Volume 7, Issue 4, April – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Determination of the Fluoride Level in Groundwater

Wells and Assessment of Health Associated Risks in
the Aljfarah District Libya
Miloud E Sweesi1*, Mohamed O Ahmed2, Abdullah I Sawan3and Ashraf M. Ward4
1
Faculty of Biotechnology, university of Aljfarah, Libya
2
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tripoli, Libya
3
Faculty of Dentisry , University of Alzentan, Libya
4
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Tripoli, Libya

Abstract:- It is a well-known fact Libya is a desert and
semidesert, has no significant perennial watercourses
such as revers, or drinkable lucks, where Less than 2
percent of the country receives enough rainfall for settled
agriculture. In the coastal lowlands and surrounded (less
than ten percent of Libyan area), where 95 percent of the
population are living (30), The climate is warm summers.
The summer temperature in the northern coast between
26° C - 40° C and in desert interior is characterized by
very hot summers between 40° C and 46° C and extreme
diurnal temperature ranges. More than 97 % of Libyan
population using groundwater for drinking, domestic and
agriculture watering by digging wells. Due to increase of
population last 50 years, the demand of groundwater is
increased. On other side the ground water is suffering of
human excessive use where the ground water become very
deep ( 60 – 350 meter deep) , where many areas polluted
by several minerals ions dissolved from deep rocks.The
aim of this study is to evaluate and determine the
concentration of fluoride ion in ground water at from 60
to 260 meter water well deep and focus on spatial
distribution of fluoride in Aljfarh region and to discuss
the geostatistical contamination and its effecting in
fluoride generation and the relationship between excess
consuming fluoride and the heath risk assessment via oral
and dermal route exposure reveals that the consumers in
majority of the region are at considerable non-
carcinogenic at higher risk on children and adults. Also
finding and helpful in identifying the affected areas at this
study area and recommend that the safer options of
drinking water should be adopted.
Keywords:- High Fluoride Groundwater, Drinking Water
Safety, Mechanism, Hydrogeochemistry, Human Health Risk
Assessment.
I. INTRODUCTION
Groundwater wells are important and essential source
for domestic and agriculture use in Libya ((23) U.S. En. Prot.
Age. 2003). Over 90% of population are located on the
northern costal line of Libya and count on these resources for
their daily life ((1) Wheida, E; Verheven, R. 2004). The use
of such resources has dramatically increased during the recent
decades however, such extensive use is not guided or
controlled by proper local or government laws [(1) Wheida,
E; Verheven, R. 2004].
Water for human use and consumption must fulfil strict
guidelines of taste, smell and contents as well as certain
parameters of components such as standard level of minerals
(e.g. Cl, Na, F, Ca, Ph, NH3), trace elements (e.g. Al, Cu, Pb,
Fe, Cd, Cr) and components of hydrocarbons [(24): The
Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland. 2001; Parameters
of Water Quality 2001]. These standards can be affected and
altered by many environmental and anthropogenic factors
including microbial contamination, and pollution with
chemical and waste products and deep underneath rocks
leading to serious health problems [(25) Chidozie P. E.,
Imokhai T. T., Peter J. 2018]. For instance, the high or low
concentrations of certain ions such as (fluoride -, chloride,
magnesium and calcium ions, can cause various diseases,
illnesses and permanents damages in vital organs such as
kidney, liver and skeletal system (26).
Fluoride ions usually present in water and soil and has
high reactivity and electronegativity property [(2) Totsche et
al. 2000]. It is essential for normal mineralization of bones
and formation of dental enamel at standard and recommended
level (i.e. between 0.5mg/l to 1.5mg/l) (WHO, 20??).
However lower concentration (i.e. <0.5 mg/L) can induces
dental caries [(8,9) Harrison, P. T. C. 2005, Gao, H., Jin, Y.
& Wei, J. 2013], [(3) Bell and Ludwig 1970)]. Sorg 1978;
Mahramanlioglu et al. 2002). Its recommended levels vary
between countries leading to significant damages to human
health [(27, 22) Biglari et al., 2016]. Fluorosis is referred to
excess of fluoride ion causing serious clinical conditions and
diseases. It is affecting more than 200 million people
worldwide (among 25 nations) caused mainly by
contaminated drinking water (Ayoob and Gupta 2006; Hong-
jian et al. 2013 [30]; Moghaddam and Fijani 2008; Oruc 2008
[31]; Fordyce et al. 2007 [32]; Ghosh et al. 2013 [33];
Mesdaghinia et al. 2010[34]). For instance, in India and China
fluoride level is often above 1.5 mg L- causing severe health
problems (REF). Around 80 % of global diseases are
associated with low income and poor countries of which
fluoride contamination in drinking water is responsible for 65
% of endemic fluorosis (Felsenfeld and Robert 1991).
According to the WHO, only 18 % of Libyan population
consume standard level of fluoride in drinking water although
the Libyan standards and management centre no 82/2015

