of variety can be added into the content
via dramatizations, model making, and out-of-classroom activities. (Palmer, 2007)
10) • Technology and information from the Internet such as Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, and phone apps: Students love the Internet, so give them examples,
videos, or demonstrations of topics from Internet sites that are interesting to them.
At the very least, this incorporation of technology, the Internet, and phone apps
involves using more of the students’ language and experience base. Also, the
Internet is a great way to keep up-to-date and to show important current trends
and ideas. However, students need to understand how to assess the validity and
safety of Internet sites and information. Whiteboards also can be powerful,
interactive technological tools for improving instruction, but instructors need to
know how to use them effectively. (Manzo, 2010)
6. Ingredient Motivation Method And Process

“If you tell me I will listen. If you show me I will see. If you let me experience, I
will learn.” - Lao-Tzu The method or process is the way in which content is presented,
that is, the approach used for instruction. Two basic approaches for supporting and
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cultivating motivation in the classroom are (1) creating a classroom structure and
institutional method that provides the environment for optimal motivation, engagement,
and learning; and (2) helping the student to develop tools that will enable him or her to be
self-regulated. (Alderman, 1999) Some specific ideas or tips for improving Ingredient 4
or the method/process contributions to student motivation are:

1) Incentives: Educators could experiment with monetary incentives but budgets

usually do not allow this possibility. Another option is to help the student get a
scholarship/job/work study or participate in a sponsored competition featuring
financial awards. Small incentive gifts could be given but these may not be as
effective as money. Another option is to emphasize and illustrate the financial
betterment that will occur for the student once he or she has completed his or her
education. Or, the educator could use the incentive of time, that is, give the
student the time to do something the student feels is important to him or her. In
general, rewards and punishments work at controlling the students’ immediate
classroom behavior, but they do not foster an intrinsic, long-term desire or
commitment to learning. (Daniels, 2010; Campbell and Niles, 2006)
2) • Experiential learning or self-learning: At the upper end of the hierarchy,
experiential learning or self-learning becomes more highly utilized. Experiential
learning is when an individual is actively involved with concrete experience, that
is, a student cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes knowledge,
skills, and/or attitudes such that knowledge is created through the transformation
of experience. Smith and Research in Higher Education Journal Five key
ingredients, Page 12 Kolb (1986) explained individual experiential learning
differences in terms of four learning styles or ways in which the mind works: 1.
Convergent learning style (abstract conceptualization, active experimentation,
may have solutions to the wrong problems, and excellence at technical tasks) 2.
Divergent learning style (concrete experience, reflective observation, may be
paralyzed by alternatives generated, and people oriented) 3. Reflective or
assimilator learning style (loves ideas and concepts, theoretical professions,
theory but no application, and ideas over people) 4. Doer or accommodator
learning style (concrete experience and active experimentation, carries out plans,
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likes changing the environment, may produce tremendous ends but all in the
wrong area, and prefers trial and error method). Learning styles are combinations
of heredity, education, experience, and the demands of the environment. In
addition, learning styles are strongly correlated to work preferences. (Saunders,
1997) Learning styles are just different, one is not better than another. (Komarraju
and Karan, 2008)
3) • Mutual goals or objectives: Students need to see the point of it all and know
what they personally will get out of the educational process. For management-
byobjectives (MBO) and goal theory to be successful, the participants must agree
on mutual goals or objectives. Some of the common goals or objectives in the
educational organization which promote continuous improvement and learning
might be sense of pride, teamwork, willingness to share the credit, sense of
ownership, the elimination of mixed messages, the management of
interdependencies, shared vision and communication direction, the building of
consensus, mutual respect and trust, and concern for the whole organization. It
would be very beneficial for the educator to try to include these as appropriate in
the MBO process. In turn, the goal setting needs to be tied to performance
evaluation and rewards. Rewards unique to the educational environment could
include the valuing of ideas, attention and support from the educator or
educational organization, respect for beginning ideas, celebration and awards for
accomplishments, the implementation of suggestions, and encouragement.
(Ahmed, Loh, and Zairi, 1999; MacGrath, 2005)
4) • Verbal conformity: One method to use to support students in accomplishing
their goals is verbal conformity wherein the student repeats all or part of the goal
in his or her own words. This simple act of saying will influence his or her private
convictions, i.e., saying is believing. Some methods that can be used to achieve
verbal conformity include: (a) have the student explain the goal to a third party,
(b) have the student write a memo on the subject, and (c) grapple for words and
have the student fill in for you. The student needs to understand the goal first
before using verbal conformity. (Pollock, 1999)
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5) • Flexible and stimulating just-in-time training and interactivity: One way to

