FABRIC SCIENCE

END TERM ASSIGNMENT

1. Write brief note on Importance of testing and classify

different types of fabric properties with examples
A:- Textile companies and consumer agencies conduct many kinds of
analyses to make sure our clothes and the fabrics we use in our homes won't
harm us, will be comfortable and will stay colorful for a long time. These
processes are called textile testing.
Textile testing is the term for a whole series of tests that examine the
physical, mechanical and chemical properties of textiles. These tests are
sometimes done before a textile goes into widespread use, or they're done
on textiles arriving from other countries for sale in US markets. Countries like
the United States have established standards for what should and should not
be in textile products. Tests can show whether companies making textiles are
in compliance or not.
They can ensure that a given textile is what a manufacturer or importer says
it is. Sometimes, testing is done while textiles are being manufactured, to
identify problems or faults in the machinery making them, and to double-
check that materials being used for a specific textile are appropriate.

Methods of Textile Testing

There are many textile tests. Some of them are physical tests, in which a
sample of textile material is examined closely for feel and appearance. Such
tests are done on individual fibers or strands of material and on yarns,
threads made of several fibers twisted together. Textiles are also subjected
to light and other elements to see how they react. Some of these tests are
done in a weather-ometer, a machine that tests for weathering and light
fastness of textiles. It's basically an enclosed box. Textiles are placed inside
and subjected to conditions replicated from the natural environment.
Mechanical tests are those in which textiles are subjected to different
pressure and stressors, usually in specialized testing machines. These include
tests to measure breaking strength, the force needed to break a fabric under
tension. Such tests can ensure fabrics are strong enough to maintain integrity
even when under great stress. Other tests gauge tearing strength, or the
strength required to make an already existing rip or tear worse. And abrasion
tests determine how quickly a textile wears out when it's rubbed against
another surface. Such tests make sure that fabrics used in products like
parachutes and car seat belts won't break when needed most to keep the
user safe.

Still other tests are chemical tests, in which a textile is analyzed through
chemical means to determine what it contains. These tests are often done in
laboratories, and they're important to determine whether textiles might
have harmful substances in them like lead or other heavy metals, banned
chemical dyes or pesticides that could possibly endanger the consumer.
Specialized textile testing is also done to test for flammability, or how quickly
a given textile burns. Various methods of performance testing are done on
textiles that must possess special qualities, like be effectively bulletproof or
provide a layer of filtering on construction projects. In short, there are as
many ways to test textiles as there are uses for textile products in our world.

Importance of textile testing

Globalization of the clothing industry and increased competition in the world
market has encouraged consumers to expect high-quality garments at
affordable prices. The quality of a garment, as normally perceived by a
customer, depends on its aesthetic appeal, its ability to drape gracefully, its
‘handle’ and durability. These depend largely on the quality of the fabrics
used and the making-up process. Testing of fabrics has attained an important
position in the textile industry due to the development of new types of
fabrics for various apparel, furnishing and industrial applications. It has
become almost mandatory for any textile manufacturing activity to carry out
testing and evaluation of their textile products such as yarns and fabrics to
meet international standards and the customer’s satisfaction. The textile
scientist also stands to gain from a thorough understanding of fabric testing
and analysis. Although one may be a specialist in textile chemistry or textile
engineering, an understanding of how physical tests relate to fabric
performance and consumer expectations is a necessary prerequisite to
successful development of new textile fabrics. There are various stages in
which fabric has to undergo quality inspection and this would reduce the
burden on management to supply a fabric consignment with minimum
defects. Proper testing on a regular basis can make the difference in the
success or failure of a product and indeed the whole business. There are a
number of points in the production cycle at which testing may be carried out
to improve the product or to prevent sub-standard fabric progressing further
in the cycle. Fabric testing becomes important from the point of view of the
following considerations.
 Quality control for manufacturing
  Selection of fabrics
 Production monitoring
 Assessing the quality of the final fabric
 Investigation of faulty material
 Product development and research
 Ecological considerations
 Teaching and scientific institutions
The most obvious reason is that it allows companies, consumer groups and
the government to make sure textiles is safe, of good quality, and that the
customer is getting what they are paying for. Textile products are made
around the world, and sent to markets around the world. Testing ensures
that something harmful or illegal isn't slipping through the regulatory cracks.

Fabric Properties:-
The fiber content, fabric construction and finishing processes determine the
fabric’s aesthetic, functional and comfort properties.

Aesthetic properties
These properties are to do with how the fabric looks and feels. They are the
sorts of things that give textiles products their customer appeal.
 Handle
 Drape
 Color
 Appearance

Functional properties
These are the things that effect how a fabric will perform when it is used.
They are sometimes called performance properties.
  Strength
 Durability
 Crease Resistance
 Flame Resistance
 Stain Resistance
 Water Resistance
 Aftercare
Comfort properties
Comfort properties are of two types
 Physical Comfort
o Stiffness, Feel, Stretch
 Thermal Comfort
o Movement of heat, moisture and air

 Absorbency
 Breathability
 Elasticity
 Softness
 Stretch
 Warmth

When we choose a fabric we need to think about the function we want it

for- what it has to do. We also need to think about how it will look – the
aesthetics of the fabric. The fiber, fabric, is made from will affect how it
looks and behaves. The method of manufacture will affect the fabric too.
Fabrics can have special treatments to make them look different or to
change their properties.

