TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 1

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE

Kriti Vyas

Arch College of Design and Business

Textile Materials

Professor Aditi Vyas

December 2022

Author Note

Kriti Vyas, Student is currently at Fashion Department in Arch College of Design and Business;

studying Fashion Design. Special thanks to Professor Aditi Vyas for her help in the preparation

of this research. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kriti Vyas,

Student, Department of Fashion, Arch College of Design and Business, Block A, Malviya Nagar,

Jaipur 302017, India, Phone: +91 9784909239 Email address: Kritiv_fd21@archedu.org

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 2

CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter 2. Properties

[Physical, Mechanical, Thermal and Chemical Properties]

Chapter 3. Tests and Findings

[Burn test, Test Results]

Chapter 4. Process

[Felting, Tatting, Heat Setting, Knitting and Crocheting, Weaving]

Chapter 5. Dyeing and Chemical Treatments

[Types of Dyes and Chemical treatments]

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 3

ABSTRACT

What are textile materials? Is it the skin or the chemicals? Is it the interlaced yarns or the heated

crystal flakes? Is it weaving or chemical experimenting? A fabric includes it all but what about

textile materials, is everybody stating it wrongly or is it just the imprecise source we are relying

on. Is it a matter or a substance?

These research findings indicate clear differences between non-identical textile materials and

their properties along with their brief history. As it turns out, textiles have many uses outside of

the fashion world. Aside from the obvious— clothing, bags, home decor, and so on— textiles are

an important part of the medical field, toy manufacturing, weaponry, agriculture, and other

unexpected fields. By researching upon this colossal subject, it becomes evident that there are a

few basic techniques on which textile materials are based. Along with that, it was also clear that

there are endless dyeing and printing techniques as well, which are also considered during the

process. These results also elucidate the major properties of a textile material.

Keywords: matter, substance, interlaced,

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 4

Textile Materials: Matter or Substance

Introduction

As it turns out, textiles have many uses outside of the fashion world. Aside from the

obvious— clothing, bags, home decor, and so on— textiles are an important part of the medical

field, toy manufacturing, weaponry, agriculture, and other unexpected fields. If you work in the

fashion industry, chances are you are working with a lot of fabrics and sometimes all of them

may look the same but is it really the same thing? If you are now working with fabrics, then what

is a textile material? Is it the same thing, let us find out.

Matter is here referring to everything that is made of solids which needs to be knitted or

weaved into a piece by using one or more yarns/threads, the whole process does not include

chemicals or semi solids. The substance on the other side is all about chemicals and semi solids

and something which cannot be woven or knitted into a single piece it is rather finished by a

chemical process.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 5

Properties

Every textile material has its own properties which defines its mere existence, these

properties are further classified into many more such as mechanical, physical, chemical, etc.

Physical Properties

A large amount of information has been accumulated concerning the tensile behavior of

fibers under various conditions of temperature, humidity, and duration of loading.

Tensile Strength

Since fibers are very long in relation to their thickness and since they are used mainly in the form

of fabrics, or laminar structures that are thin compared with their area, the forces to which they

are subjected in manufacture and use nearly always cause the fibers to stretch. Such forces are

known as tensile forces. The tensile strength is commonly used as an index of quality in textiles.

How do we arrive at a fair estimate of tensile strength?

The maximum resistance to stretching forces developed in a tensile test in which the sample is

broken is called the breaking load, and it is measured, for example, in grams weight or pounds

weight, although these units are frequently abbreviated to grams or pounds. The average

breaking load of a cotton fiber is about 5 to 10 grams whilst that of wool fiber may be 5 grams

for fine wool up to 35 grams for coarse wool. The conclusion might therefore be drawn that wool

fibers are generally stronger than cotton fibers. But note that wool fibers are coarser than cotton

fibers, so that a fabric of given weight per square yard would contain fewer wool fibers than

cotton fibers, and in fact, the wool fabric would be the weaker one. Accordingly, in order to

compare the strength of different fibrous materials, it is necessary to eliminate the effect on

breaking load of the coarseness of the fibers, and this can be done by dividing the breaking load

by the coarseness expressed in such units as denier (grams per 9,000 meters) or Tex (grams per
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 6

kilometer). We then have a quantity called tenacity,^ The units in which this quantity is

expressed are (i) grams per denier, if the breaking load in grams has been divided by the

coarseness in denier, or (ii) kilometers if the breaking load in grams has been divided by the

coarseness in grams per kilometer (Tex). It is well known that the strength of a textile fiber

depends on the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, on the rate at

which it is loaded or stretched, and on the length of specimen used. Probably the most important

factor is the relative humidity and the least important is the temperature, although there is a class

of fibers known as thermoplastic which are considerably reduced in strength by sufficiently high

temperatures. In view of the influence of these various factors, it is usual to test fibers under

controlled conditions such as a relative humidity of 65 per cent, room temperature, and a rate of

loading that will cause the fiber to break in about ten seconds when the test length is one

centimeter.At the molecular level, the fibers with the highest degree of orientation, or alignment

of the molecules with the fiber axis, have the greatest strength.

The strength of fibers is modified

appreciably by a change in the relative

humidity of the surrounding atmosphere.

Native cellulose fibers such as flax,

ramie and cotton increase in strength as

the relative humidity rises, whereas all

other fibers decrease in strength. The

strength of a cellulose fiber depends

Fig 1. essentially on the number of chain molecules

in the amorphous regions that can be called into play to support the external stress. Now the
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 7

average chain length in natural cellulose fibers is more than five times greater than it is in

regenerated cellulose and the degree of crystallinity is higher, so that the molecules in natural

cellulose fibers may be expected to pass through more crystalline regions where they are held

securely.

