CHAPTER TWO CELL AS A UNIT OF LIFE

2.1 Cell - Structure, Function and Organisation

What is a Cell 细胞?
Cell as a Basic Unit 基本单位 of Living Things 生物
1. All living things consist of 由。组成 basic units known 名为 as cells.
2. These cells are microscopic 细微的 because they can only be seen under a microscope 显微镜.
3. The cell discovery 发现:
(a) In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English scientist, became the first person to study 研究 the cell.
(b) He discovered 发现 that the cork 软木 consists of small units in the shape of brick 砖块 s. These small units
are called cells, which in Latin 拉丁文 means 'small rooms'.
4. A human body is made up of millions 百万 of cells which have different shapes 形状 and sizes 大小.
5. An animal cell and a plant cell are shown in the following diagrams.

quick facts
• The largest cell produced by a living thing is the ostrich 鸵鸟 egg.
• The largest cell in the human body is the ovum 卵 or egg.
• The smallest cell is the bacterium 细菌.

6. (a) Cells undergo 进行 division 分裂 to increase 增加 the number of cells.

(b) A cell will first 最初 divide into 2 cells and continuous 连续的 cell division will produce 产生 4 cells, 8
cells and so on until millions 几百万 of cells are produced in our body.
(c) The increase in the number of cells in the body causes 导致 an increase in the size 体积 of an organism.

Figure 2.1 Division of one cell into two cells

7. Cancer cells 癌细胞 form when normal cells 正常细胞 divide uncontrollably 失控 to form new
Abnormal 不正常 cells. Cancer cells form 形成 tumours.肿瘤

Microscope 显微镜
1 A microscope magnifies 放大 small objects 物体 which cannot be observed 观察 by the naked eyes.肉眼
2. A light microscope has two types of lenses 镜片, the eyepiece lens 接目镜/窥视孔 and the objective lenses
物镜.
3. The magnification 放 大 倍 数 of an object is the multiplication 乘 of the power of eyepiece and the
magnification of the objective lens.

Magnification of an object = magnification power of eyepiece x magnification power of objective lens

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Slide Preparation 准备 Procedure 步骤
1. A very thin specimen 样品 is placed in the middle of a clean glass slide 载玻片.
2. A drop 一滴 of water is placed on the specimen.
3. A cover 覆盖 slip is gently 轻轻地 lowered on the specimen by using fingers and a long pin without trapping
困住 air bubbles 空气泡 under the cover slip.
4. Filter paper is used to absorb 吸收 any excess 过量 water around the cover slip and the slide is ready to be
observed 观察 under the microscope.
5. Staining 上色 the specimen enables the structures of the cell to be observed clearly. The steps are as follow:
(a) A drop of iodine solution 碘液 or methylene blue 亚甲蓝 solution is placed at one end of the cover slip.
(b) A piece of filter paper is put at the other end of the cover slip to draw 抽 the solution across the specimen.

Using a Microscope

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1. The first and simple microscope was invented 发明 by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek.
2. A microscope is used to observe and magnify 放大 microscopic specimens.
3. A microscope which is used in the school laboratory 实验室 can magnify an object by as much as 640 times.
4. Microscope is a very delicate 易损的 and expensive instrument 仪器. A few precautions 防备 must be taken
to ensure this instalment 装设 in good condition 情况:
(a) Use both hand to carry the microscope and place it down gently 温柔地 in an upright 垂直 position 位置.
(b) Place the microscope on a flat surface 平直表面.
(c) Make sure all parts of the microscope are kept dry and the lenses 透镜 are cleaned with lens cloth.

5. How to use a microscope correctly:

(a) Look through the eye piece.接目镜
(b) Adjust 调整 the microscope mirror 反色镜 until a bright 明亮 view is obtained 获取 (open the diaphragm 隔
板 if necessary 必要).
(c) Clip 夹 the glass slide exactly on the hole of the stage.
(d) Bring the low-powered 低倍 objective lens 物镜 down until the lens is close to the glass slide.
(e) Look through the eye piece and turn the coarse 粗野的 focus knob 聚焦旋扭 to raise 升高 the objective
lens.
(0 Change to high-powered 高倍 objective lens.
(g) Adjust the fine 细 focus knob until a clear image 影像 is obtained when the specimen is viewed under the
high-powered objective lens.

QUICK FACTS
• Open both eyes when viewing through the microscope.
• When using a microscope, start with a low power objective lens.