Some properties of Synthetic fabric:-

Synthetic means produced by humans rather than natural process, Synthetic
fibers are synthesized polymers of small molecules ,the compounds that are
used come from natural(in case of rayon) and petroleum based or petro
chemicals(Polyester, nylons and acrylic etc.).The materials are polymerized
into long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms.

Properties of Synthetic fibers are:

 Length: Length of the fibers is controllable since it is man-made. They
are filament fibers but can be cut into staple fiber for different usage.
 Comfort: Synthetic fibers are not comfortable as natural fibers in
clothing.
 Dust and impurities are absent or minimum in synthetic fibers.
 Hydrophobic: Most of the synthetic fibers are hydrophobic in nature,
Rayon is an exception. Dyeing or color application is difficult in
synthetic fibers comparing to natural fibers.
 Durable: Synthetic fibers are more strong and durable, that is why the
use of synthetic is much wider than natural fibers (other than textiles)
 Multi task: Synthetics fibers are used in multi task than natural fibers,
the use of natural fibers use is limited in comparison to synthetics.
 Burning: Synthetic fibers burn and melt and smell chemical.
 Economical: Synthetic fibers are more economical.
 Sustainability: Synthetic fibers are less environments friendly;
decomposition is an issue especially with polypropylene.

Some properties of Natural Fabrics/fibers:-

Natural fiber, any hair like raw material directly obtainable from an animal,
vegetable, or mineral source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as
felt or paper or, after spinning into yarns, into woven cloth. A
natural fiber may be further defined as an agglomeration of cells in which the
diameter is negligible in comparison with the length. Although nature
abounds in fibrous materials, especially cellulosic types such as cotton, wood,
grains, and straw, only a small number can be used for textile products or
other industrial purposes. Apart from economic considerations, the
usefulness of a fiber for commercial purposes is determined by such
properties as length, strength, pliability, elasticity, abrasion resistance,
absorbency, and various surface properties. Most textile fibers are slender,
flexible, and relatively strong. They are elastic in that they stretch when put
under tension and then partially or completely return to their original length
when the tension is removed.

Unlike most synthetic fibers, all natural fibers are non thermoplastic; that is,
they do not soften when heat is applied. At temperatures below the point at
which they will decompose, they show little sensitivity to dry heat, and there
is no shrinkage or high extensibility upon heating, nor do they become brittle
if cooled to below freezing. Natural fibers tend to yellow upon exposure to
sunlight and moisture, and extended exposure results in loss of strength.
All natural fibers are particularly susceptible to microbial decomposition,
including mildew and rot. Cellulosic fibers are decomposed by aerobic
bacteria (those that live only in oxygen) and fungi. Cellulose mildews and
decomposes rapidly at high humidity and high temperatures, especially in
the absence of light. Wool and silk are also subject to microbial
decomposition by bacteria and molds. Animal fibers are also subject to
damage by moths and carpet beetles. Termites and silverfish attack cellulose
fibers. Protection against both microbial damage and insect attacks can be
obtained by chemical modification of the fiber substrate; modern
developments allow treatment of natural fibers to make them essentially
immune to such damage.

2. Explain pre treatment process used in textile industry

A:-
Pretreatment:

Natural fibers and synthetic fibers contain primary impurities that are
contained naturally, and secondary impurities that are added during
spinning, knitting and weaving processes. Textile pretreatment is the series
of cleaning operations. All impurities which cause adverse effect during
dyeing and printing are removed in pretreatment process.
Pretreatment processes include desizing, scouring, and bleaching which
make subsequent dyeing and softening processes easy. Uneven desizing,
scouring, and bleaching in the pretreatment processes might cause drastic
deterioration in the qualities of processed products, such as uneven dyeing
and decrease in fastness.

Object of Pretreatment:

 To convert fabric from hydrophobic to hydrophilic state.

 To remove dust, dirt etc from the fabric.
 To achieve the degree of desire whiteness.

Steps in Pretreatment Process of Cotton and Natural Fibers:

1. Singeing
2. Desizing,
3. Scouring,
4. Mercerization
5. Bleaching.

Steps in pre treatment for wool:

1. Raw wool scouring; aqueous and/ or solvent washing

2. Carbonizing
3. Scouring (desizing)
4. Fulling /crabbing/thermo fixing
5. Easy-care treatments
6. Anti-felting anti-shrinking treatments

Steps in pre treatment for silk:

To prepare a silk yarn for dyeing and silk fabrics for dyeing and printing, it is
necessary to partially or completely remove sericin, as well as natural oils
and organic impurities. Depending on the percentage of sericin removed
during scouring (sericin is present in raw silk in a ratio between 20 % to 25
%), the end-product is defined as unscoured (used only for shirts and suits),
`souple' or degummed.