The time taken to break a fiber affects the tenacity. Thus, for example, a fiber that would

sustain a certain load for a month before breaking would have a strength of more than twice that

load if broken with a snap in say one hundredth of a second. The effect with different kinds of

fiber is similar in magnitude and a rough rule that has been found to apply to flax, cotton, viscose

rayon, silk and nylon says that each ten-fold increase in breaking time produces a decrease in

strength of 7 to 11 per cent of the breaking load for a breaking time of 10 seconds. Briefly, the

explanation of this effect seems to be that when the rate of loading is very high the internal stress

does not have time to relax and the total stress that the fiber can support is high.

the tenacity depended on the length of the specimen tested: this is due to the fact that the

longer the specimen the greater is the chance of finding a really weak place and since the fiber

always breaks at its weakest place, the strength of long specimens is less than that of short

specimens. This effect is important because tensile tests on single fibers are often made on 1-cm

lengths, whereas the length of fiber that is nipped by the cross threads in a fabric may be

considerably less than one centimeter and, since the change in strength with length depends on

the variability of strength along the fiber, it differs for different fibers. For example, 1-cm lengths

of single fibers of cotton and nylon having average tenacities of 32 and 48 km respectively, had

tenacities of 44 and 51 km when the test length was reduced to 1-mm and tenacities of 61 and 56

km for 0.1 mm lengths, so that the ranking in tenacity of two fibers such as cotton and nylon can

be completely reversed.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 8

Breaking Extension

Some of the strongest fibers have the smallest breaking extension, and vice versa. Glass fibers are

relatively inextensible and brittle because they have chemical bonds of roughly the same energy

extending in all directions, so the extension is limited to the amount by which these bonds can be

stretched and the angles between them distorted without rupture, and this is only small. Flax fibers

possess relatively weak bonds between one cellulose chain molecule and the next, but the alignment

of the chain molecules is so nearly perfect that there can be very little untangling of the molecules

in the amorphous regions and the breaking extension is low. Cotton gives a higher breaking

extension because the chain molecules spiral round the fiber axis at an angle of about 30° and the

elongation of the spiral structure contributes to the extension. Regenerated cellulose fibers are

capable of still higher extension before breaking because the chain molecules are coiled up and

kinked to a much greater extent; they have twice as much amorphous or disordered cellulose as the

native cellulose fibers. Although the tenacity of viscose rayons increases with increase in

orientation, the breaking extension decreases; but there is no exact reciprocal relationship between

tenacity and breaking extension because the method of manufacture introduces other factors, such

as chain length, which affect the strength. Wool fibers have a high breaking extension because their

structure is remarkable in that the chain molecules are regularly folded when the fiber is

unstretched; stretching the fiber unfolds them while the side linkages between them remain intact.

Of course, the fiber reaches a stage when nearly all the molecules are pulled out straight and rupture

soon follows. Now X-rays indicate that silk has its chain molecules in the fully extended state when

unstretched, yet it can be extended 25 per cent before rupture occurs. This is believed to be due to

the large side groups attached to the long backbone molecules in certain regions of the fiber; they

cause the arrangement of the backbone molecules in those regions to be irregularly kinked and
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 9

allow greater extension before rupture than the fully extended backbone chains in the crystalline

parts of the fiber would allow. In artificial protein fibers made from milk, peanuts, etc., the grid

formed by the backbone chain molecules and the side group linkages is not so well developed as in

wool, so the molecules unfold and slip at the same time: this means that a high breaking extension

can be obtained but recovery from high extensions is poor. Recently, artificial protein fibers have

been improved in strength and recovery, by treatment with formaldehyde to form linkages from one

chain molecule to another.

Stress Strain Relation of Fibers

In order to describe the tensile behavior of materials more completely, a continuous record of

load versus elongation is usually made and then converted into a stress-strain curve so that

different fibers can be compared directly. To obtain the stress, it is necessary to take into account

the variation in the coarseness of the fibers, and this is done by dividing the load by the

coarseness expressed as mass per unit length. In this

way fibers are compared on a uniform basis with

respect to coarseness or fineness. The elongation of the

fiber divided by the length under test is called the strain

or extension and is usually expressed as a percentage

by multiplying by 100. Of course, the shape of the

curve varies from one fiber to another and this shape

Fig 2 gives us much information about what is going on inside

the fiber when it is stretched. The end of the curve corresponds to rupture of the fiber and the

stress and strain at this point are the tenacity and breaking extension. There are several other

mechanical properties that can be deduced from the curve and the first of these that we shall
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 10

consider is the initial resistance to stretching represented by the slope of the initial straight part of

the stress-strain curve. This part of the curve is important because any strains within this straight

part are almost immediately and completely recovered when the stress is removed.

Glass fibers are brittle and develop high stresses for small strains. On the basis of the same mass

per unit length, the resistance to stretching of glass fibers and steel wire is about the same and

equal to six times that of cotton fibers. Flax and Fortisan have approximately equal resistance to

extension which is about three times that of cotton or ordinary viscose rayon. Silk has a fairly

high initial resistance to extension which is about three times that of nylon, wool or cellulose

acetate rayon.

Another property that can be calculated from the stress-strain curve is the work of rupture or

toughness. This is equal to the area under the curve, i.e. the shaded area in Fig 2.

A more direct appreciation of toughness might be obtained by considering parachutes of equal

weight made of different fibers. The toughness would be proportional to the distance a body

attached to the parachute could be allowed to fall freely without the opening of the 'chute causing

rupture of the fabric. The outstanding toughness of nylon and silk is one reason for using these

fibers for parachutes. Of course, in practice the parachute is made heavy enough to give a

reasonable safety factor but obviously a lighter fabric can be used with a tougher fiber to give the

same safety factor. The new fiber Terylene is tough. Note that toughness requires both

reasonably high strength and breaking extension so that the strongest fibers, like glass, Fortisan

and flax, are not necessarily tough.

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 11

Mechanical Properties

There are tremendous possibilities inherent in the use of stress analysis for the design of

textile structures. Its application to mechanical fabrics, cords, ropes, etc., where load-carrying

capacity and/or stability of size are important, is obvious. Just as important, however, would be

its application to the many other types of textile structures. Such end-use requirements as

crush-resistance of apparel fabrics, the combined performance of coated or laminated fabrics,

etc., all depend to a degree upon the inherent properties of the basic fibers and materials

comprising the structure.

