See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/223556203

Sand filtration of wastewater for tertiary treatment and water reuse

Article  in  Desalination · April 2004

DOI: 10.1016/S0011-9164(04)00189-4

CITATIONS READS

153 4,634

3 authors, including:

Mohamed Hamoda Nayef Al-Mutairi

Kuwait University Kuwait University
118 PUBLICATIONS   2,855 CITATIONS    131 PUBLICATIONS   2,998 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

civil engineering View project

POTENTIAL OF GREYWATER COLLECTION AND REUSE IN SCHOOLS IN THE STATE OF KUWAIT View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Mohamed Hamoda on 30 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 DESALINATION

Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

ELSEVIER ~ww, d~evter:eam/t~ale/~t~l

Sand filtration of wastewater for tertiary treatment

and water reuse

M.F. Hamoda*, I. A1-Ghusain, N.Z. AL-Mutairi

Department of Civil Engineering, Kuwait University, PO Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait
Tel. +965 481-7240 Fax +965 481-7524; email: hamoda@civil.kuniv.edu.kw

Received 19 December 2002; accepted 11 November 2003

Abstract
The performance of rapid sand filters was evaluated in three tertiary wastewater treatment plants in the State of
Kuwait. These plants are located at Ardiya, Rikka and Jahra, and receive municipal wastewater flows of 220,000,
95,000 and 42,000 m3 d- ~, respectively. The Ardiya plant uses a two-stage activated sludge process for the secondary
treatment ofwastewater whereas both the Rikka and Jahra plants use the extended aeration process. Daily records were
obtained from each plant over a period of 1 year, and the efficiency of the tertiary sand filters was determined based
on reductions in SS, VSS, BOD, and COD. Analysis of these records showed that the secondary-treated effluent quality
is highly variable. Seasonal variations were observed due to nitrification and denitriflcation that enhance the production
of nitrogen gas and carry over of sludge solids in the effluent during summer, causing more frequent backwashing of
the filters. The data were also statistically analyzed using the ANOVA program. The results obtained indicated
significant improvements, at 95% and 99% significance levels, in solids (SS, VSS) and organics (BOD, COD) removal
by sand filtration. They also showed that, in addition to improving effluent quality, the tertiary filtration played an
important role in the stability of effluent quality so as to dampen variations in the quality of secondary-treated effluent.
The tertiary effluent consistently satisfied the water quality requirements for irrigation.

Keywords: Effluent variability; Plant performance; Sand filtration; Wastewater treatment; Water reuse

1. Introduction water available will always impose great chal-

Water resources management is a predominant
problem for future development in the Arabian
Gulf region. While water demand will continue to
increase, the limited amount o f natural fresh
*Corresponding author.
lenges to water resources management in the
region. Such a conflict could be resolved by dif-
ferent means among which reuse o f treated waste-
water effluents has emerged as a renewable
resource that increases in amount with the
increase in water use. Therefore, wastewater
treatment plants in the region have implemented