IJISRT22APR1182 www.ijisrt.com 1500

Volume 7, Issue 4, April – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
allows only 1.5 mg/l of fluoride in dinking water, but no
official or available data on the harmful effect on human
populations (28].
To the best of our knowledge, there are a lack of
literature in Libya with no previous investigation in the
studied region in this regard and determine of fluoride ion.
Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate and determine
the concentration and focus on spatial distribution of fluoride
in this region and to analyse and discuss the interrelationship
between fluoride and other water quality parameters. Also
adopt geostatistical contamination and its effecting in fluoride
generation. Finally, assess the health risks associated with
fluoride concentration in groundwater. To establish a more
realistic base for judgement, ingestion and dermal pathways
were investigated. This study will assist in adding relevant
data to local rural water management, policy and decision
makers to take adequate measures in safeguarding the lives of
residents in endemic. A total of eight different areas inside
AlJfarah district were selected and a total of twenty-one
groundwater wells at these towns and villages were included
in the study. The study took place between in February-March
2020. The area of study is located in the north west region of
Libya and boarded from north to the Libyan capital-Tripoli
and Mediterranean Sea. It has one of highest population in the
country and has several towns and villages surrounded by
farms. The consumed water in this area originates mainly
from drilled wells aim to support human consumption as well
as agricultural and industrial needs.
Fig 1 The Location of study area at Al-Jfarah district
IJISRT22APR1182 www.ijisrt.com
ISSN No:-2456-2165
II. METHODS AND RESULT
 Collection of water samples
Water samples were collected from each groundwater
well using clean plastic containers. They had been rinsed then
filled with 200 ml of water sample and closed firmly. All
samples were packaged and stored at room temperature in
clean dry box and transported to the Laboratory of the Food
and Drug Control in Tripoli for analysis within 24h. Samples
were Evaluation of odour, colour, transability and
drinkability of water wells.
 Chemical analysis
The fluoride concentration in water samples was
determined at the Food and Drug Control Laboratory using
Thermo Scientific Orion Star A214 Benchtop pH/ISE meter,
using the USEP ion selective electrode method. A volume of
2 ml of total ionic strength adjusting buffer grade III (TISAB
III) was added to 20 ml of water sample. All analysed samples
showed their normal physical proports, they were free of any
odour and colour and have full transability, but slightly
different taste. The chemical analysis of fluoride
determination showed that most of ground water at AlJfarah
district (Fig 1) has excess of fluoride content practically south
part of this area particularly in Alnasryah , Alaziziyah towns
and surrounded , specially at the deep water wills. Table 1
gives a clear indication of affective of depth on fluoride
contents.
1501
Volume 7, Issue 4, April – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Table 1 shows the relationship between the fluoride contents, location and depth of water well.