Complete theoretical analysis has been limited chiefly by two properties of textile structures, one

inherent and the other arising as a result of geometry, namely:

1. Every textile fiber possesses a nonlinear stress strain curve for the ordinary rates of loading or

straining. Hence, any textile structure in general will exhibit non-Hookean characteristics,

making it impossible to describe textile performance by the direct use of well-known engineering

formulae. It indicates that the complete solution of a textile problem involving stresses depends

upon a quantitative knowledge of the fundamental stress-strain properties of the fiber.

2. Every textile structure, beginning with the yarn, represents a statically indeterminate body

[1~, which means that stress distribution cannot be established from merely a consideration of

the laws of static equilibrium, but that, in addition, the deformation of the structure must be

considered.

Geometry of Singles Continuous Filament Yarns

The first step in the stress analysis of any structure consists in defining the geometry of the body,

usually by assuming an ideal physical form. Theoretical analysis demands the assumption of no

variability in form, and a compromise between duplicating actual average shape and the adoption
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 12

of a geometry which is easy to visualize and handle mathematically. The final check for the

rationality of any assumptions is determined partially by judgment, and more convincingly by

the agreement between the results arrived at using the assumptions and any experimental results.

The following assumptions are being made:

1. The yarn is uniform along its length, and its cross-sectional outline is circular.

2. All fibers within a yarn possess the same properties and are circular in cross section.

3. The center line of each fiber lies in a perfect helix, with the center of the helix located at

the center of the yarn cross section.

4. The fibers fall into a rotationally symmetric array in cross-sectional view.

5. The diameter of the yarn is large compared with the fiber diameter.

A general equation relating helix angle, turns per inch, and diameter can be found in the

literature and will not be derived here. The relationship follows:

tan𝛉 = N𝜋KD,

where 𝛉 = helix angle; N = yarn twist (turns per inch.); D = 2r = bounding diameter of layer of

𝐷−𝑑
fibers (inch) ; K = geometrical constant = 𝐷
; and d = fiber diameter (inch).

Equation (1) indicates that for a given yarn twist N, which is constant for all the fibers, the

tangent of the helix angles of any layer of fibers is linearly proportional to the distance of the

group from the yarn center, just so long as K is constant. By assumption 5, the ratio d/D is

considered to be small relative to unity and hence, except for those fibers positioned close to the

yarn axis, K will be approximately 1. In addition, for those fibers close to the yarn axis, the helix

angle approaches 𝛉, and hence, as will be seen later, variations in K will not influence the stress

distribution to any significant degree.

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 13

Yarn Stress Strain Characteristics

A. Elongation to Rupture

At yarn rupture the strains present among the various fibers in a yarn varied with the helix angle.

Yarn rupture occurs at the point where the shortest fibers i.e., those fibers which lie close to the

yarn axis and hence possess zero helix angle-reach their limiting extension. This limiting

extension is also the extension of the yarn to rupture. The effect of yarn twist or yarn size is

merely to alter the distribution of extensions among the various fibers. Since the fibers close to

the yarn axis are the first to fail as a result of tension, it can be concluded that the yarn elongation

to rupture should be constant, independent of the yarn twist or yarn size.

B. Stress Strain Curves

It has been shown that twist produces the following effects on the properties of

continuous-filament singles yarns:

1. The higher the twist the lower the yarn strength.

2. Yarn elongation is independent of yarn twist just so long as spinning does not alter the

mechanical properties of the fibers.

C. Elastic Characteristics of Yarns

The performance of textile structures in end use is very rarely a one-time loading-to-rupture

proposition. Instead, most textile products are usually subjected to a continually repeated stress

action, the magnitude of the stresses being below that rupture load which the specimen is capable

of withstanding previous to use. Mechanical failure of a material in end use occurs when, as a

result of repeated loading and unloading, the structure is incapable of absorbing and returning the

imparted energy without the occurrence of failure as either a permanent deformation or an actual

rupture of the component parts, depending upon the end-use requirement.

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 14

Thermal Properties

The main purpose of clothing is to maintain normal body temperature and to protect the

body against various external conditions. Doesn’t matter how efficient a particular garment may

be in protecting the body it must be aesthetically pleasing to the wearer at the same time. Only

under extreme climatic conditions, for example in the polar regions, is the appearance of a fabric

subjugated to the prime purpose of protection. Because of the universal need of clothing, opinion

on the relative merits of the various textile fibers is widespread and varied. The arrival of

synthetic fibers tended to increase the confusion which existed concerning the suitability of

different fibers for particular fabrics.

The question has consequently arisen: will synthetic fibers replace the natural fibers in the textile

industry?' It is impossible to answer this question explicitly. There are so many interacting

factors which have to be considered that generalization would lead only to increased confusion.

Wool is traditionally warm. People believe that if they want warmth they must have wool. Is this

really true? Will no other fiber give the warmth of wool?

Thermal Insulation

Measurements of the thermal insulation of fabrics are numerous and have been based on the

methods used for measurements of thermal conductivity. Owing to the very nature of the fabric

itself, heat transmission measurements of fabrics are not as simple or as easy to perform as those

on homogeneous materials, although generally the same methods and technique have been

adopted. In the literature, results of such measurements are given as "thermal conductivities".

However, as Rees, Speakman and Chamberlain’ have pointed out, the “thermal conductivity" of
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 15

a fabric has not the precise physical meaning normally associated with the term, since heat is

transferred by convection and radiation as well as by conduction.

Methods

● Cooling Method. In this a hot body is surrounded by a fabric whose outer surface is

exposed to the air and the rate of cooling of the hot body is determined.

● Disc Method. This is in effect the application of Lees' disc apparatus to textiles. The

fabric is held between two metal plates at different temperatures and the rate of flow of

heat is measured.

● Constant Temperature Method. The fabric is wrapped around a hot body and the energy

required to maintain the body at a constant temperature is found.