0011-9164/04/$- See front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved
PII: $ 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( 0 4 ) 0 0 1 8 9 - 4
204 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211
tertiary filtration of secondary-treated effluents to
improve water quality for possible reuse in
irrigation.
The importance of wastewater treatment and
reuse in the field of water resources management
is now commonly acknowledged. In planning and
implementing wastewater treatment and reuse,
water reuse applications usually govern the
wastewater treatment needed and the degree of
reliability required for the treatment processes
and operations [1,2]. Perhaps, agricultural and
landscape irrigation is the largest current use of
reclaimed wastewater [3]. Irrigation uses can
offer significant opportunity for water reuse
since, in many arid and semi-arid regions, 70-
90% of applied water is used in irrigation. In the
Arabian Gulf region, much of the attention
focused on reclaimed water over the last decade
has been for use in the urban environment, such
as for landscape irrigation, and for its potential
for groundwater recharge [4].
Because of the stringent water quality require-
ments imposed upon water reuse applications, the
importance of granular-medium filtration as a
tertiary treatment step has been demonstrated.
The filtration removes substantial numbers of
particles in wastewater and thus promotes effec-
tive disinfection as well as esthetic acceptance of
reclaimed water for beneficial uses. Although
granular media filtration has been practiced in the
water treatment field for a long time [5], design
criteria for wastewater filters cannot be derived
directly from experience in potable water sys-
tems. Waterworks filters are generally operated at
constant rates under relatively steady suspended-
solids loading. Unless equalization is provided, a
wastewater plant must handle a varying rate of
flow with peak hydraulic and solids loadings
occurring simultaneously. Particulate matter
found in typical wastewaters is less predictable
and much more "sticky" than water-plant solids,
thus making filter backwashing more difficult.
Also, the nature of suspended matter is not
consistent and varies with the preceding treatment
processes. Microbial flocs are the dominant
suspended solids (SS) following secondary bio-
logical treatment. Experience indicates that filtra-
tion following secondary biological treatment can
reduce SS to a level of5-10 mg/1, so the expected
performance of a well-designed and properly
operated system is an effluent with total S S (TSS)
and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) concen-
trations of less than 10 rag/1. However, chemical
treatment prior to filtration may be required to
consistently produce an effluent of less than
5 mg/1 of TSS and 5 mg/t of BOD [6].
In view of the importance of granular media
filtration for effluent quality improvement in
wastewater treatment plants, this study was con-
ducted in order to evaluate the actual performance
of tertiary filtration of municipal wastewater. For
this purpose, three wastewater treatment plants in
Kuwait were selected.
2. Background
The Kuwait sewerage system consists of a
sanitary sewer network, lifting pumps stations,
main screw pumps stations and three major
municipal treatment plants - - Ardiya, Rikka and
Jahra. A brief summary of the important features
of each treatment plant is presented in Table 1.
The largest municipal wastewater treatment
plant in Kuwait is the Ardiya plant constructed in
1965. The design capacity of the plant is
190,000 m3.d-1 serving the area of Kuwait City.
The Ardiya plant is divided into two parts. Part
one is called old plant and part two is the
extension plant. In both parts of the plant, the
wastewater is preliminary treated by screening
and grit removal, secondary treated by activated
sludge aeration and settling in clarifiers, and
tertiary treated by sand filtration and chlorination.
It is to be mentioned that the biological treatment
used in the old plant is single-stage aeration and
settling whereas in the extension plant wastewater
passes into two stages of aeration and settling.
The plant achieves an overall average of 97.3%
 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211
Table 1
Operating data of municipal wastewater treatment plants in Kuwaita
Parameter Plants
Ardiya
Location Capital City
Design flow, m3d < 190,000
Actual flow, m 3 d ~ 220,000
Secondary treatment Two-stage activated
processes sludge
Tertiary treatment Granular media
processes filtration and chlorination
aBased on plant records of 1997.
reduction in BOD and a 94.6% reduction in TSS.
About 30% of the tertiary treated effluent of the
plant is used for irrigation.
The Rikka wastewater treatment plant serves
the southern area o f Kuwait City (Ahmadi zone).
It was constructed in 1982 and designed to treat
85,000 m3.d -l. A new extension plant was con-
structed to increase its capacity to 120,000 m3.d-1.
The average daily flow is about 95,000 m3.d-1
whereas the peak is about 106,000 m3/d-1. The
scheme of the Rikka plant is similar to that of the
Ardiya plant except in the secondary biological
stage where the extended aeration process is
employed. The plant achieves removal effi-
ciencies of about 98%, 99% and 99.9% for TSS,
BOD and Coliform bacteria, respectively. About
40% of the tertiary treated effluent of the plant is
used for irrigation.
The Jahra wastewater treatment plant was
designed to receive 70,000 m3.d -1 of sewage
serving the western part of Kuwait with plans to
increase the plant capacity to 120,000 m 3.d- 1. The