The General 普遍的 Structures 结构 of Animal and Plant Cells

1. All living things consist of cells. Cell is the fundamental 基本的 unit of all living things. Generally, each cell
consists of:
(a) cell membrane 细胞膜
(b) cytoplasm 细胞浆
(c) nucleus 细胞核
2. The cell membrane is a thin, semi-permeable 半渗透的 layer 层 which surrounds 围绕 a cell to retain 保持
the contents of the cell.
(a) The cell membrane separates 分开 a cell from other cells.
(b) The cell membrane allows 允许 only certain substances 物质 to enter 进入 or exit 离开 the cell because of
its semi-permeability.
3. Cytoplasm is a semi-solid 半固体 (jelly-like 胶状物) substance which is a place where chemical processes
in the cell take place 发生. It consists mainly 主要 of water (90%).
4. The nucleus is a compact 紧密 body that looks like a big sphere 球体 in the cell.
(a) The nucleus which contains the thread-like 线状的 genetic 基因的 substances controls 管理 all the activities
of the cell.
(b) Without the nucleus, the cell would not live 活着.
5. Protoplasm 原生质 is made up of nucleus and cytoplasm.
6. Therefore, a cell can be said to consist of protoplasm and cell membrane.
7. The general structures of animal and plant cells can be observed using a microscope.

Plant Cells 植物细胞

1. Plant cells have fixed 固定的 shape. Their arrangements 排列 look like bricks 砖块 on a wall 墙壁.

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2. They have nuclei, cytoplasm, vacuoles and cell membranes.
3. Plant cells can be distinguished 区 别 from animal cells due to 由 于 the presence 拥 有 of large vacuole,
chloroplasts and cell walls.
4. The cell sap 细胞液 is liquid containing dissolved 溶解 substances such as sugar and salt. This liquid keeps
the cell firm 坚固 by taking in water and prevents 阻止 wilting 枯萎. It is found in the vacuole.
5. The starch granules 淀粉颗粒 are stored 储藏 food that are commonly found in the cytoplasm.
6. Chloroplasts 叶绿体 are important structures as they are involved in 涉及 the process of photosynthesis 光
合作用. They are tiny disc-like 圆盘 structures containing a green pigment 绿颜料 called chlorophyll 叶绿素.
The chlorophyll absorbs 吸收 energy 能量 from the Sun that is used in the process of photosynthesis.

Animal Cells 动物细胞

1. The animal cells are not uniform 不一样 in size and do not have regular 固定的 shapes.
2. This is because the animal cells do not have cell walls 细胞壁.
3. Some animal cells also contain small vacuoles.
4. The vacuoles in lower 低级的 animals such as Amoeba 阿米巴 are small and numerous 很多. The vacuoles
are tiny 极小 spaces containing air, liquid or food particles 颗粒. They can be found in the cytoplasm.
5. Chromosomes 染色体 are found in the nucleus and responsible for 负责 the inherited 遗传的 characteristics
特征 of an organism.
QUICK FACTS
The human body consists of about 50, 000 million 五百亿 cells.

Activity One To study structures of an animal cell and a plant cell

Part A: Observing a plant cell

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Procedure
1. Remove the outer skin 外壳 of an onion 洋葱.
2. Put the epidermal layer 表皮层 onto a drop of water on a glass slide. Add a drop of iodine solution to stain 染
色 it.
3. Cover the specimen with a cover slip and observe it under a microscope.
Discussion
1 The structures of the onion cells that can be observed under the light microscope are cell wall, cell membrane,
nucleus, vacuole and cytoplasm.
2 Iodine solution 碘水 is a common dye 染色料 for plant cell. The solution colours cell structure such as
nucleus so that it can be clearly 清楚 visible.看见
Conclusion
Onion epidermal cells have cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, big vacuole and a fixed shape. Onion
epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts.

Part B: Observing an animal cell

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Procedure
1. Scrape 括 the inside part of the cheek 脸颊 with the blunt end 钝端 of a toothpick 牙签 (Precaution: Use a
clean toothpick and do not scrape too hard 用力).
2. Place the cheek cells on the toothpick onto a drop of water on a glass slide. Add a drop of methylene blue to
stain it.
3. Cover the specimen with a cover slip and observe it under a microscope.
Discussion
1 The structures of the cheek cells that can be observed under the light microscope are cell membrane, nucleus
and cytoplasm.
2 Methylene solution solution is a common dye of animal cell and it is used to colour cell structures such as
nucleus so chat it can be clearly visible.
Conclusion
Animal cells have cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and an irregular shape.