1. Degumming
2. Scouring
Steps in pre treatment of synthetic fabrics:

Although most of the synthetics do not need to be given a very strong

pretreatment however the possible steps in pretreatment of synthetics are

1. Desizing
2. Heat setting
3. Washing
4. Bleaching if necessary.

Successful preparation depends on four factors:

 The level and type of impurities present.

 The chemicals used in the various stages of preparation.
 The water supply.
 The type of machinery used.

Common steps used in pre treatment process:-

1. Inspection of grey fabric:
The fabric found from loom or knitting machine is passed through the
inspection table to find any kind of fault such as end breakage, picks, holes,
neps etc. and then fault free fabric is selected for subsequent processing. It
may be manually or online done.

2. Stitching:
Sometimes the woven fabric from loom is not of enough length as required
and in such cases the fabrics are joined to make it larger through stitching.

3. Shearing and cropping:

 The excess warp or weft yarn on fabric edges are removed by cutting with
blade or scissors, this process is called searing and cropping.

4. Singeing:
A singe is a slight scorching, burn or treatment with flame. The process of
removing loose, hairy and projecting fibers from fabric surface by burning is
called singeing and that uses gas flame or hot plate in order to get rid of
small fibers protruding on the fabrics (these fibers normally come from spun
yarns). It has the following objectives:
 To get rid of the small fibers.
 To make the fabrics smoother than before.
 To help the printing ink or dyestuff to make clearer marks on the fabrics.
 To improve rubbing fastness and washing fastness of the dyed or printed
fabrics.
5. Desizing:
In desizing process, sizing material is applied to the warp yarn before
weaving is removed to facilitate the penetration of dyes and chemicals in the
subsequent wet processing operations. The main purpose of sizing is to form
coating around the cotton warp yams so as to stand the tension during
weaving and reduce the breakage. The surface coating of sizes are stiff, hard,
smooth and less absorbent to water. If this size material is not removed from
fabric then dyes and chemicals don’t react with fabric properly. As a result
dyes and chemicals become wastage and don’t get actual dyeing shade on
fabric. So we can say that desizing is very important process of textile wet
processing.

6. Scouring:
Scouring is a process by which all natural and adventitious impurities such as
oil; wax, fat etc. are removed to produce hydrophilic and clean textile
material. Absorbency of the fabric also increases a greater extent in this
process i.e. makes the fabrics highly hydrophilic. It also helps to clean textile
material by adding alkali. It is a vital process of wet processing. It also helps
to remove natural color and make the fabric for next process.
7. Bleaching:
Textile bleaching is a chemical treatment process. In this process, destructing
natural coloring matters and remaining trace impurities are removed from
the grey fabric. Bleaching process is done to impart pure permanent and
basic white effects which are suitable for the production of white finishes,
level dyeing and desired printed shade with minimum or no degrading or
without diminishing the tensile strength.

8. Souring:
Bleaching is done in the alkaline medium. Since it is difficult to remove alkali
from the fabric this is followed to neutralize the alkali with an acid, the
excess of which can then be easily washed out. This process is known as
“souring” in which the bleached material is treated with dilute H2SO4 or HCl
at room temperature.

9. Mercerizing:
Mercerizing is a chemical process to improve the luster and increase
strength. It also has some other engineering advantages. In this process the
fabric is treated with specific concentration of alkali (NaOH) under tension.
This is to make the cotton goods more luster than before using sodium
hydroxide solution in cold condition and tension. This will lead the cotton
fibers to be swollen and increased strength. Also this will improve dye
absorption of the fibers. Jhon mercer was the first chemist in the world who
found this phenomenon in 1844. Therefore, the process was called
mercerizing.

Casting is the process nearly the same as mercerizing but it uses lowers
concentration. To make the goods more luster because raw cotton fibers are
kidney-shaped. After this process, the fibers change to cylindrical shape
resulting more evenness reflected light from the goods. To improve dye
ability of the goods about 5-10%.

10. Washing:
Normally after every wet process, the fabric is washed with hot and cold
water. Sometimes soap solutions are also used for washing.

11. Rinsing:
The process of washing something with clean water to remove soap,
detergent, dirt or impurities from fabric is called rinsing.

12. Drying:
Drying means the removal of excess water from fabric. The wet fabric after
various processing stages is dried in different types of drying machines.

After pretreatment process dyeing and printing process are done.