average flow is 42,000 m3.d ~ and the peak flow
is approximately 60,000 m3.d-1. The wastewater
treatment scheme at Jahra is similar to the Ardiya
plant except that the extended aeration process is
employed in the secondary biological stage. The
average reductions in wastewater parameters
205
Rikka Jahra
Ahmadi Jahra
120,000 70,000
95,000 42,000
Extended aeration Extended aeration
Granular media Granular media
filtrationand chlorination filtration and chlorination
TSS, BOD, and ammonia-nitrogen achieved by
the Jahra plant are 97.6%, 98.3%, and 74.7%,
respectively. Approximately 40-50% of the ter-
tiary treated effluent of the plant is pumped for
reuse in irrigation.
The type of filters used in the tertiary treat-
ment stage at the three plants is the gravity, rapid
sand filter, which is composed of 60 cm sand
layer overlaying a 40 cm gravel layer acting as
support media. The filters are designed and
operated to provide an average filtration rate of
5 m 3 m2.h -1. Backwashing of the filters is accom-
plished for 15 min daily using compressed air and
pressurized water. No chemical addition (e.g.,
alum, polymer, etc.) is used prior to filtration at
any of the three plants. Chlorine is added before
and after sand filters. Prechlorination is used to
kill algae responsible for filter clogging whereas
postchlorination is used to achieve effective dis-
infection of the final effluent.
3. Methodology
Statistical analyses were performed on the
secondary (after clarification) and tertiary (after
filtration) effluents using plant data on the efflu-
ents in each of the three wastewater treatment
plants in Kuwait for the year 1997 (January 1 to
206 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211
December 31). The parameters considered were
TSS, volatile suspended solids (VSS), chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and BOD. More than 300
data points were obtained for each parameter in
each treatment plant. The characteristics of the
secondary and tertiary effluents were compared
using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a
statistical technique to demonstrate the effect of
tertiary filtration on water quality. The test was
performed at confidence intervals of 95% and
99%. A computer program (Microcal origin) was
used for this purpose.
The daily data from each treatment plant were
entered separately for each month using a spread-
sheet program (Microsoft Excel) to study the
monthly and yearly variations for each of the four
parameters. Additional work was done on the
secondary and tertiary effluents data of the
Ardiya treatment plant since the data were ob-
tained from three streams (old section and two
extensions) at the end of the secondary treatment
stage. These streams join in one point before the
tertiary treatment stage. Thus, a mass balance was
made on each parameter at the collection point of
the three streams to determine the equivalent
concentration (weighted average) of the outlet
concentration in the secondary stage. This was
not required in the case of the Rikka and Jahra
treatment plants where a single stream for
secondary treated effluent exists. The data were
also analyzed to compare the winter and summer
performance of each plant. The average liquid
temperature during winter months (December,
January and February) is 22°C whereas for the
summer months (July, August and September) is
35°C. The average ambient air temperatures are
18°C and 50°C, respectively.
4. Results and discussion
The data collected from each treatment plant
were statistically analyzed and the results were
used to determine (1) the efficiency of tertiary
filtration, (2) the variations in plant performance,
and (3) the quality of the tertiary-treated effluent.
4.1. Efficiency o f tertiary filtration
Table 2 summarizes the results obtained from
statistical analysis of secondary and tertiary
effluents for the four tested parameters: TSS,
VSS, COD and BOD. The mean, minimum and
maximum values as well as the standard deviation
and coefficient of variation are presented. Data on
VSS concentration were missing from the records
of the Jahra plant.
The reliability of tertiary filtration can be
assessed in terms of its ability to produce
consistently acceptable reclaimed wastewater.
Table 2 shows that the secondary effluent charac-
teristics varied within a wider range and exhibited
relatively higher variability than the tertiary
effluent for the parameters tested. Variability in
secondary-treated effluent quality may be taken
as an indication of an inherent in-plant treatment
problem or a problem caused by diurnal or sea-
sonal variations in influent wastewater flow and
characteristics as well as process control prac-
tices. Perhaps the most apparent problem arises
from nitrifictation-denitrification, especially
during the summer months. This was the case in
the Ardiya plant where dissolved oxygen con-
centration in aeration tanks is low and denitri-
fication results in the production of nitrogen gas.
In the secondary clarifiers the gas bubbles attach
to the sludge causing rising sludge particles
which are carried out in the secondary effluent.
As the effluent reaches the tertiary filters, it
causes filter clogging, which ultimately shortens
the filter runs and requires more frequent back-
washing of the filters.
A distribution of percent reduction of the
tested parameters is displayed in Fig. 1, which
indicates that the Jahra treatment plant has the
highest removal efficiency. According to this
graph, the highest removal in tertiary treatment
for TSS is 70%, for VSS is 56%, for COD is 38%
 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004)203-211 207