Table 1. Result of fluoride analysis

Sample No. Sample location Depth in meter Fluoride in mg/l WHO F- 1.5mg/l
1 Al-Zahra (AZ) 220 5.60 + 4.10
2 Al-Swani (AS) 150 1.02 - 0.48
3 Al-zahra centre (AZ) 180 5.2 + 3.70
4 North Al-mamourah (MA) 60 0.02 - 1.48
5 Al-mamourah (MA) 120 1.00 - 0.5
6 Al-swani (AS) 240 3.80 + 1.30
7 Al-nasryah (AN) 240 10.00 + 8.50
8 Al-sahdia (ASA) 180 7.20 +5.70
9 West Al-aziziyah (AZI) 240 4.40 + 2.9
10 South Janzour (JA) 160 1.53 + 0.03
11 Janzour (JA) 60 0.02 - 1.48
12 South Al-Zahrah (AZ) 240 5.60 + 4.1
13 West Al-aziziyah (AZI) 200 4.72 + 3.22
14 West south Al-aziziyah (AZI) 120 4.76 + 3.26
15 Al-aziziyah centre (AZI) 220 5.90 + 4.4
16 Al-mayah gov. water (AM) N/A 4.24 + 2.75
17 West Al-zahra (AZ) 180 5.04 + 3.54
18 South Al-zahra (AZ) 180 5.68 + 4.18
19 Al-mayah (AM) 70 0.24 - 1,26
20 South Al-nasryah (AN) 280 8.75 + 7.25
21 Nasryah Gov. water N/A 10.5 + 9.0

Fluoride in mg/l
12
10
fluoride in mg/l

8
6
4
2
0
220 150 180 60 120 240 240 180 240 160 60 240 200 120 220 N/A 180 180 70 280 N/A
Water well depth

Fig 2

III. DISCUSSION accelerate the dissolution of fluoride-bearing minerals,

Groundwater can be contaminated by fluoride ion due
to process occurring from untreated wastewater from
industrial plants, solid disposal and agrochemicals and any
other storage leakage. While the natural contamination of
groundwater causing due to geological environments
including volcanos and soil rocks, caused by weathering of
the fluorine-rich rocks such as fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F,
fluorite (CaF2) and, cryolite (Na3AlF6) in the deep water well
[ Ramamohana Rao et al., 1993b; Subba Rao, 2017)]. The
geochemical process or mobilization of fluoride in
groundwater is still not understood clearly (Hem 1985).
However, groundwater with rich bicarbonate type water in a
weathered rock formation/rock water interaction always
thereby release the fluoride into groundwater (figure 2). This
will lead to increases the concentration of fluoride in the
groundwater and causing the main natural contamination,
where they can be an affecting factors that limit its usage for
human consumption [(6) Brindha, K. and Elango, L. (2011)].
It has been proposed that regularly consuming water
with fluoride concentrations of at least 0.9 mg/l is the cause
of at least 37% of dental fluorosis cases [(17) McGrady et al.,
2012)]. Also correlated fluoride in drinking water with bone