 3. Explain styles and techniques of printing in detail.
A: -
Printing is a process of decorating textile fabrics by application of pigments,
dyes, or other related materials in the form of patterns. Although apparently
developed from the hand painting of fabrics, such methods are also of great
antiquity. There is evidence of printing being carried out in India during the
4th century BCE, and a printing block dated at about 300 CE has been
unearthed in the burial grounds of Akhmīn in Upper Egypt. Pre-Columbian
printed textiles have been found in Peru and Mexico. Textile printing has
become highly sophisticated and has involved the skills of many artists and
designers.
The four main methods of textile printing are block, roller, screen, and heat
transfer printing. In each of these methods, the application of the color,
usually as a thickened paste, is followed by fixation, usually by steaming or
heating, and then removal of excess color by washing. Printing styles are
classified as direct, discharge, or resist. In direct printing, colored pastes are
printed directly on the cloth. For discharge printing, the cloth is first dyed
with a background color, which is destroyed by reagents, or reducing agents,
carried in a print paste. This action may leave the discharged design white on
a colored background, although print pastes may also contain coloring
matters not destroyed by the discharging agent, producing a colored design.
In the resist process, the cloth is first printed with a substance called a resist,
protecting these printed areas from accepting color. When the cloth is dyed
or pigment padded only those parts not printed with the resist are dyed. A
special application of this technique, imparting plissé effects, is the printing
of the fabric with a resist, followed by treatment with caustic soda.

Important techniques/methods in printing:-

Block printing
Wooden blocks, carved with a design standing out in relief, are made from
solid pieces of wood or by bonding closely grained woods with cheaper ones.
When designs include large areas, these are recessed and the space filled
with hard wool felt. Fine lines are usually built up with copper strips, and
other effects are obtained with copper strips interleaved with felt.
To facilitate registration of successive prints, or lays, each block has several
pitch pins arranged to coincide with well-defined points in the pattern. Cloth
is printed on a table covered with several thicknesses of fabric or blanket, the
whole covered with a thick sheet of tightly stretched synthetic rubber. The
cloth to be printed is spread on the rubber, either gummed in position or
pinned to a backcloth attached to the table. Color is applied evenly to the
block, and the pattern is stamped on the fabric to be printed, using the
handle of a small heavy hammer, or maul, to aid penetration of the paste.
More color is then applied to the block and the process is repeated using the
pitch pin to obtain true registration. After the fabric has been entirely printed
with one color, other colors are applied in the same way until the design is
complete. Although block printing is becoming too laborious and costly for
commercial use, some of the most beautiful prints have been made in this
way.
Roller printing

This technique is used whenever long runs of fabric are to be printed with
the same design. The modern machine, based on one originally devised in
1783, consists of a large central cast-iron cylinder over which passes a thick
endless blanket providing a resilient support for the fabric. Backing fabrics,
called back grays, are placed between the blanket and the fabric to prevent
undue staining of the blanket. Although formerly made of cotton fabric, most
modern back grays are continuous belts of nylon. The blanket and back gray
are appropriately tensioned, so that the fabric moves through the machine
as the central cylinder rotates.
Engraved printing rollers, one for each color, press against the fabric and the
central cylinder. The pattern on the roller is etched on the surface of a
copper shell supported on a mandrel. High-quality engraving is essential for
good printing. Each printing roller is provided with a rotating color-furnishing
roller, partially immersed in a trough of printing paste. Finely ground blades
(doctor blades) remove excess color paste from the unengraved areas of
these rollers, and each also has a lint blade. The printed fabric passes from
the main cylinder and through a drying and steaming chamber to fix the
color. Although this machine prints only one side of the fabric, the Duplex
roller machine, essentially a combination of two roller machines, prints both
sides. Modern printing machines are smooth-running precision machines
fitted with carefully designed roller bearings and hydraulic or pneumatic
mechanisms to ensure uniform pressure and flexibility. Pressure is regulated
from an instrument panel, and each roller is controlled independently.
Automatic registration is affected by electromagnetic push-button control,
and modern electric motors provide smooth-running, variable-speed drives.
The washing of back grays and printer’s blankets has also been automated.

Spray printing is the application of color from spray guns through stencils and
has limited but occasionally profitable use.

Screen printing

Screen printing may be a hand operation or an automatic machine process.

The cloth is first laid on a printing table, gummed in position or pinned to a
back gray, and then the design is applied through a screen made of silk or
nylon gauze stretched over a wooden or metal frame, on which the design
for one color has been reproduced. This is usually a photographic process,
although hand painting with a suitably resistant blocking paint is
an alternative. A screen is placed over the fabric on the table against
registration stops, ensuring accurate pattern fitting. Print paste is poured on
to the screen edge nearest the operator and is spread with a squeegee over
the surface of the screen so that color is pushed through the open parts. The
screen is moved until one color has been applied to the cloth. For application
of other colors, the process is repeated with different screens.

With the growing importance of screen printing, the hand operation has
been largely replaced by mechanical methods. In some machines, the
screens are flat, as in hand printing; others employ rotary screens.

Heat transfer printing

The popularity of polyester fabrics led to the development of a completely

new form of printing: heat transfer printing, which prints the pattern
on paper with carefully selected dyes. The paper is then applied to the fabric
by passing the two together through a type of hot calendar and the pattern is
transferred from one to the other. This method opens up new possibilities,
such as the production of halftone effects.