Observation 观察报告
Both of the onion cells arid cheek cells have basic structures such as the cell membranes, cytoplasm and nuclei.

Conclusion 结论
1. Both of the plant and animal cells have cell membranes, cytoplasm and nuclei.
2. The plant cell also has other structures such as cell wall 细胞壁, large vacuole 液泡 and chloroplasts 叶绿体
which are not found in the animal cell.

The Functions 功能 of the Cell

1 Structures

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1. The cell structures help the cells to carry out 进行 and maintain the stability 稳定 of life 生活 processes.
2. Table below lists the structures of cells and their functions.
Cell
Function
structure
Cytoplasm A place where chemical 化学的 processes in the cell take place 发生
Controls all the activities 活动 of the cell and has genetic 基因的 materials 材料 (chromosomes
Nucleus
染色体)
Cell wall Support 支撑 plant cell, gives a regular 固定 shape and protects 保护 the plant cell
Vacuole 空泡 Animal cell - contains air, liquid or food particles
液泡 Plant cell - filled with cell sap and forms the biggest part of a plant cell
Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll for the process of photosynthesis
Cell
Controls the movement 活动 of substances in and out of the cell
membrane

The Similarities 相似点 and Differences 分别 Between Animal and Plant Cells
1. Differences between an animal cell and a plant cell:
Animal cell Plant cell
Small and has an irregular shape Big and has a regular shape
Has cell wall (made up of cellulose 纤维素) and functions to
Absence of 没有 cell wall
protect 保护 the cell and give it a regular shape
Vacuoles exist 存在 only in animal cells of Has big vacuoles that are spaces 空 间 which have cell fluid and
the lower category 低级 food
Absence of chloroplasts 叶绿体 Has chloroplasts to absorb sunlight during photosynthesis

2. Similarities between an animal cell 2 and a plant cell:

QUICK FACTS
The vacoules in the plant cells bigger than the vacuoles in the animal cells because the plant cells contain cell
sap that take in water to keep the cell firm 坚固.

Unicellular 单细胞 and Multicellular 多细胞的 Organisms

2.2.1 What is a Microorganism 微生物?
1. Organisms 生物 consist of living things (animals and plants).
2. Microorganisms are minute 极小的 living things which can only be seen under a microscope.

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3. Microorganisms include bacteria 细菌, fungi 真菌, protozoa 原生动物 and viruses 病毒.
4. Microorganisms are also known as microbes.

QUICK FACTS
Millions of bacteria live hamlessly 无害 in the gut 内脏 or skin of humans and other animals.

2.2.2 Unicellular Organisms 单细胞生物

1. Unicellular organisms are microorganisms which are made up of only one cell and can only be seen under a
microscope.
2. Can undergo all life processes 机体的功能
3. Mostly live in water and moist 潮湿 areas 地区
2. Examples of unicellular organisms:
(a) Animals such as Amoeba and Paramecium 草履虫
(b) Plants such as Euglena 眼虫, Chlamydomonas 衣滴虫 and Pleuro-coccus 胸膜球菌.

QUICK FACTS
• Pseudopodium 假足 Amoeba is a cytoplasm projection 突起物 used for movement 动作.
• Euglena and Chlamydomonas Have chlorophyll and can make their own food.

Multicellular Organisms
1. Multicellular organisms include humans, animals and plants which consist of many cells.
2. Hydra 水螅 is a multicellular animal.
3. Spirogyra 绿藻 is a multicellular plant.

4. Multicellular organisms have many types of cells with distinct 有区别的 and special 特殊的 functions. These
cause the multicellular organisms to be bigger in size.

Cell Organization 组织 in the Human Body

Types of Human Cells and Their Functions

1. Human beings are complex 复杂 multicellular organisms made up of millions of cells.

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2. There are different types of cells with different shapes, sizes and functions. This is known as cell
specialization. 细 胞 专 业 化 。 Cell specialization allows organisms to perform 进 行 different life processes
efficiently 有效 and regularly.有规律
3. Table below shows the types of cells in the human body and their functions.
4. Cells in the human body:

Type of cells
Function 功能

Red blood cells 红血球 Carry 输送 oxygen throughout the body

White blood cells 白血球
Nerve cells 神经细胞
Muscle 肌肉 cells
Reproductive 生殖的
cells (sperm/ovum)
Bone cells 骨细胞
Epithelial 上皮的 cells
Protect the body from infection 感染 s by destroying 消灭 bacteria
Send message (nerve impulses 脉冲) from one part of the body to another
Contract 收缩 and relax 放松 to generate 产生 movement 动作
Involved in reproduction 繁殖
Support 支撑 body and protect 保护 inner organ 内脏
Protect the surfaces 表面 of organs