Table 2
Analyses of secondary and tertiary-treated effluents in three plants" in Kuwait

Plant Parameter Wastewatertype

Secondary effluent Tertiary effluent
Mean, Max., Min., Stdv b, C.V.c Mean, M a x . , M i n . , Stdv b, C.V.c
mg/1 rag/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 rag/1

Ardiya TSS 13.9 48.4 4.8 5,9 42.6 9.2 21 3 4.8 32.3
VSS 10.5 37.7 3.5 4.6 43.4 6.8 16 2 3.9 38.1
COD 62.5 117.4 9.0 10.8 17.3 49.4 74 5 10.2 12.6
BOD 10.0 46.3 1.1 4.4 43.1 4.3 21 1 2.9 37.7
Rikka TSS 8.5 20 1.8 3.9 45.5 3.9 9.8 1 2.1 32.9
VSS 6.8 18.6 1 3.3 49.2 2.9 8.9 0.8 1.8 39.2
COD 32.6 260 10 15.3 46.8 25.8 49 10 7.2 28.0
BOD 9.5 19.8 2.1 3.4 35.7 3.7 9.7 1 1.8 29.6
Jahra TSS 11.5 8 0 5.0 45.5 5.2 11 0.9 1.3 24.9
VSS 6.9 15 0 2.4 34.6 NDa ND ND ND ND
COD 51.9 86 6.8 10.1 39.4 32.6 56 4 9.3 26.4
BOD 9.1 38 2 2.6 28.1 2.7 5.1 1 0.7 27.0

"Based on 1997 records. bStandard deviation.

°Coefficientof variation. dNot determined.

80 ciencies obtained at the Ardiya plant compared to

Ardiya plant
70 the other two plants (Rikka and Jahra) were
[] Rikka plant
>-
o 6O presumably due to hydraulic overloading as the
z actual flow received at the plant far exceeds its
w 50
o design capacity. It is also evident that the two-
~_ 4O
I.I.
"~ 30
stage activated process used at the Ardiya plant
..J

<> 20
was less efficient compared to the extended aera-
o tion process used at the other two plants (Rikka
IM
and Jahra).
0
TSS VSS COD BOD The reduction of BOD and COD by sand
filtration may be helped by the VSS removed by
Fig. 1. Removal efficiency of test parameters by tertiary filtration. It is unlikely that the organics were
filtration. removed by biological activities in the filter since
the influent to the filter was prechlorinated. This,
and for BOD is 54%. The average removal effi- in turn, will limit microbial growth in the filter.
ciencies ofTSS, VSS, COD and BOD obtained in Moreover, the filter medium is backwashed daily;
the plants considered in this study lie within the thus, microbial attachments (biofilms) are washed
values reported in the literature for granular out and would not accumulate in the filter. On the
media filtration [6,7]. The relatively low effi- other hand, organics could have been chemically
208 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

oxidized by chlorination which would result in
partial reduction in the COD value.
4.2. Variations in plant performance
The daily data collected from each plant were
compiled separately for each month of the year
using a spread sheet program (Microsoft Excel) to
examine the monthly variations of each of the
four tested parameters (TSS, VSS, COD and
BOD). Moreover, the ANOVA test provided a
statistical answer to whether the results obtained
(average of each parameter before and after fil-
tration) are indeed significantly different, i.e., is
there effective reduction in the value of each
tested parameter due to tertiary filtration. The test
was performed at confidence levels of 95% and
99%. The results of the ANOVA test are pre-
70
6o
o 50
sented in Table 3. These results clearly indicate
significant improvement in effluent quality due to
tertiary filtration based on statistical analysis of
TSS, VSS, COD and BOD data collected from
each plant.
The monthly variations in plant performance
based on percentage removal in TSS and BOD at
the Jahra plant are shown in Fig. 2 as an example.
Similar patterns were obtained at the three plants
studied and the four parameters tested indicating
seasonal variations in plant performance. Such
variations were also demonstrated by statistical
analysis using the ANOVA test as presented in
Table 4 for the winter (December, January,
February) and the summer (June, July, August)
months. In the summer, the higher water temp-
erature (lower viscosity) results in increased
35-
-u-Tertiary effluent
30
25

-,- 80D 10
10. TSS
n, 0 5

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
MONTH DURATION IN WEEKS

Fig. 2. M o n t h l y variations in the efficiency o f Fig. 3. Weekly variations in BOD of secondary and
tertiary filtration at the Jahra plant. tertiary-treated effluents at the Rikka plant.