IJISRT22APR1182 www.ijisrt.com 1502

Volume 7, Issue 4, April – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
diseases (Osteo-sarcoma) in adolescents and children [(18)
Levy and Leclerc (2012)]. Sun L. discovered that cases of
hypertension in adults could be linked to fluoride present in
drinking water [(19) Sun L. et al. (2013)].
The fluoride determination results of Al-Jfarah district
ground water showed variety features between 0.02 and 10.5
mg/l. At the north area and at the dept between 60 and 150
meter the ground water is under the Libyan and WHO
standard (1.5mg/l). In the towns of Janzour, Almayah,
Almamourah, Alswani and Alzahra the fluoride level is under
the WHO standerad if the drilled water well where between
the upper water level and 150 meter dept, but the fluoride
increases if the drilling more than 160 meter dept. In
Alnasryah, Alsahdia and Alaziziyah where the level of
ground water is more than 150 meter dept, the fluoride
content increases to more than 5 mg/l. At 240 meter dept and
more the fluoride contents reached 10.5 at Alnasryah village.
Due to its strong electronegativity, fluoride is attracted
by positively charged calcium in bones and teeths [ (6)
Susheela et al. 1993)]. Also causes nervous system damage
[(12) Kaoud and Kalifa, 2010)], reduced fertility [(13)
Izquierdo-Vega et al., 2008)], intellectual impairment in
children [(14,15) Ding et al., 2011; Shivaprakash et al.,
2011)-, urinary tract disease [(16) Jha et al., 2011)], as well
as intensive dental and skeletal fluorosis in children (Maguire,
2014). In turn, this can lead to significant lower back pains
(Namkaew and Wiwatanadate, 2012). it also increases the
risk or susceptibility to cancer bone deformities depending on
the duration and dosage of fluoride consumption [2,5–12].
could cause an increase in plasma Endothelin-1 (ET–1)
levels. Liu also identified a link between fluoride exposure
from drinking water and carotid artery atherosclerosis in
adults [(20) Liu et al. (2014)]. In a recent study conducted by
Irigoyen-Camacho, reports showed that increased morbidity
and mortality rate could be correlated with nutritional de-
ficiencies propagated by fluoride intake [(21) et al. (2016)].
In addition, However, this should also be placed in the context
of water scarcity, population growth and access to clean water
in the region of high concentrations fluoride in humans.
Due to raise in population and their daily needs, threats
to groundwater have been increasing every day. The pressure
on this resource has become enormous, overexploitation and
improper management has also led to contamination of this
resource. The degradation of groundwater may be due to
natural like inherent geological or anthropogenic processes
from wastewater. Usually people use groundwater for their
daily live without any physical or chemical treatment, which
led to number of health disorders.
IV. CONCLUSION
This review indicates the fluoride distribution and its
contamination in groundwater at Aljfarah district with its
assessed of human heath. It is very risky at high concentration
for the skeletal system specially on toot fluorosis for adults
and children. It can be concluding this study in followed
points:
IJISRT22APR1182 www.ijisrt.com
ISSN No:-2456-2165
 Fluoride concentration is increase at south area of
AlJfarah.
 Fluoride also increase since the depth of groundwater well
increase.
 Excess of Fluoride ion in groundwater can lease to human
diseases and harmful for animal and plants.
 study to clarify the causing of fluoride in the groundwater
is important.
 People live at the high level of Fluoride in this region
should treat the domestic water before their consumption.
 Finally; further deep study on fluoride ion should be
carried out on this area specially geological task to
indicate the main cause of fluoride on agriculture to find
out the affection of fluoride on plants, veges and even on
animals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks should be sent to the heath authority of Aljfarah
district and to the laboratory of the Food and Drug Control
for doing the water samples analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]. (Wheida, E; Verheven, R.; Desalination as a water
supply technique in Libya. Desalination 2004, 165, 89-
97.
[2]. Totsche KU, Wilcke W, Korbus M, Kobaza J, Zech
W (2000) Evaluation of fluoride-induced metal
mobilization in soil columns. J Environ Qual 29:454–
459.
[3]. Bell MC, Ludwig TG (1970); The supply of fluoride to
man: ingestion from water. Fluoride and human health.
WHO monograph series, Geneva: World Health
Organization.
[4]. Sorg TJ (1978); Treatment technology to meet the
interim primary drinking water regulations for
inorganics. J Am Water Works Assoc 70(2):105–111.
[5]. Mahramanlioglu M, Kizilcikli I, Bicer IO (2002);
Adsorption of fluoride from aqueous solution by acid