Cell Organisation in Plants

1. Plant cells also undergo cell specialization.
2. Various types of plant cells and their functions:

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Cell Organisation in the Human Body _
1. A group of cells with the same structure and to perform a similar function is known as tissue 组 织 . In
humans, there are four main types of tissues. They are:

(a) epithelial tissue 上皮组织 which consists

of epithelial cells that function to protect the
cells beneath 下方 them

(b) muscle tissue which consists of mucle

cells that contract 收 缩 and relax 放 松 to
enable movements of body parts

c) nerve tissue which consists of nerve cells

that transmit 传 送 information (nerve
impulses) from one part of the body to another

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(d) connective tissue 结 缔 组 织 which
connects 连接 and binds 结合 different tissues
together as in blood, fat 脂肪, cartilage 软骨
and bone 骨 tissues

2. An organ is a group of different tissues cooperating to carry out a certain task 任务 or function 功能.
a) Examples of organs in animals are the heart 心脏, stomach, skin, kidneys 肾, lungs, intestine, liver 肝,
blood vessels, eyes and ears.
b) The brain 脑 is made up of nerve tissues and connective tissues. It controls other systems as well.
c) The lung 肺 is made up of epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle tissues and nerve tissues. The lungs
carry out respiratory 呼吸 function.
d) The heart is made up of connective tissues, muscle tissues and nerve tissues. It pumps blood throughour
the body.
e) The stomach is made up of epithelial tissues, connective tissues and muscle tissues. It digests and breaks
down food.
3. A group of different organs that process is known as a system 系统.
4. The sequence 序列 of cell organisation in the human body.

Respiratory System 呼吸系统 Excretory system 排泄系统

• Nose, trachea 气管, lungs 肺

• Oxygen is inhaled 吸入 into the body while 而
carbon dioxide is exhaled 呼出 out of the body
• During respiration 呼吸, oxygen is drawn in and
carbon dioxide is removed 去除
• Kidneys 肾, skin, lungs
• Disposes off 排出 waste products 排泄物 that are no
longer needed by the body
• Lungs - carbon dioxide and water vapour 水汽
• Skin 皮肤 – urea 尿素, mineral salts 矿物盐 and
water
• Kidneys - urea, mineral salts and water

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 Digestive system 消化系统 Muscular system 肌肉系统

-Mouth, stomach 胃 -Muscles enable body movements

-Digests 消化 and absorbs 吸收 food for body usage -Muscles usually react as opposing 相 对 pairs to
使用 produce movements For example, the movement of
the arm is caused by a pair of muscles, biceps 双头肌
and triceps 三头肌

Reproductive system 生殖系统 Nervous System 神经系统

-Reproduces offspring 后代 to continue the generation

一代人

• Brain, spinal cord 脊椎神经, nerves 神经细胞

• Coordinates 协调 all activities in the body
• Receives 接 受 stimuli 刺 激 from the surrounding
and evaluates 产生 nerve impulses
• Blood Circulatory System 血液循环系统 Endocrine 内分泌 system

• Carries oxygen and nutrients 营养 to the whole body

• Carries unwanted 无用的 excretory material 排泄物 Produces hormone.激素
to the excretory organs 排 泄 器 官 to be disposed off Controls and regulates body activities.
from the body blood circulatory system 血液循环系统

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 Skeletal 骨骼 system Lymphatic 淋巴 system

Protects 保护 body from infections 感染

Provides support and protects inner organs.

From systems to organism 生物

1 All systems in the body work together 一起工作 to form a multicellular organism.
2 All systems do not function separately 功能分开 but work together 合作 so that the body of an organism can
function as a complete unit 完整单位.
3 In cell organisation 单元组织, cells are organised into tissues, tissues are organized into organs, organs are
organised into systems and systems are organized into a complex organism.
Cell —► Tissue —► Organ —► System—► Organism
4 Cell organisation can be arranged in a hierarchy 级系 form from the simplest 最简单的 to the most complex.
复杂
5 Division of work 分工合作 allows every cells, tissues, organs and systems to carry out different tasks 任务
and functions in an orderly 有秩序的 and systematic manner.方式