In all textile printing, the nature and, particularly, the viscosity of the print
paste are important, and the thickeners employed must be compatible with
all the other components. For conventional methods the thickeners are such
reagents as starch, gum tragacanth, alginates, methyl cellulose ethers, and
sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. Many types of dye can be applied, including
direct cotton, vat, mordant, and reactive dyes, as well as pigment colors.
Most dyes are fixed by steaming or aging, by a batch or continuous method,
and more rapid fixation is effected by flash aging—e.g., allowing a shorter
steaming period by employing smaller machines. After steaming, the fabric
must be thoroughly washed to remove loose dye and thickener, ensuring
fastness to rubbing.
Most textile materials can be printed without special pretreatment, but wool
cloths are generally chlorinated before printing. Tops (long, parallel wool
fibers), printed in stripes, are used for mixed effects, and printed warps
produce shadowy effects. Tufted carpets are printed by a process designed
to ensure good penetration.

Stencil printing
This printing involves use of stencils cut in the shape of the designs. The
stencils are made of metal wood paper or plastic. The dye / color is applied
on the spaces cut inside the stencil.

This is a very easy method of printing on fabric which can be done even by a
kid. But the disadvantage is that it is labor intensive and takes a long time to
print. It is mostly used for single use purposes.

Spray printing
As the name suggests controlled spraying using specialized sprayers is used
to transfer dye on to the fabric. A spray gun is used to force the color on to
the fabric through screens

Direct to garment digital printing (DTG)

This is process in which a special inkjet printer with special ink is used to print
directly on fabric from the computer directly. The artwork and the dye is heat
set with a heat press or tunnel dryer.

The advantage of direct to garment digital printing is that you can make any
number of prints, even small lots at low cost and you get realistic looking
pictures printed on to the fabric.

The disadvantage is that the effect may wear off with repeated washes. It is
also best when used on lighter colored fabric with darker ink colors. There
are also some fabrics which are not suited for this printing. Another
disadvantage is that as quantity increases cost increases exponentially
But the fast and easy application and versatility make this a favorite method
of printing especially for making samples

Printing with inkjet printers

This is a homemade version of the direct to garment printing. An ordinary
inkjet printer is used to print on fabric pieces.

Sublimation transfer printing

This method involves a sublimation dye which is transferred to the fabric

with heat. You need inkjet or color laser printer, sublimation ink and a heat
press machine for this printing technique

This method is definitely costlier than the thermal transfer method as the ink
is very costly. But the resultant prints are very vivid and attractive

A major disadvantage of this method is that it is not possible to print onto

cotton fabrics (the best fabrics are synthetic or 100% polyester) and if you
want to use this method for printing onto cotton fabric you will have to apply
an appropriate coating on cotton fabric surface .

Though sublimation printing is supposed to be very durable and lasts a long

long time it may wear off with exposure to direct sunlight.

Photo Printing
In this type of printing the fabric is coated with a chemical (Liquid photo
emulsion) that is sensitive to light and then any photograph may be printed
on it.

Blueprinting is one such technique which is used very frequently. This was a
method invented by Sir John Herschel and with this you can make an
impression of most objects on your pretreated fabric. White /light colored
prints are made on blue background.
Styles of Printing:

The various processes by which fabrics are printed with different types of
chemicals are meant the styles of printing or print style. There are various
styles of printing available among which following are the most important.

A. Direct style
B. Discharge style
C. Resist style

A. Direct printing style:

The direct style is the easiest and least expensive of the three main printing
styles. It involves the printing of a pattern with dyes directly onto white
fabric. This style is suitable for the printing of both simple and complicated
designs; color matching with the original design is also easy. Thereby, this is
the most popular and most extensively used style for mass produced printed
fabrics.

B. Discharge style of printing:

The literal meaning of the word “discharge” is to eliminate or to remove. It

means the style of printing which can produce a white or colored effect on a
previously dyed fabric ground.

This discharging of color from previously dyed ground is carried out by a

discharging agent, which is capable of destroying color by oxidation and
reduction.

The discharging agents are – oxidizing agent (i.e. Potassium chlorate, Na-
chlorate etc.) or reducing agent (i.e. Rongalite-c, Stannous chloride etc.)

Types of discharge printing style:

2 types of discharging styles are available. White discharge and colored
discharge.
a. White discharge:
The fabric is dyed with certain class of dye and then printed (according
required design) with a print paste containing “Reducing agent” (usually
“Rongolite C”) with no dyes. After printing, the fabric is steamed. The
reducing agent on the printed portion destroys the ground color and thus
produced a white on base color.

Fig: White & color discharge printed fabric

b. Color discharge:
The fabric is dyed with certain class of dye and then printed (according to
required design) with a print paste containing “Reducing agent” (usually
“Rongolite C”) with dyestuff. After printing, the fabric is steamed. The
reducing agent on the printed portion destroys the ground color and due to
the presence of dye in print paste, the new color is replaced with the design
area. Thus it produces a color-color combination.

C. Resist style of printing:

The literal meaning of the term “Resist” is to prevent or to hinder. A resist

(wax or other resinous substance) solution is applied according print design
that will prevent the fixation of any coloring agent employed after words on
that area.