Reference Matthews International BNS Technical R.M. Hoffman

Textile Fibers Critical Tables Service Manual and L. F. Beste
Text. Res. J.
1951, 21, 67

cal/g °C cal/g °C cal/g °C cal/g °C

Wool 0.325 0.325
Cotton 0.319
Rayon 0.324
Raw silk 0.331 0.33
Linen 0.322
Kapok 0.324
Vegetable fibers 0.32
Nylon 0.55 0.43
Cellulose acetate 0.35
Terylene 0.32
Orion 0.36

The results in the table shows that the values obtained vary with the thickness, density, fiber

material and observer. Variations in the thermal transmissivity of the same fiber material
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 16

measured under different conditions are of the same order as differences between different fiber

materials.

The term 'fabric density' needs special consideration. Properties dependent on the density of

homogeneous materials are consistent, and measurements on different samples of the same

density give reproducible results. This is not so with textiles. Two fabrics nominally of the same

density may differ markedly in their structure. One fabric may consist of loosely woven tight

hard yarns and the other may be closely woven from soft yams. It is thus possible to obtain

considerable variations in the thermal transmissivity of a fabric although its density and most

other factors are the same.

Chill Proofness

It is well known that the human body can adjust its rate of loss of heat according to external

atmospheric conditions. If there is a sudden drop in air temperature the blood vessels under the

skin surface contract, the blood supply to the skin is reduced and the rate of loss of heat falls. In

an extreme case of cooling 'goose pimples' rise on the skin causing the hairs to erect and hold a

thicker layer of still air next to the skin, thus increasing the thermal insulation. The body needs

time to adjust itself to changing external conditions, and it wiil be greatly assisted if a sudden

drop in temperature is prevented from reaching the skin surface immediately. Clothing serves a

useful purpose in this respect and it is the ability of a fabric to protect the body from sudden

changes in temperature which is referred to as its 'chill proofness'. Animal fibers (wool in

particular) have long been recognised as supreme in preventing sudden temperature changes

from reaching the skin immediately. The work described by Cassie has shown the superiority of

fibers with steep regain. Thus, the extreme ‘chill proofing’ of wool under such
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 17

conditions—considered to be one of its great advantages, is explained. Synthetic fibers whose

moisture regain varies only slightly with relative humidity, e.g., nylon, Orion, Vinyon, Terylene,

cannot have the protective value of wool to such an extent unless their moisture regain is

increased.

Chemical Properties

A. Cellulosic Fibers

In the article by D. A. Clibbens on the structure of cotton, it was explained how the cellulose

molecule is a long-chain molecule, based on glucose, derived from a six-membered ring known

to chemists as the pyranose ring.

Finally, in order to clarify the main reactions of cellulose acetate and viscose rayon when in

contact with the more common chemical reagents, the following table summarizes the effect of

acids, alkalis, etc.

Cellulose Acetate

Acids Hot dilute or cold concentrated mineral acids disintegrate cellulose

acetates. Some concentrated organic acids dissolve the acetate.

Alkalis Strong alkalis (and, at elevated temperatures, weaker alkalis) cause

saponification.

Oxidizing agents Bleaching agents, applied under normal conditions, can be used.

Organic Solvents Most dry-cleaning processes can be used, but certain organic solvents,

e.g., acetone and chloroform, are solvents for cellulose acetate.

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 18

Viscose

Acids Hot dilute or cold concentrated mineral acids disintegrate viscose

rayons. Acids should be thoroughly rinsed out or drying-in of the

acids results in degradation.

Alkalis Strong alkalis produce swelling and reduction of the strength of

viscose.

Oxidizing agents Viscose rayon can be bleached by sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen

peroxide, and sodium chlorite without loss in strength when

conditions are carefully controlled : over bleaching causes

degradation.

Organic solvents Normal organic solvents have no action on viscose rayon.

B. Protein Fibers: Silk Fibroin

In common with other proteins, silk is an ampholyte and combines with both acidic and basic

groups, a property that, as with keratin, is reflected in the uptake of acid and basic dyes. The

action of acids on fibroin has a general resemblance to that on keratin.

Hydrochloric Acid

Concentrated hydrochloric acid, especially when hot, readily dissolves fibroin and is generally

used for the preparation of hydrolysates for amino acid hydrolysis. Even at 37°C, the rate at

which fibroin is dissolved and hydrolysed into amino acids by ION hydrochloric acid is

appreciable.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 19

Sulphuric Acid

When hot, the concentrated acid rapidly dissolves and hydrolyses fibroin. These conditions are

not used for the preparation of hydrolysates owing to sulphonation of tyrosine and other groups :

in addition, the concentrated acid causes an interesting structural rearrangement. Thus, when

fibroin is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 2I°C for 3 days, there is a transfer of about

60% of the peptide chains linked to the nitrogen atoms of serine residues to the corresponding

hydroxyl groups.

Nitric Acid

Nitric acid rapidly attacks fibroin : the fibers very quickly lose their tensile strength when

immersed in moderately dilute solutions of the acid at room temperature. The degradation of

fibroin is due to the powerful oxidizing properties of the acid but, at the same time, nitration of

the benzene nuclei occurs, giving rise to the so-called xanthoproteic reaction.

Nitrous Acid

Nitrous acid deaminates fibroin and, according to some very early work, the product will couple

with phenols to give coloured derivatives. When boiled for 1 hour in aqueous solutions of nitrous

acid (0-01-0-5N), fibroin becomes coloured.

Phosphoric Acid

Fibroin dissolves in warm, concentrated solutions of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and early

patents exist that relate to the spinning of silk filaments from solutions prepared in this way.

Organic Acids

Dilute solutions of organic acids have little or no action on fibroin at room temperatures ; dilute

solutions of, e.g. acetic acid, are often used in dyeing and finishing processes for silk.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 20

C. Protein Fibers: Regenerated Protein

The natural protein fibers, silk and the keratinous fibers, wool, mohair, cashmere, alpaca, etc.,

provide excellent textile materials and, in the preceding articles, it can be seen how the textile

virtues of these fibers depend on the fact that they are composed of protein matter. Proteins,

however, form one of the three main constituents (the other two being carbohydrates and lipids)

of all living organisms and also enter into plant structure. Thus, to name a few out of a vast

number of common biological proteins, there are hemoglobin of the blood cells, albumins and

globulins in fluid media such as the blood serum and white of egg, insulin in the pancreas for

controlling carbohydrate metabolism, proteins as the main constituent of muscular tissue, etc.;

the plant proteins are present mainly in the plant seeds, and most beans, cereal grains and the like

contain a comparatively high proportion of protein that serves as a source of amino-acid nitrogen

to the growing seedling. Most of these biological proteins are soluble in simple solvents, such as

water or dilute solutions of acids, alkalis, or salts.