treated spent bleaching earth. J Fluor Chem 115:41–47.
[6]. Brindha, K. and Elango, L. (2011); Fluoride in
Groundwater: Causes, Implications and Mitigation
Measures. In: Monroy, S.D. (Ed.), 111-136.
[7]. Stan C. Freni,; Published online: 15 Oct 2009, Journal
of Toxicology and Environmental Health.
[8]. Gao, H., Jin, Y. & Wei, J. Health risk assessment of
fluoride in drinking water from Anhui Province in
China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185, 3687–3695,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2820-9 (2013).
[9]. Harrison, P. T. C. Fluoride in water a UK perspective.
Journal of Fluorine Chemistry 126, 1448–1456 (2005).
[10]. Sun, L., Gao, Y., Liu, H., Zhang, W., Ding, Y., Li, B.,
Li, M., Sun, D., 2013. An assessment of the relationship
between excess fluoride intake from drinking water and
essential hypertension in adults residing in fluoride
endemic areas. Sci. Total Environ. 443, 864–869.
1503
Volume 7, Issue 4, April – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
[11]. Smedley, P., Nkotagu, H., Pelig-Ba, K., MacDonald, A., [26]. Ali, S., Thakur, S.K., Sarkar, A., Shekhar, S., 2016.
Tyler-Whittle, R., Whitehead, E., Kinniburgh, D., 2002. Worldwide contamination of water by fluoride. Environ.
Fluoride in groundwater from high-fluoride areas in Chem. Lett. 14, 291–315.
Ghana and Tanzania https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0563-5.
[12]. Kaoud, H., Kalifa, B., 2010. Effect of fluoride, cadmium [27]. Amini et al.,2008; Fawell et al., 2006; Shen and Schäfer,
and arsenic intoxication on brain and learning–memory 2015.
ability in rats. Toxicol. Lett. 196, S53. [28]. Sunil T, Suneeth S, A Pioneering Study of Dental
[13]. Izquierdo-Vega, J.A., Sánchez-Gutiérrez, M., Del Razo, Fluorosis in the Libyan Population. J Int Oral Health.
L.M., 2008. Decreased in vitro fertility in male rats 2013 Jun; 5(3): 67–72.
exposed to fluoride-induced oxidative stress damage [29]. Michael A. Lennon K. 2002 14. FLUORIDE
and mitochondrial transmembrane potential loss. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutri
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 230, 352–357. entschap14.pdf
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2008.03.008. [30]. Library of Congress – Federal Research Division,
[14]. Ding, Y., YanhuiGao, Sun, H., Han, H., Wang, W., Ji, Country Profile: Libya, April 2005
X., Liu, X., Sun, D., 2011. The relationships between
low levels of urine fluoride on children's intelligence,
dental fluorosis in endemic fluorosis areas in Hulunbuir,
Inner Mongolia, China. J. Hazard. Mater. 186, 1942–
1946
[15]. Shivaprakash, P.K., Ohri, K., Noorani, H., 2011.
Relation between dental fluorosis and intelligence
quotient in school children of Bagalkot district. J. Indian
Soc. Pedod. Prev. Dent. 29, 117–120
[16]. Jha, S.K., Mishra, V.K., Sharma, D.K., Damodaran, T.,
2011. Fluoride in the environment and its metabolism in
humans. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 211, 121–142.
[17]. Maguire, A., 2014. ADA clinical recommendations on
topical fluoride for caries prevention. Evid. Based Dent.
[18]. Levy, M., Leclerc, B.S., 2012. Fluoride in drinking
water and osteosarcoma incidence rates in the
continental United States among children and
adolescents. Cancer Epidemiol. 36, 83–88.
[19]. Sun, L., Gao, Y., Liu, H., Zhang, W., Ding, Y., Li, B.,
Li, M., Sun, D., 2013. An assessment of the relationship
between excess fluoride intake from drinking water and
essential hypertension in adults residing in fluoride
endemic areas. Sci. Total Environ. 443, 864–869.
[20]. Liu, H., Gao, Y., Sun, L., Li, M., Li, B., Sun, D., 2014.
Assessment of relationship on excess fluoride intake
from drinking water and carotid atherosclerosis
development in adults in fluoride endemic areas, China.
Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 217, 413–420.
[21]. Irigoyen-Camacho, M.E., García Pérez, A., Mejía
González, A., Huizar Alvarez, R., 2016. Nutritional
status and dental fluorosis among schoolchildren in
communities with different drinking water fluoride
concentrations in a central region in Mexico. Sci. Total
Environ. 541, 512–519.
[22]. Biglari, H., Chavoshani, A., Javan, N., Mahvi, A.H.,
2016. Geochemical study of roundwater conditions with
special emphasis on fluoride concentration,
Iran.Desalination Water Treat. 57, 22392e22399.
[23]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ground
Water and Drinking Water. Drinking Water
Contaminants (Online 2003)
<http://www.epa.gov/safewater/hfacts.html#Inorganic.
[24]. Parameters of Water Quality, interpretation and
standard Published by the Environmental Protection
Agency, Ireland. 2001
[25]. Chidozie P. E., Imokhai T. T., Peter J.; Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Safety 156, (2018), 391 – 402.

IJISRT22APR1182 www.ijisrt.com 1504