It is one of the oldest printing style in which two resulting pattern can be
obtained. In resist printing the fabric is first printed with an agent that resists
either dye penetration or dye fixation. During subsequent dyeing, only the
areas free of the resist agent are colored.
Types of resist printing style:
2 types of resist styles are available. White resist and colored resist.

a. White resist:
No color is added to the resist print paste. After printing according to design
the fabric dried and then dyed so the unprinted portion will be dyed. The
printed portion will be un-dyed. Thus it gives a color-white combination.

Fig: White and color resist printed fabric

b. Color resist:
Required color is added to the resist printing paste. After printing according
to design the fabric dried and then dyed so the unprinted portion will be
dyed according to dye’s color and the printed portion will be printed
according print paste color. This it gives a color-color combination.
 4. Classify dyes and explain different stages and methods of
dyeing with parameters
A:-
Textile Dyeing:-
It is basically a process of adding color to fabrics. This process is applied on
three main stages- fiber, yarn and fabric. There are two factors that influence
dyeing process- choice of dye as per the fabric and method of dyeing. Natural
dyes involve natural coloring agents like seaweeds, resins, water, etc. These
are extracted from nature and are mixed with other mordants for better
prints. Kalamkari fabrics are the best examples of natural dyes. Here
vegetable or natural colors are used to create beautiful art. The value for
handcrafted fabrics is in great demand.
Color is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for different types of
fiber and at different stages of the textile production process. Dyeing can be
done during any stage in the textile manufacturing process. Textiles may be
dyed as fiber, as yarn, as fabric, as garments, depending upon the type of the
fabric or garment being produced. Among all the manual dyeing methods, tie
and dye, batik dyeing have got its unique place in dyeing industry. They are
part of piece dyeing where fabric as a piece is dyed.
Dyes:-
Dye, substance used to impart color to textiles, paper, leather, and other
materials such that the coloring is not readily altered by washing, heat, light,
or other factors to which the material is likely to be exposed. Dyes differ
from pigments, which are finely ground solids dispersed in a liquid, such as
paint or ink, or blended with other materials. Most dyes are organic
compounds (i.e., they contain carbon), whereas pigments may be inorganic
compounds (i.e., they do not contain carbon) or organic compounds.
Pigments generally give brighter colors and may be dyes that are insoluble in
the medium employed.
Classification of Dyes:-
Dyes differ in their resistance to sunlight, perspiration, washing, gas, alkalis,
and other agents; their affinity for different fibers; their reaction to cleaning
agents and methods; and their solubility and method of application.
Various classes and types of dyes are listed below:

Acid Dyes

a class of dyes used on wool, other animal fibers, and some manufactured
fibers. Acid dyes are seldom used on cotton or linen since this process
requires a mordant. Acid dyes are widely used on nylon when high wash
fastness is required. In some cases, even higher wash fastness can be
obtained by after treatment with fixatives.

Natural Dyes
Direct printing, it is the most common approach to apply a color pattern onto
a fabric. If done on colored fabric, it is known as overprinting. The desired
pattern is produced by pressing dye on the fabric in a paste form. To prepare
the print paste, a thickening agent is added to a limited amount of water and
dye is dissolved in it. Earlier starch was preferred as a thickening agent for
printing. Nowadays gums or alginates derived from seaweed are preferred as
they allow better penetration of color and are easier to wash out. Most
pigment printing is done without thickeners because the mixing up of resins,
solvents and water produces thickening anyway.

Basic (Cationic) Dyes

Basic dyes are water-soluble and are mainly used to dye acrylic fibers. They
are mostly used with a mordant. A mordant is a chemical agent which is used
to set dyes on fabrics by forming an insoluble compound with the dye. With
mordant, basic dyes are used for cotton, linen, acetate, nylon, polyesters,
acrylics and modacrylics. Other than acrylic, basic dyes are not very suitable
for any other fiber as they are not fast to light, washing or perspiration. Thus,
they are generally used for giving an after treatment to the fabrics that have
already been dyed with acid dyes.

Synthetic Dyes

Synthetic dyes are classified based upon their chemical composition and the
method of their application in the dyeing process.

Direct (substantive) Dyes

Direct dyes color cellulose fibers directly without the use of mordants. They
are used for dyeing wool, silk, nylon, cotton, rayon etc. These dyes are not
very bright and have poor fastness to washing although they are fairly fast to
light.
Disperse Dyes

Disperse dyes are water insoluble. These dyes are finely ground and are
available as a paste or a powder that gets dispersed in water. These particles
dissolve in the fibers and impart color to them. These dyes were originally
developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate but now they are used to dye
nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers too.

Sulfur Dyes

Sulfur Dyes are insoluble and made soluble by the help of caustic soda and
sodium sulfide. Dyeing is done at high temperature with large quantities of
salt so that the color penetrates into the fiber. After dyeing the fabric is
oxidized for getting desired shades by exposure to air or by using chemicals.
Excess dyes and chemicals are removed by thorough washing. These dyes are
fast to light, washing and perspiration and are mostly used for cotton and
linen.