Table 3
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on secondary and tertiary-treated effluents at three plants in Kuwait"

Parameter Ardiya plant Rikka Plant Jahra Plant

95% b 99% b 95% 99% 95% 99%

TSS Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes

VSS Yes Yes Yes No ND c ND
COD Yes Yes No No No No
BOD Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

aResults of ANOVA test using 1997 plant records.

bSignificance level (Yes = significant; No = insignifcant at the specified level).
°Not determined.
 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211 209

filtration rates while the higher TSS concentration
in the influent results in increased removal rates.
Both factors would ultimately contribute to maxi-
m u m efficiencies in the summer months. How-
ever, in spite of such variations in removal
efficiencies, the plants consistently maintained
good quality effluent after tertiary filtration
(Table 2).
Weekly variations in both the secondary and
tertiary-treated effluents are displayed in Fig. 3
for BOD at the Rikka plant. This figure clearly
demonstrates that, in spite of significant varia-
tions in the quality of the secondary-treated
effluent, the quality of the tertiary-treated effluent
remained essentially unchanged. Similar observa-
tions were made for other parameters tested (TS S,
VSS and COD) at the three plants studied. This
indicates that tertiary filtration contributes to the
production of highly stable effluent by damp-
ening daily variations in influent quality and in
plant performance.
4.3. Treated effluent quality
The main characteristics of the tertiary-treated
effluent from the studied plants are presented in
Table 5 along with the guidelines for water reuse
in landscape irrigation. It is evident that the
tertiary-treated effluent satisfies the requirements
for landscape irrigation concerning the specified
parameters shown in Table 5 [8-10].
The recent trend toward the use of tertiary-
treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in an
urban environment has resulted in greater expo-
sure of the public to reclaimed wastewater. Thus
the major concerns for such water reuse appli-
cation are health risks caused by pathogens,
organics and heavy metals, and by aesthetics
related to public acceptance. To satisfy these
concerns, tertiary filtration is practiced in order to
(1) remove residual SS found in secondary efflu-
ents that may interfere with subsequent disin-
fection and may lower the efficiency of the
irrigation system used, (2) reduce the concen-
tration of organic matter that can react with
chlorine, and (3) improve the aesthetic quality of
the reclaimed wastewater by reducing its SS/
turbidity. As the filtered effluent (Table 5) is low
in SS, thus reduce shielding of pathogens during
disinfection and as sufficient chlorine dose
(10 ppm) and contact time (1 h) are provided for
reclaimed wastewater at the three plants studied,

Table 4
Seasonal variations in the maximum and minimum removal efficiencies of tertiary filtration at the three plants in Kuwait

Parameter Ardiya plant Rikka plant Jahra plant

Maximuma Minimums Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

TSS Summer Winter Summer Winter Fall Winter

(August) (February) (July) (February) (October) (December)
VSS Summer Winter Summer Winter ND b ND
(August) (February) (July) December
COD Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
(July) (February) (June) (January) (June) (January)
BOD Summer Winter Fall Winter Summer Winter
(June) (January) (October) (February) (July) (December)
"Based on statistical analysis of monthly records.
bNot determined.
210 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

Table 5
Characteristics of tertiary effluent in three municipal wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait~

Parameterb Raw Tertiary-treated effluent Guidelines for

wastewater landscape irrigation
Ardiya Rikka Jahra
TSS 300 9.2 3.9 5.2 10
BOD 400 4.3 3.7 2.7 10
COD 740 49.4 25.8 32.6 75
NO3-N ND(3) 8.4 9.1 15.3 20
P-PO 4 15 8.0 6.8 9.9 30
Conductivity,mhos/cm 1650 1918 1965 1440 750-2000
pH 6-7.5 7.1 6.8 7.0 6.5-8.5
TDS 1280 1227 1228 1266 1500
Sulfates 300 223 185 275 100-380
Chlorides 320 297 260 231 140-350
Calcium ND 79.0 76.0 99.5 45
Sodium ND 248 283 338 7O
Potassium ND 15.9 17.7 23.4 26
Copper ND 0.0048 0.0027 0.0025 0.2
Zinc ND 0.0563 0.0462 0.0763 2.0
Lead ND 0.0031 0.0017 0.0036 0.5
Cadmium ND 0.0003 0.0003 0.0005 0.01
Nickel ND 0.0051 0.0028 0.0041 0.2
Total coliforms, ND 2 0 0 2.2
MPN/100 ml

"Average values. ball in mg 1-] except as otherwise indicated. CNotdetermined.