support students in seeking out responsibility and working toward goals to which
they are committed is to use flexible and stimulating just-in-time training which
allows the student to train at his or her own pace and time. The key to effective
use of this training is interactivity. That is, it is important to focus on the material
to be learned and on how the students interact with it rather than being side
tracked by glitz. Guide the students logically through the information and monitor
their progress adjusting as Research in Higher Education Journal Five key
ingredients, Page 13 necessary. (Burns, 1997) As expected, the natural use of
technology and the Internet is essential here for building interactivity and just-in-
time learning.
6) • Different types of framing: Educators need to be aware that different types of
framing of a problem or decision area can lead to different preferences or shifts in
judgment. In particular, students who have a more enjoyable experience during
training are more likely to perceive the system to be easier to use which in turn
can lead to enhanced behavioral intentions to use the system. Also, game-based
training perceived as enjoyable will potentially allow users to scale initial hurdles
to acceptance and usage, create higher-level intrinsic motivation, and lead to
sustained usage behavior. (Venkatesh, 1999)
7) • Objective criteria: Objective criteria should be clearly communicated and
employed in testing and evaluating student success. The clarity of knowing
exactly what is needed can be very motivating. Some of the motivational factors
may include rewarding students for their success, appreciating them both verbally
and in writing, providing them with opportunities to improve themselves and use
their creativity, and allowing them to participate in the decision-making process
and to assume responsibility. (Celikoz, 2010)
8) • Encouragement and praise: Positive verbal statements of encouragement and
praise can strongly influence student motivation. Praise for effort and for
improvement can build a student’s self-confidence. Esteem can be boosted by
emphasizing his or her performance relative to personal goals. (Palmer, 2007) It is
important that the student feel seen and “gotten.”
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9) • Casework: Cases seem to be an effective method for increasing student

motivation. In particular, Finney and Pyke (2008) have found that a positive
correlation exists between case content relevance and student motivation toward
local cases. In specific, case relevance can be based on relevance of the topic,
importance of the topic, application to career interests, and integration of the
subcomponents of the topic, e.g., business functional areas. Students did feel that
local cases provided a more realistic learning experience and helped them learn
about entrepreneurship. As such, case relevancy enhances learning and student
motivation.
10) • Guided discussion: Discussion seems to be a viable strategy for motivating
students. Through guided discussion, students can demonstrate reading
comprehension with integration of multiple and different texts and critical
thinking using analysis and synthesis of information. That is, students are able to
discuss and make connections between the textual knowledge, news or current
events, and their personal experiences that motivate their thinking. (Newstreet,
2008)
11) • Reinforcement strategies: Two reinforcement strategies have been found to lead
to significantly higher test scores: reviewing the concepts delineated on the study
guide and silent reading of class notes. Both of these strategies could be used to
increase student motivation. (Carrell and Mengel, 1997)
12) • Positive social interactions: When students have positive social interactions with
their peers or teacher, they will become more engaged in learning. Social
interaction can occur when students work in groups, have group discussions,
group projects, and group presentations. However, the students need to be
properly prepared in the skills Research in Higher Education Journal Five key
ingredients, Page 14 needed to make the group operate effectively. (Palmer, 2007)
Positive interaction with the instructor and in the classroom overall are important.
13) • Storytelling: A good story is a good story, and storytelling has always had a
place in teaching. Storytelling can change the pace of a class, add a freshness to
engage students, motivate students in their discipline, give the students the mental
space to construct their own meanings, provide analogies between a story and a
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discipline, help understand the world, can generate reflection, and create common
meanings and understandings. The instructor or the student can tell factual and/or
fictitious stories. When students tell stories, they take ownership of their learning
and become an integral part of the learning process. Students will self-motivate if
an activity such as storytelling is sufficiently challenging and relevant. Any
discipline can use stories, and stories can be used from other disciplines as
appropriate. (Miley, 2009)
14) • Enhanced lecture: While the lecture method is an academic staple, students do
not pay attention continuously during a 50-minute lecture. Teachers need to be
aware of attention cycles and strive to improve student attention by using student-
centered enhanced lecture techniques. (Bunce, Flens, and Neiles, 2010). That is,
lectures can be enhanced to make the class stimulating, entertaining, and
interactive.