Pigment Dyes

although pigments are not dyes in a true sense, they are extensively used for
coloring fabrics like cotton, wool and other manmade fibers due to their
excellent light fastness. They do not have any affinity to the fibers and are
affixed to the fabric with the help of resins. After dyeing, the fabrics are
subjected to high temperatures.

Mordant Dyes

the mordant or chrome dyes are acidic in character. Sodium or potassium

bichromate is used with them in the dye bath or after the process of dyeing
is completed. This is done for getting the binding action of the chrome. They
are mostly used for wool which gets a good color fastness after treatment
with mordant dyes. They are also used for cotton, linen, silk, rayon and nylon
but are less effective for them.

Vat Dyes

Vat dyes are insoluble in water and cannot dye fibers directly. However, they
can be made soluble by reduction in alkaline solution which allows them to
affix to the textile fibers. Subsequent oxidation or exposure to air restores
the dye to its insoluble form. Indigo is the original vat dye. These dyes are the
fastest dyes for cotton, linen and rayon. They are used with mordants to dye
other fabrics such as wool, nylon, polyesters, acrylics and modacrylics.

Reactive Dyes

Reactive dyes react with fiber molecules to form a chemical compound.

These dyes, they are either applied from alkaline solution or from neutral
solutions which are then alkalized in a separate process. Sometimes heat
treatment is also used for developing different shades. After dyeing, the
fabric is washed well with soap so as to remove any unfixed dye. Reactive
dyes were originally used for cellulose fibers only but now their various types
are used for wool, silk, nylon, acrylics and their blends as well.

Macromolecular Dyes
a group of inherently colored polymers. They are useful both as polymers
and as dyes with high color yield. The chromophores fit the recognized CI
classes, i.e., azo, anthraquinone, etc., although not all CI classes are
represented. Used for mass dyeing, hair dyes, writing inks, etc.

Metalized Dyes

A class of dyes that have metals in their molecular structure. They are
applied from an acid bath.
Naphthol Dyes

a type of azo compound formed on the fiber by first treating the fiber with a
phenolic compound. The fiber is then immersed in a second solution
containing a diazonuim salt that reacts with the phenilic compound to
produce a colored azo compound. Since the phenolic compound is dissolved
in caustic solution, these dyes are mainly used for cellulose fiber, although
other fibers can be dyed by modifying the process. (Also see DYES,
Developed Dyes.)

Premetallized Dyes

Acid dyes that are treated with coordinating metals such as chromium. This
type of dye has much better wet fastness than regular acid dye.
Premetallized dyes are used on nylon, silk, and wool.

Gel Dyeing

passing a wet-spun fiber that is in the gel state (not yet at full crystallinity or
orientation) through a dye bath containing dye with affinity for the fiber. This
process provides good accessibility of the dye sites.

Developed Dyes

Dyes that are formed by the use of a developer. The substrate is first dyed in
a neutral solution with a dye base, usually colorless. The dye is then
diazotized with sodium nitrate and an acid and afterwards treated with a
solution of B-naphthol, or a similar substance, which is the developer. Direct
dyes are developed to produce a different shade or to improve wash fastness
or light fastness.
Azo Dyes

Dyes characterized by the presence of an azo group (-N=N-) as the

chromophore. Azo dyes are found in many of the synthetic dye classes.

Aniline Dyes

Dyes derived chemically from aniline or other coal tar derivatives.

Anthraquinone Dyes

Dyes that have anthraquinone as their base and the carbonyl group (>C=O)
as the chromophore. Anthraquinone-based dyes are found in most of the
synthetic dye classes.

Stages of dyeing:-
Textile dyeing can take place at different stages of the manufacturing of the
textile. There are various methods of textile dyeing which are as follows:
1. Fiber Stage Dyeing Method
2. Yarn Stage Dyeing Method
3. Fabric Stage Dyeing Method
4. Garment Stage Dyeing Method

Fiber Stage Dyeing Method

In this method, the dyeing is done at the fiber stage. Either the dyestuff is
mixed in the chemical solution to manufacture man-made fibers or the fibers
are dyed in the dye bath.
Yarn Stage Dyeing Method
In this method, the yarns that are spun using fibers are immersed in the dye
bath, partially and completely. This is done before the yarns are used for the
construction of fabrics. This is specially used to create various designs in the
fabric, such as:
 Stripes
 Checks
 Plaid
 Tweed

Fabric Stage Dyeing Method

In this method, color is applied to the fabric after its construction. The fabric
is submerged into the dye bath to get the desired color.

Garment Stage Dyeing Method

In this method, the finished garment is dyed in the dye bath in order to get
the desired color.

Methods of dyeing:-
Textiles may be dyed at any stage of their development from fiber into
fabric or certain garments by the following methods;

Stock Dyeing:
Stock dyeing refers to dyeing staple fibers before they are spun. Here the
packed fibers are removed from the bales and then packed in large vats to be
circulated with dye liquor at elevated temperature.
 In stock dyeing, which is the most effective and expensive method of
dyeing, the color is well penetrated into the fibers and does not crack readily.
Stock dyed fibers does not spin as readily as undyed fiber because it loses
some of its flexibility, but lubricants added in the final stage overcome most
of this difficulty.