● CASEIN FIBERS Fibrolane BX—Courtaulds Ltd. Lanital Merinova—Snia Viscosa, Italy.

Casein fibers withstand cold dilute acids but are decomposed by concentrated acids, especially at

high temperatures : the fibers can be carbonized without serious damage by 2 % sulphuric acid in

the cold. The protein fibers in general do not dissolve in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid,

whereas silk does : this is due to the formaldehyde cross-linkages

● GROUNDNUT PROTEIN FIBERS Fibrolane-C—Courtaulds Ltd. (no longer made)

The groundnut protein fibers are fairly resistant to acids of the type and concentrations used in

technical processes, including carbonization. They have, however, the common feature of

sensitivity to alkalis, perhaps to a slightly greater extent than the other regenerated protein fibers;
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 21

thus, dissolution occurs on heating at 98°C with 18% caustic soda. Normal alkaline scouring

treatments have no significant effect on the fibers.

● MAIZE PROTEIN (ZEIN ) FIBERS

Maize protein, or zein, contains a high proportion of amide groups, is almost free from lysine

and contains very little arginine and tryptophan. In general, there is a lack of bulky and polar

amino-acid residues ; as a result, the derived fibers are more crystalline and of higher tenacity

than those regenerated from other proteins. Vicara fibers are slightly more resistant to alkalis and

to boiling water than the other regenerated fibers : it is claimed that Vicara fibers, in blends with

cotton, can be dyed with vat colors and even mercerized. The resistance of the fibers to acids is

such that acid dyeing and, for blends with wool, carbonizing can be carried out with safety.

Tests and Findings

Burn test

Cut a 1 inch long triangular shaped snippet off from your fabric. Hold a snippet in a pair of
tweezers over the dish. With either a match or lighter, the snippet should be put directly into the
flame long enough for it to catch on fire.

Fibers can also be identified through the smell of the smoke it gives off in burning and the ash or
melted bead that remains after it has burned. Some fabrics are blends, and the blend of fibers
may make the burn test a rather unreliable test for fiber content. Moreover, some fabrics have
chemical finishes and sizings applied to them that will change the way they burn, making the
burn test further unreliable.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 22

Types of Reaction To Flame Burning Odor to After the flame Type of ash
Fabric Behaviour Flame is over

Cotton, Doesn’t shrink Burns rapidly Burning Continues to Soft gray

Hemp, Ramie away from flame, with a yellow Paper burn, there is an powdery smooth
ignites easily on flame and light afterglow ash
contact with flame. gray smoke

Linen Doesn’t shrink Burns rapidly Burning Continues to Soft gray

away from flame, with a yellow paper burn, there is an powdery smooth
ignites easily on flame and light afterglow ash
contact with flame. gray smoke

Rayon, Tencel Doesn’t shrink Burns rapidly Burning Continues to No ash

away from flame, with a yellow wood or burn, there is an
ignites easily on flame and light paper afterglow
contact with flame. gray smoke

Wool Shrinks away from Burns slowly Strong smell May self Crushable black
flame. with an orange of burning extinguish i.e., it bead that turns to
color and doesn't hair burns itself out ash.
melt

Silk Shrinks away from Burns slowly Burning hair May self Crushable black
flame. sizzles but extinguish bead that turns to
doesn’t melt ash.

Acrylic, Melts and pulls Melts and burns Acid Continues to Forms irregular
Olefin away from the rapidly with hot chemical burn and melt black beads in
flame sputtering black odor (fishy black/tan.
flame. odor)

Modacrylic Melts and pulls Difficult to ignite, Chemical Self extinguishes Forms small hard
away from the melts and burn odor with white black beads.
flame smoke

Spandex Melts but doesn’t Melts and burn Musty Continues to Soft sticky Black
pull away from the chemical burn and melt ash
flame odor

Polyester Melts and pulls Melts and burns Sweet Continues to Forms small
away from the with black smoke chemical burn and melt beads in cream
flame odor and then later in
tan color

Acetate Melts and pulls Melts and burns Acid, harsh, Continues to Forms small
away from the with yellow flame sharp odor burn and melt beads
flame

Nylon Melts and pulls Melts forms small Acid, harsh, Continues to Forms small
away from the beads as it burns sharp odor burn and melt beads
flame
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 23

Test Results

Fiber Type of Fabric Burning Behaviour Smell and Residue Number of

Samples

Cotton, Cotton canvas, white Burns rapidly with a Burning Paper, Soft eight
Hemp, jacquard cotton, yellow flame and light gray powdery ash
Ramie Khadi cotton, cotton gray smoke
cambric 60s, organic
cotton, denim, cotton
muslin

Linen Cotton linen, linen Burns rapidly with a Burning paper, Soft four
silk, linen yellow flame and light gray powdery ash
gray smoke

Rayon, Rayon silk, tencel, Burns rapidly with a Burning wood or paper, three
Tencel yellow flame and light No ash
gray smoke

Wool, other Fabric bags, knitted Burns slowly with an Strong smell of burning two
natural fiber wool orange color and doesn't hair
melt

Silk Modal silk, Rayon Burns slowly sizzles but Burning hair, Crushable five
silk, paper silk, upada doesn’t melt black bead that turns to
silk, blends ash

Acrylic, Acrylic Melts and burns rapidly Acid chemical odor two
Olefin with hot sputtering black (fishy odor) , Forms
flame. irregular black bead in
black/tan

Modacrylic Modal silk, Difficult to ignite, melts Chemical odor, form three
and burn small hard black beads

Spandex spandex Melts and burn Musty chemical odor, one

Soft sticky black ash

Polyester Nylon and polyester, Melts and burns with Sweet chemical odor, ten
Satin, blends black smoke Forms small beads in
cream and then in tan
color

Acetate Woven acetate and Melts and burns with Acid, harsh, sharp odor, three
nylon, yellow flame Forms small beads

Nylon Nylon and acetate, Melts forms small beads Acid, harsh, sharp odor, four
nylon and polyester, as it burns Forms small beads
nylon
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 24

Process

Different methods are used to create any textile material. Here are a few methods mentioned

here.