For example, lectures can start with a “grabber” such as a chart, short reading,
problem, cartoon, quote, question, vote, or dramatization. Interactivity is important in
lectures and can take many forms: pop quizzes, questioning and discussion, problems,
visual aids, films, questions on the board, questions through e-mail, handouts, simulations
(Gillentine and Schultz, 2001), board games (Mummalaneni and Sivakumar, 2008), video
games, and case methodology. The textbook can be used as a supplement to any lecture,
however, the lecture does not need to be passive. Instructors need to represent the latest
thinking and research, modeling how scholars frame questions and pursue answers.
Humor, not sarcasm or ridicule, can be used in lectures. Positive physiological and
psychological benefits result from humor such as attentiveness, interest, positive rapport,
and retention of material. It is good to humanize lectures integrating biographies, history,
current events, the Internet, and real life. Lectures need to respect the audience by
utilizing students’ multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1990) and learning styles (Dunn and
Dunn, 1978), e.g., visual, auditory, or tactile/kinesthetic learners. In addition,
interdisciplinary lectures can enhance the investigation and understanding of topics.
Overall, lectures need to motivate, challenge, and inspire. As a final tool, summarize the
current lecture and preview the next lecture. (Heitzmann, 2010)
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• Collaborative quiz: The collaborative quiz uses the same questions as a regular quiz and
helps to ensure that students have read the material carefully; but, it also provides an
opportunity for students to engage in classroom experience. As such, students work
collaboratively determining answers and crafting explanations together. The instructor
will need to monitor the process to reduce free riders and dominant students as well as to
maintain the fairness of the grading. (Quinn and Echerson, 2010) Research in Higher
Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 15

7. Ingredient Motivation For Environment

“To stay motivated you must fight self-doubt, poor discipline, fear, and any other
ghost” - Dr. Zonnya Environment is the fifth key ingredient of student motivation. First
of all, an environment must be available and accessible. Thereafter, that environment
must be of a quality or caliber that contributes to the motivation of the students. For
example, if an environment is not safe, it is difficult and maybe even unwise to put all of
your attention on learning. On the other hand, an environment of openness and freedom
to learn from our mistakes can foster motivation to learn. Also, the environment can be
physical as well as mental, emotional, and even spiritual in some regard. Suggestions for
creating an environment conducive to student motivation are as follow:

1) • Create an effective environment: According to Rumsey (1998), when creating

an effective environment, educators need to consider the following: − Overall
approach to material presentation and development, − Examples coming before
and after detailed discussions of the concepts, − The use of engaging classroom
activities, − In-depth discussions or simulations, − The use of good business or
organizational problems rather than contrived examples, − The use of real-life
exercises throughout that are varied in scope and field of application, − Using
applications relevant to students’ everyday experiences or to their chosen career
fields, − Creating situations in which the students perceive themselves as
academically productive, − Fostering positive peer social interaction and
exchange, − Decreasing peer aggression, − Moving from simple to more complex
problems, − The use of a good solidly written text in a traditional format, −
Incorporation of some modern or future components that concern students, −
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Motivating by example and by encouraging student discovery, − Developing