Top dyeing:
Top dyeing is adopted in the worsted industry. Top is wool that has been
combed to take out the short fabrics, in a rope like form about 1 inch (30mm
thick). The top is then wound on perforated spools and the dye liquor is
circulated through it. Perfect even dyeing is possible in this method.

Yarn Dyeing:
Dyeing done at yarn stage is known as yarn dyeing. Yarn dyed fabrics are
usually deeper and richer in color. The primary reason for dyeing in the yarn
form is to create interesting checks, stripes and plaids with different colored
yarns in the weaving process. Chambrays, for example, are usually woven
with a colored warp and white filling. Other examples are checked gingham,
shepherds check, plaid and seer sucker.

Piece Dyeing:
Bulk of fabrics is dyed in this method. Piece dyeing is thoroughly satisfactory
as regards evenness, penetration and overall fastness.

Fabrics may be piece dyed whether it is composed of only one kind of

fiber or yarn or blends of different fibers or combinations of different yarns.
When the fabric is made of one kind of fiber or yarn, the dyeing is not
complicated because the one appropriate dye is used. If the fabric is of a
blend or combination of different yarns, then special procedures are
required where different dyes that are particular for each fiber need to be
selected. They are union dyeing and cross dyeing.

Union Dyeing:
Different fibers may require different dyes to obtain the color; this may be
done by putting the appropriate color dye that is specific to each type of
fiber into one bath.

Cross Dyeing:
Cross dyeing of goods may be accomplished in any one of the several ways.
One method is a combination of stock dyeing or of yarn dyeing with
subsequent fabric dyeing.

Solution pigmenting or Dope dyeing:

A process called solution pigmenting or dope dyeing has been used for
manmade fabrics ranging from rayon through saran and glass fibers. In dope
dyeing, dye is added to the spinning solution before it is extruded through
the spinnerets into filaments. This method also gives a greater degree of
colorfastness. Effective results have been obtained by this method.

Garment Dyeing:
Certain kinds of non-tailored apparel, such as hosiery, pantyhose and
sweaters can be dyed as completed garments. A number of garments are
loosely packed into a large nylon net bag. The bags are then put into a
puddle dyer, which is a tub with a motor-driven puddle that agitates the dye
bath. Garment dyeing is an economical method.
Resist Dyeing:
Resist dyeing can be done either in garments or fabrics.
Resist dyeing is a term for a number of traditional methods of dyeing textiles
with patterns. Methods are used to 'resist' or prevent the dye from reaching
all the cloth, thereby creating a pattern and ground. The most common
forms use wax, some type of paste, or a mechanical resist that manipulates
the cloth such as tying or stitching. Another form of resist involves using a
chemical agent in a specific type of dye that will repel another type of dye
printed over the top. The most well-known varieties today include tie-dye
and batik.

Tie and Dye:

Tie-dye is a process of resist dyeing textiles or clothing which is made from
knit or woven fabric, usually cotton, typically using bright colors. Tie and dye
developed especially in the regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan. People of
Jaipur are particularly skilled in this craft. Tie-dyeing is accomplished by
folding the material into a pattern, and binding it with string or rubber bands.
Many different kinds of dyes can be used, mostly reactive dyes are used.
Tie dye is a technique for dying fabrics that results in interesting, colorful
patterns. The technique involves crumpling, pleating or folding the fabric into
various patterns, then tying it with string, hence the name 'tie and dye'. The
tied fabric is dipped into vats of dye, then wrung out and rinsed. The ties
prevent the entire material from being dyed. Designs are formed by applying
different colors of dyes to different sections of the wet fabric. Tied areas
accept dye unevenly amidst the folds, creating varied patterns in the finished
product. There are different types of methods of tying threads to obtain
different patterns such as: Striped design - diagonal, vertical and horizontal
stripes, Knotting, Circular design, Marbling, Rouching, All over tiny dots,
Mango design and Flower design.
Batik:
This is another form of resist dyeing which produces patterns like prints. The
difference between 'tie and dye' and 'batik' lies in the fact that former is by
tying the spots and latter applying wax on the cloth. The word 'batik' origin is
Javanese, meaning 'to tattoo'. The fabric used for batik should be smooth
and thin in order to get a good effect. Silk is perhaps the easiest fabric of all
to use. Other fabrics suitable for this are soft cotton and organdie. Any fabric
for making batik should be thoroughly washed and ironed before use.

Design is traced lightly to the fabric with sharp pencil. Brushes of various
sizes will be needed to apply hot liquid wax on the design. Bees wax is the
best wax to use for batik. Then the fabric is dyed. The wax prevents the dye
to from penetrating into the design. The finished fabric is left with a white
pattern on a colored background. The wax is sometimes deliberately cracked
to form a fine spider-like line of color where the dye penetrates these cracks.

End