Felting

Felt is a dense, non-woven fabric and without any warp or weft. Instead, felted fabric is made

from matted and compressed fibers or fur with no apparent system of threads. Felt is produced as

these fibers and/or fur are pressed together using heat, moisture, and pressure.

Tatting

Tatting is a technique for handcrafting a particularly durable lace from a series of knots and

loops. Tatting can be used to make lace edging as well as doilies, collars, accessories such as

earrings and necklaces, and other decorative pieces.

Heat Setting

Heat-setting is a heat treatment by which shape retention, crease resistance, resilience, and

elasticity are imparted to the fibers. It also brings changes in strength, stretchability, softness,

dyeability, and sometimes on the color of the material.

Knitting and crocheting

Knitting is a method by which yarn is manipulated to create a textile, or fabric. It is used to

create many types of garments. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine. Knitting creates

stitches: loops of yarn in a row, either flat or in the round. Crochet is a process of creating

textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials.

The name is derived from the French term crochet, meaning 'hook'. Hooks can be made from a

variety of materials, such as metal, wood, bamboo, or plastic

TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 25

Weaving

Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are

interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting,

felting, and braiding or plaiting.

1. Plain Weave

Plain is the simplest weave, in which warp and weft threads interlace in alternate manner as
shown below, giving maximum number of interlacements. This maximum interlacement imparts
firmness and stability to the structure. At Least two ends and two picks are required to weave its
basic unit. A minimum of two heald frames are required for this weave. It is used in cambric,
muslin, blanket, canvas, dhoti, saree, shirting, suiting etc.

Plain weaves are basically three types. They are:

a) Warp Rib

b) Weft Rib

c) Matt Weave

● Warp rib:

Warp rib is a modified form of plain weave. It has 1/1 interlacements in the filling direction,
which differs from the simple plain weaves. This modified
interlacement results in the formation of cords, ridges, or texture
across the warp direction of the fabric. It requires two heald frames at
least, but multiple of these can also be employed. The number of weft
yarns in a repeat unit of this weave is equal to the sum of the digits in
the formula of warp rib. For example, 2/2 warp rib requires 2 warp
yarns and 4 weft yarns. Design of the above-stated warp rib is shown
Warp Rib (2/2) below. Warp rib is also known as ottoman.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 26

● Weft Rib

Weft ribs are another modified form of plain weave. It has 1/1 interlacements in the warp
direction, which differs from the simple plain weave. This modified
interlacement results in the formation of cords, ridges, or texture
across the weft direction of the fabric. It requires two heald frames at
least, but multiple of these can also be employed. The number of
warp yarns in a repeat unit of this weave is equal to the sum of the
digits in the formula of warp rib. For example, 2/2 weft rib requires 2
weft yarns and 4 warp yarns. Design of the above-stated weft rib is
shown below. Weft rib is also known as half panama.

● Matt Weave

This type of weave is constructed by extending the plain weave in

warp and weft directions at the same time so that two or more
threads work alike in both directions. In this weave, the same size
of squares appear on both sides of the fabric showing the same
number of warp and weft yarns on front and back of the fabric.
Matt weave is also commercially known as basket, hopsack, or
full panama.

2. Twill Weave

Twill weave is another basic weave, which is well known for its diagonal
line formation in the fabric due to its interlacing pattern. This weave and
its derivatives are used for ornamental purposes. Twill has a closer setting
of yarns due to less interlacement imparting greater weight and good
drape as compared to the plain weave. In simple twill, the outward and
upward movement of the interlacing pattern is always one that imparts a
diagonal line to this design. The direction of the propagation of the twill line classifies twill into
right-hand or left-hand twill. Twill weaves find a wide range of applications such as drill cloth,
khaki uniforms, denim cloth, blankets, shirtings, hangings and soft furnishings.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 27

Derivatives of Twill Weave:

● Broken twill
● Diamond design
● Elongated design
● Shaded twill
● Zigzag/waved/pointed twill
● Combined twill
● Herringbone twill

Broken Twill:

This is obtained by breaking the twill line of regular

twill. It is somewhat similar in appearance to Zigzag
twill. Broken twill can be obtained in different ways. At
first, basic twill is divided into two sections, then the first
section is unchanged and the second section is reversed.

Diamond design

It is a derivative of twill weave. It is obtained by

combining horizontal and vertical zigzag twill. In this
weave pointed design is obtained.

Elongated Twill

Normally, the twill angle is 45 degree where the ends and picks per unit area are equal. But in
elongated twill, the twill angle is more or less than 45 degree.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 28

Shaded twill

By shaded twill, we can create a shaded effect on fabric. The shade

effect is created by the combination of some thick to thin twills or thin
to thick twills.

Zigzag/waved/pointed Twill:

It is the simplest and one of the most important modifications of twill weave produced by
reversing the direction of twill at suitable intervals.

A point is selected (usually the last warp is selected) as the reversing point and so it is sometimes
called a pointed twill. This twill is produced by combining S and Z twist. According to reversing
of direction, there are horizontal and vertical zigzag twill.

Combined Twill

In these types of weave, two different types of continuous twills are combined together
alternately. The combination may be warp way or weft way. The angle of twill is influenced by
the method of combination.

HerringBone Twill

Herringbone, also called broken twill weave, describes a distinctive V-shaped

weaving pattern usually found in twill fabric. The pattern is called herringbone
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 29

because it resembles the skeleton of a herring fish. Herringbone-patterned fabric is usually wool,
and is one of the most popular clothes used for suits and outerwear. Tweed cloth is often woven
with a herringbone pattern.