positive attitudes, − Making sure that academic tutoring is available, − Having
voluntary parental and community support and involvement as necessary, and −
Encouraging critical thinking (e.g., what do you mean, why, what if, what
works/does not work, and how would you...).
2) • Individual and learning system design differences: According to Lengnick-Hall
and Sanders (1997), both individual and learning system design differences
influence the learning environment. For example, to motivate students to
demonstrate high levels of responsibility and self-management, effective goal
setting must occur in that students have a clear understanding of course
objectives, means and methods for accomplishing target objectives, and measured
benchmarks for assessing their Research in Higher Education Journal Five key
ingredients, Page 16 progress. Students need not participate in establishing the
goals as long as they accept the goals as feasible and desirable. When students
take charge of their learning, they gain self-esteem and confidence, more choices,
higher levels of commitment, and the ability to customize the learning process to
best meet their personal needs and learning goals. That is, when students become
active participants in customizing and activating learning systems, they become
team leaders, coaches, and models in a sense. “Through self-management and
self-leadership, students invest their efforts more effectively and efficiently, take
ownership of their educational experience, and customize the learning process to
reflect their personal interests and competencies.” (Lengnick-Hall and Sanders,
1997, p. 7) It is assumed that this shift to increased selfparticipation, personalized
learning, and self-ownership would be viewed positively by teachers and other
shareholders involved in the educational process. (Andersen, 2011; Stewart, et al.,
2005)
3) • Include the study of self-information: Just like people everywhere, students are
intrinsically interested in the study of information about themselves and about
their own personal interests. Instructors need to find creative ways of knowing
and incorporating self-information into the classroom. (Dargahi-Noubary, 1998)
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4) • Empowerment: Empowerment can contribute positively to the learning

environment. Empowerment can mean vested authority or enablement. Before
investing authority in a role or person, it is necessary to clarify the student’s
mandate and the expectations of his or her performance. Enablement means
having the right tools and support when they are needed. (Maccoby, 1999)
5) • Engagement and considering student and teacher opinions: The learning
environment should take into consideration the intrinsic and extrinsic student
motivations and the opinions of students and teachers in arranging the
environment. Materials, tools, and equipment that are needed in the educational
process should be determined, obtained, and modernized so that active learning is
promoted. This engagement results in students feeling that their teachers have a
special interest in them. Students need to be encouraged to engage and to
participate. (Celikoz, 2010; Daniels, 2010; AdkinsColeman, 2010)
6) • Teamwork: An environment of teamwork can contribute to learning. All teams
need four competencies: generate and refine ideas, organize and integrate work,
sustain group spirit, and manage boundaries. “Smart teams” are built by having
the entire team look at what competencies are needed to be effective. For
example, generational and multicultural differences will need to be considered as
well as chain of command, work/life balance, and technology. (Farrer and
Maurer, 1999) In terms of multicultural diversity in groups, the following should
be considered: (1) the reasons for taking the course may be different than that
perceived by the instructor or other team members, (2) students may have
difficulty in studying or completing assignments due to part time jobs or attending
other courses, (3) the instructor should not underestimate how differently people
think and feel from various cultures, and (4) value judgments of purpose and
moral standards of behavior may be important differences. (Sexty, 1998;
Simmons and Page, 2010; Lilly and Tippins, 2002; Hytti, et al., 2010; Friedman,
Cox, and Maher, 2010) Research in Higher Education Journal Five key
ingredients,
7) • Structures: Teachers, administrators, and counselors contribute to a positive
teaching and learning environment by putting in place structures that provide an
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optimal learning environment for learners. These educational leaders can enhance
the development of an educational experience that encourages students to express
their own ideas, freely participate in discussions, freely compare and contrast
ideas, be involved in discussion, and be able to learn from each other. These
structures can lead to increased student-faculty interaction, elevated student-to-
student relations, and the development of critical thinking skills that in turn affect
student motivation and academic success. (Rugutt and Chemosit, 2009; Louis and
Wahlstrom, 2011) Structural characteristics also may include type of tasks, degree
of student autonomy, and evaluation (Debnath, Tandon, and Pointer, 2007)
8) • Distance and online learning: Instructors are moving increasingly to distance
and online learning environments. Motivating students online can be difficult
given content, technology access and challenges, isolation, poor communication
with instructors, English as a second language, and lack of connection between
content and the students’ needs. In addition, instructors may not be able to show
the depth of their knowledge online, and empathy and enthusiasm may be lost in
the online environment. On the other hand, assignments can be challenging and
have the variety necessary to increase curiosity and creativity. Active and
multifaceted projects may be developed that have personal meaning to the
students. Distance and online communication should be clear, timely, friendly,
and flexible. In the online environment, the acquisition of mastery and
improvement could be the primary focus rather than the more traditional focus on
test taking and evaluation. Social isolation and depersonalization can be reduced
by building a sense of online community. Very importantly, teachers and students
should have consistent contact with technical support personnel. Distance and
online learning may be as effective as traditional learning in terms of student
motivation, attitudes, and achievement. Intrinsic motivation is an important
indicator for online students, with many online learners having higher intrinsic
motivation. However, ultimately, the optimal learning model might be a hybrid of
conventional and online learning. (Beffa-Negrine, Cohen, and Miller, 2002; Zhu,
Valcke, and Schellens, 2009; Crank, Ristau, and Rogers, 1999; PR Newswire,
2010)
 104