efficient inactivation and removal o f bacterial and
viral pathogens is achieved. It would be safe,
therefore, to use the tertiary-treated effluent in
landscape irrigation.
4.4. Economic and environmental benefits o f
effluent reuse
Wastewater treatment has a major impact on
the social and economic well-being of the people
in Kuwait. The tertiary treated effluent produced
at municipal wastewater treatment plants is suit-
able for reuse in irrigation since the existing
granular media filtration system is capable of
removing residual S S. Currently about 40% of the
treated effluent is used in landscape irrigation in
Kuwait with plans to reuse almost all of the
treated effluent in the near future. This has a great
potential in the development of the limited fresh
water resources in the country. Moreover, dis-
posal of excess treated effluent in the Gulf water
has no adverse impact on the marine environ-
ment. The economic impact of water reuse on
water resource conservation in Kuwait is obvious.
On the other hand, based on current cost figures
from wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait, the
cost of producing treated effluent using filtration
and chlorination for tertiary treatment is about
 M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211
US $0.50/m 3 ($0.20 wastewater collection plus
$0.30 treatment for reuse). This represents about
one-third of the cost of producing 1 m 3 of desali-
nated water using the MSF process as an alter-
native source for irrigation water in Kuwait. This
demonstrates the economic viability of the
effluent reuse option. Although some public
health concerns may be associated with effluent
reuse, there have been no recorded cases of
diseases transmitted through reuse of tertiary-
treated effluents. In fact, current water reuse
practices in Kuwait call for applications of treated
effluents in "restricted" irrigation.
5. Conclusions
1. Tertiary filtration plays an essential role in
improving effluent quality for potential reuse in
irrigation. Statistical analyses have shown signi-
ficant improvements in effluent quality para-
meters (TSS, VSS, COD and BOD) due to sand
filtration of secondary-treated effluent.
2. The tertiary-treated effluent consistently
satisfied water quality requirements for reuse in
landscape irrigation in spite of seasonal variations
in plant performance.
3. Tertiary filtration results in the stability of
the plant effluent quality as it dampens variations
in the quality of the secondary-treated effluent.
4. Hydraulic overloading ofwastewater treat-
ment plants adversely affects the performance of
tertiary filtration.
5. Reuse of tertiary-treated effluent is an eco-
nomically viable and environmentally sound
option for fresh water resource development in
the State of Kuwait.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the
Research Administration of Kuwait University
View publication stats
211
(Project EV 113). The authors are grateful to the
management and staff of the Sanitary Engineer-
ing Division, Ministry o f Public Works, Kuwait,
for providing data, and to Mrs. Diya M. AI-
Jassem for her assistance in the data analysis.
References
[1] T. Asano, Reclaimed wastewater as a water resource,
in: J. A1-Sulaimi and T. Asano, eds., Wastewater
Reclamation and Reuse, New Age International,
New Delhi, 2000, pp. 1-20.
[2] G. Tchobanoglous, Appropriate technologies for
wastewatertreatment and reuse, in: J. A1-Sulaimi and
T. Asano, eds., Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse,
New Age International, New Delhi, 2000, pp. 21-30.
[3] T. Asano and R.A. Mills, Planning and analysis for
water reuse projects, J. AWWA, 82(1) (1990) 38-47.
[4] M.F. Hamoda, Reuse of treated wastewater in irri-
gation. WHO, CEHA Workshop on Water Conser-
vation and Reuse-Practical Approach and Strategies,
Amman, Jordan, 1996.
[5] E.R. Baumann and J.Y.C. Huang, Granular filters for
tertiary wastewater treatment, J. Wat. Poll. Cont.
Fed., 46(8) (1974) 1958-1972.
[6] Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treat-
ment, Disposal, Reuse, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1991.
[7] W.P. Kirkpatrick and T. Asano, Evaluation of ter-
tiary treatment systems for wastewater reclamation
and reuse, Wat. Sci. Technol., 10 (1986) 83-95.
[8] R. Mujeriego, M. Carbo, L. Sala and J. Turet,
Agronomic and public health assessment of re-
claimed water quality for landscape irrigation, in:
J. A1-Sulaimi and T. Asano, eds., Wastewater Recla-
mation and Reuse, New Age International, New
Delhi, 2000, pp. 21-30.
[9] US Environmental Protection Agency, Manual on
Guidelines for Water Reuse, EPA/625/R-92/004,
Center for Env. Res. Inf., Cincinnati, 1992.
[ 10] WHO, Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater
in Agriculture and Aquaculture, Report of Scientific
Group, Geneva, 1989.