3. Satin & Sateen:

Satin/sateen is a basic weave that does not have any regular
pattern like twill. The surface of the fabric is either warp or
weft faced. Satin is warp faced, which means that all the
surface of the fabric will show the warp threads except for the
one thread interlacement with other series of yarn. If it is weft
faced, then it will be known as sateen,
which means that the fabric surface
will show the weft threads mostly. These weaves have the least
interlacement points among the basic weaves. Due to this reason, it
gives the surface of fabric more luster and smoothness. With this weave
it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the
silk appearance on the surface of the fabric. It is used in sarees, blouse
materials, dress materials, bed spreads, furnishing fabrics, curtain fabrics etc.

4. HoneyComb Weave:

This name is given to this weave due to its honey bee

web-like structure. It makes ridges and hollow
structures, which finally give a cell-like appearance.
In this weave, both warp and weft threads move freely
on both sides, which coupled with rough structure.
The fabric made by this weave has a longer float all
over the fabric. Due to this reason, it is radially
absorbent of moisture. This property made these
weaves useful for towels, bed covers, and quilts. This
weave is further divided into three types which are
explained below. Most commonly, these weaves are constructed on repeats which are multiple of
four in ends and picks.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 30

5. Huck a Back Weave:

This weave is largely used for cotton towels and linen cloth.
It has longer floats in two quadrants, which make them more
moisture absorbent. This weave is a combination of longer
floats of symmetric weaves in two quadrants and plain
weaves in the remaining two quadrants. Plain weave gives
firmness to the structure, while longer float weave increases
the absorbency of fabric, making it suitable for the
above-stated purpose. Sometimes, longer float symmetric weaves are used in combination of
plain weaves in huck a back weave, which is also termed as honey comb huck a back weave.

6. Crepe Weave:

Crepe weave refers to the weave that does not have any specific
pattern. The weave may contain a little bit of twill, but they do
not have the prominence. They make small patterns or minute
spots and seed-like appearance all over the fabric surface. The
weave may be used separately or in combination with other
weaves. Crepe weave is frequently employed in making the
ground of the figured fabrics. In simple words, crepe weave is
used to make a rough appearance. If we make crepe weaves
with crepe yarns, this combination will give a more remarkably pebbly or puckered appearance.

7. Bedford Cord Weave:

This is a special class of weave that forms longitudinal warp lines in fabric with fine sunken lines
in between. This fabric is used in suiting for ornamental purposes. The method to construct this
weave is simple. The repeat of the weave is calculated by multiplying the cord ends by two. The

resultant value will be the total number of ends of the weave repeat. The pick repeat is four for
this weave. The weave repeat (warp ends) is divided into two halves to construct it. The first and
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 31

last ends of both the halves are treated as cutting ends. Plain weave is inserted on these cutting
ends. These plain ends behave as sunken ends in the Bedford cord.

8. Welts and Pique:

A pique weave consists of plain face fabric, which is composed

of a series of warp and weft threads along with a series of
stitching threads. This weave is unique due to the formation of
horizontal lines (weft wise). This weave requires two beams,
one for the plain weave threads and the other for stitching ends.
The word “welt” is concerned with the pique construction, when
the indentations make deep or hollow (sunken) lines appear in
the cloth.

9. Mock Leno Weave:

This weave is much similar to a gauze-type fabric. The

weave is constructed in four quadrants. The first and third
quadrants have symmetric weave, and the second and fourth
quadrants have opposite weave to the symmetric weave. The
perforated fabrics are made by this type of weave. This effect
is achieved by reversing the symmetric unit of the weave in
the alternate quadrants. So, these weaves are produced in
sections that oppose each other.

10. Leno Weave

Also known as Gauze or Cross weaving, Leno weave is a weave

in which two warp yarns twist and grip tightly around the weft
yarns. This makes for a more open weave that can be woven
tightly for shirting or left completely loose to resemble netting
or mesh.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 32

11. Backed cloth:

The weave combines 2 or more different weaves but the weave on one side is not visible on the
other side. For example: sateen on face side and twill on back side is woven with appropriate
stitches. Using this weave, 2 different types of yarn can be woven on the face and back side of
fabric. For example; linen on the face side and cotton on the back side can be woven. This
combination will give good comfort to the wearer and along with elegant appearance.

12. Terry Pile:

This weave is unique in nature by producing loop piles on the fabrics. These weaves are used in
toweling fabrics. More popularly these towels are known as Turkey towels or terry towels. These
towels are more popular for their water absorbency.

13. Velvets and Velveteens:

These are cut pile fabrics more popularly used for rich furnishing and made up fabrics. They are
also used for jewel boxes, car upholstery etc.

14. Double cloth:

Double cloths are fabrics, in which there are at least two series of warp and weft threads each of
which is engaged primarily in producing its own layer of cloth, thus forming a separate face
cloth and a separate back cloth. The purpose of the construction is to improve the thermal
insulation value of a fabric with a smart face appearance. Double cloths are used as different
types of decorative cloth such as – sofa cover, furnishing cloth, curtain fabric, bed cover, pillow
cover and other home textiles. It is also used for the production of winter garments, quilts, belts,
different types of industrial fabrics etc.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 33

a. Self-stitched double cloth

These fabrics contain only the two series of threads in both directions and the stitching of the
face cloth layer to the back layer is accomplished by occasionally dropping a face end under a
back pick or by lifting a back end over a face pick or by utilizing both of the above systems in
different portions of the cloth.

b. Center-stitched double cloths

In these fabrics, a third series of threads is introduced either in the warp or in the weft direction
whose entire function is to stitch the two otherwise separate layers of cloth together. The center
threads lie between the face and the back cloth for the purpose of stitching oscillate at regular
intervals between the face and the back thus achieving the required interlayer cohesion as shown
at the following figure.

15. Tubular cloth:

It is a double cloth woven without stitching points between the face and back fabrics. When we
take out the fabric from the loom, it will be a tube made-up of fabric.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 34

Dyeing and Chemical Treatments

● Natural Dyes

Natural + base color + number

Natural dyes are often negatively charged. Positively charged natural dyes do exist, but are not
common. In other words, the coloured part of the molecule is usually the anion. Although the
molecular charge is often shown on a specific atom in structural
formulae, it is the whole molecule that is charged. Many, but by no
means all, natural dyes require the use of a mordant.