9) • Emotionally literate environment: The more comfortable individuals feel in

themselves and with others, the easier it is to concentrate and achieve.
Consequently, emotional literacy has a positive impact on achievement, mental
health issues, behavior, and workplace effectiveness. Creating an emotionally
literate environment includes equipping students with essential life skills and
learning behaviors including self-awareness, empathy, managing feelings,
motivation, and social skills. These skills can be taught and modeled. In building
an emotionally literate environment, the place for the teacher to start is with him
or herself. That is, each instructor should get his or her thinking straight, stand
firm, refine communication skills to relate positively and creatively with the
students, develop positive regard toward self and others, and develop a support
network for oneself and a supportive lifestyle. Also, it is important to constantly
review and improve these efforts. As such, teaching should focus not only on
pedagogical techniques, but also on the social and emotional dynamics of the
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients.
Motivation is a key factor for explaining the success or failure of any difficult activity.
We know that success in a task is due to the fact that someone is motivated. It is easy
in second language learning to state that a learner will be successful with the right
motivation. Such claims supported by numerous studies and experiments in human
learning. But they never offer a detailed understanding of what motivation is and what
the sub components of motivation are. What does it mean to say that someone is
motivated? How do we create, promote, and preserve motivation? All learners,
teachers, material developers, and researchers agree that motivation is an important
part of mastering a second or foreign language.
Dornyei (2001) believes that the complexity of the idea of motivation lies in its
attempts to elaborate person's actions on behavior which cannot be explained by just
one approach. The difficulty as Dornyie (1996) states is not the lack of theories to
explain motivation but the plenty of theories and models. Fortunately, there is now a
lot of research literature available on the role of motivation in language learning.
According to Pourhosein Gilakjani, Leong, and Saburi (2012), the success of
any action is dependent on the extent to which persons try to get their goal, along with
 105

their desire to do so. Generally people refer to this psychological factor the impulse
that generates the action –as motivation. It is a motive force that arouses, incites, or
stimulates action. Motivation is an important factor in specifying the readiness of
learners to communicate.
Motivation refers to the combination of attempt plus desire to obtain the
objective of learning the language plus desirable attitudes towards learning the
language. That is, motivation to learn a second language refers to the extent to
which the individual works or tries to learn the language because of a desire to do so
and the contentment experienced in this task. Effort alone does not indicate
motivation. The motivated person spends effort towards the aim, but the person
expending effort is not inevitably motivated (Gardner, 1985).
Motivation provides learners with an aim and direction to follow. Therefore, it
has a key role in language learning. Due to the lack of enough motivation, some
difficulties may happen for learners. Without desire to learn, it is very difficult for
learners to gain effective learning. As Huitt (2001) stated that paying attention to the
importance of language will help learners improve their motivation to learn even if
they do not have enough intrinsic motivation. It can be stated that teachers should be
aware of significance of motivation in learners’ language learning and through some
changes they can help learners increase their motivation.

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