● Synthetic dye

Dyes derived from organic or inorganic compounds are known as

synthetic dyes. Examples of this class of dyes are Direct, Acid,
Basic, Reactive dye, Mordant, Metal complex, Vat, Sulphur,
Disperse dye etc. Synthetic dyes quickly replaced the traditional
natural dyes.They cost less, they offered a vast range of new
colors, and they imparted better properties to the dyed materials
dyes are now classified according to how they are used in the
dyeing process.

● Acid Dye

Acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes, containing one or more sulfonic acid substituents or
other acidic groups. An example of the class is Acid Yellow 36.

Acid dyes are water-soluble anionic

dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 35

to acid dye baths. Acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors

fall in this category. The dyeing process is reversible and may be described as follows:

● Basic or Cationic Dye

This group was the first of the synthetic dyes to be taken out of coal-tar derivatives. As textile
dyes, they have been largely replaced by later developments. They are still used in discharge
printing, and for preparing leather, paper, wood, and straw. More recently they have been
successfully used with some readymade fibers, especially the acrylics. Basic dyes were originally
used to color wool, silk, linen, hemp, etc., without the use of a mordant, or using agent. With a
mordant like tannic acid they were used on cotton and rayon. Basic dyes give brilliant colors
with exceptional fastness to acrylic fibers. They can be used on basic dyeable variants of nylon
and polyester.

Basic Brown 1 is an example of a cationic dye that is readily protonated under the pH 2 to 5
conditions of dyeing.

● Direct Dye

These are the dyes which can be applied directly to the fabrics from an aqueous solution. These
are most useful for fabrics which can form hydrogen bonds with the Dyeing of Fabrics. The
direct dyes were mainly the basic dyes and were widely hailed because they made it unnecessary
to use a mordant or binder in dyeing cotton. The colors are not as brilliant as those in the basic
dyes but they have better fastness to light and washing, and such fastness can be measurably
improved by after treatments (diazotized and developed.) Direct dyes can be used on cotton,
linen, rayon, wool, silk and nylon. These dyes usually have azo linkage –N=N- and high
molecular weight. They are water soluble because of sulfonic acid groups.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 36

Direct orange 26 is a typical direct dye.

● Azonic Dye

Azo dyes contain at least one azo group (-N=N-) attached to one or often two aromatic rings.
These dyes are used primarily for bright red shades in dyeing and printing since most other
classes of fast dyes are lacking in good red dyes. Azoic dyes, called Naphthols in the industry,
are actually manufactured in the fabric by applying one half of the dye. The other half is then put
on and they combine to form the finished color. Unless they are carefully applied and well
washed, they have poor fastness to rubbing or crocking.

The production of bluish red azoic dye from the following two components is an example.

● VAT Dyes

The vat dyes are insoluble complex polycyclic molecules based on the quinone structure (keto
forms). The term vat comes from the old indigo method dyeing in a vat: indigo had to be reduced
to light form. Vat dyes are made from indigo, anthraquinone and carbazole. They are
successfully used on cotton, linen, rayon, wool, silk, and sometimes nylon. Vat dyes are also
used in the continuous piece of dyeing process sometimes called the pigment application process.
The dyeings produced in this way have high wash and light fastness.
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 37

● Reactive Dyes

These dyes react with the cellulosic fiber to form a covalent bond. This produces dyed fiber with
extremely high wash fastness properties. These are the dyeing of fabrics which contain a
reactive group which combines directly with the hydroxyl or the amino group of the fiber.
Because of the chemical reaction the color is fast and has a very long life. Cotton, wool or silk
can be dyed with this type of dyeing of Fabrics. There are various types of reactive dyes used in
the dyeing industry.

● Solvent Dye

These dyes are water-insoluble but soluble in alcohols, chlorinated hydrocarbons, or liquid
ammonia. These colors are applied by dissolving in the target, which is invariably a lipid or
non-polar solvent. The Colour Index uses this as a classification and naming system. Each dye is
named according to the pattern: – solvent + base color + number They are used for coloring
synthetics, plastics, gasoline, oils and waxes.

● Disperse Dye

Disperse dyes were originally developed for dyeing secondary cellulose acetate fibers. These
dyes are relatively insoluble in water and are prepared for dyeing by being ground into relatively
fine powder in the presence of dispersing agents. In the dye bath, a suspension of the dye particle
dispersion produces a very dilute solution of the dyes, which are then absorbed by the fibers.
This dye class is used to dye polyester, nylon, acetate and triacetate fibers.

Disperse yellow 3, Disperse Red 4, and Disperse Blue 27 are good examples of disperse dyes.

● Sulfur Dye

The Sulphur dyes provide very deep shades, which have excellent resistance to washing but poor
resistance to sunlight. They will dye cotton, linen, and rayon, but not brightly. A problem with
sulfur dyes, especially the black colors, is that they make the fabric tender, or weaken its
structure, so that it breaks easily. Sulfur dyes are applied to cotton from an alkaline reducing bath
with sodium sulfide as the reducing agent. They are low cost and have good fastness to light,
washings and acids.

● Nitro Dyes

Nitro dyes are polynitro derivatives of phenols containing at least one nitro group ortho or para
to the hydroxyl group. It is used to dye wool. It Consist of two or more aromatic rings (benzene,
naphthalene).
TEXTILE MATERIALS: MATTER OR SUBSTANCE 38

References

Merideth R. (1952). Properties of Textile Materials. I Vol 43 Iss. 9

Milton M. Platt. (1950). Mechanics of Elastic Performance of Textile Materials: III,

http://trj.sagepub.com/content/20/1/1

G. J. Morris (1953). Thermal Properties of Textile Materials. Published online, 8 December 2008

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/jtit20

F. O. Howitt (1956) The Properties of Textile Materials VI, Published online 7 January 2009

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19447015608665366