Cell Respiration 细胞呼吸作用 and Photosynthesis 光合作用

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Cell Respiration
1 Living things require 需要 oxygen to carry out 进行 respiration.
2 Respiration is the use of oxygen by our body cells to oxidise 氧化 food (glucose) to produce energy.产生能量
3 Carbon dioxide and water vapour 水蒸气 are waste products 排泄品 of respiration.
4 The word equation for respiration:
Glucose + oxygen-----------►energy + carbon dioxide + water vapour
5 Cell respiration occurs in the mitochondria.线粒体

Roles 作用 of Oxygen in Cell Respiration

1 Respiration occurs all the time.全天
2 In cell respiration, food reacts with oxygen to release energy stored 储藏 in food.
3 This energy is used by the body cells co carry out activities and life processes.

Photosynthesis in Plants
1 Photosynthesis is a process where green plants make 制造 food (glucose 葡萄糖) from carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight.阳光
2 Chlorophyll 叶绿素 is the green pigment 色素 in leaves that absorbs 吸收 sunlight.
3 Oxygen is released 释放 as a by-product.副产品
4 The word equation for photosynthesis:
sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water----------------------► glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
5 Glucose is stored as starch 淀粉 in the leaves.叶子
6 Photosynthesis is important in maintaining 保持 the carbon cycle 循环 and the oxygen cycle in the ecosystem.
生态 This is because photosynthesis release oxygen and removes 去除 carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.大
气层

Roles of Oxygen in Cell Respiration

1 Plants need sunlight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water to carryout photosynthesis.
2 The presence of starch in a leaf can be tested 检验 using iodine solution.碘液 Leaf areas which contain starch
will change to a blue-black 黑蓝 colour.

1. Immerse a leaf in boiling water to soften and break 2. Transfer the leaf to a boiling tube containing
the cell wall of the leaf. ethanol, then put the boiling tube into the water bath
for a few minutes. Ethanol will remove the
chlorophyll.

3. Take out the leaf and immerse it in the hot water 4. Spread out the leaf on a white tile. Drop a few drops
again to remove the ethanol. of iodine solurion to test for the presence of starch.

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 Iodine test to determine the presence of starch in a leaf

To show that carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis

Variables
Manipulated: Presence of carbon dioxide
Responding: Presence of starch
Constant: Presence of sunlight, chlorophyll and water

Hypothesis 假设
Plants require 需要 carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Procedure
1 The plant is stored in the dark for two days before it is exposed to sunlight 曝晒 for 2 hours.
2 Both leaf A and leaf B are tested for the presence of starch.

Observation
Leaf B changes to blue-black colour while leaf A remains 保持 brown in colour 褐色 when they are tested with
iodine solution.

Discussion
Starch presents in leaf B but not present in leaf A. Photosynthesis only happens in leaf B. Potassium hydroxide
absorbs 吸收 all the carbon dioxide in the conical flask A.

Conclusion
Carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis. The hypothesis is accepted.被接受

To show that sunlight is required for photosynthesis

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Variables
Manipulated : Presence of sunlight
Responding : presence of starch
Constant ： Presence of carbon dioxide, chlorophyll
and water

Hypothesis
Plants require sunlight for photosynthesis.

Procedure
1 The plant is stored in the dark for two days
2 A leaf is partially 部分 covered 盖 with paper and is
exposed to the sunlight for 2 hours.
3 The leaf is tested for the presence of starch.

Observation
Only parts which are exposed to sunlight aim to blue-black colour. This means that starch is not present in the
covered area. The covered area does not receive any sunlight. So, photosynthesis does not occur there.

Conclusion
Plants require sunlight for photosynthesis. The hypothesis is accepted.

To show that chlorophyll is required for photosynthesis

Variables
Manipulated : Presence of chlorophyll
Responding : Presence of starch
Constant : Presence of carbon dioxide, water and
intensity of sunlight

Hypothesis
Chlorophyll is required for photosynthesis.

Procedure
1 A variegated leaf is plucked and the outline of the leaf is drawn. Green and non-green areas are indicated on
the sketch.
2 The plant is exposed to sunlight for 2 hours and its leaves are tested for the presence of starch.
3 The areas that turn blue-black are compared between the green and non-green areas of the leaf.

Observation
Starch only presents in green areas which contain chlorophyll.

Conclusion
Chlorophyll is required for photosynthesis. The hypothesis is accepted.
‘.

The relationship 关系 between Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

1 Photosynthesis and respiration are two different processes but they are related with each other.互相有关联

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 sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water------------------------------► glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll

Glucose + oxygen -------------► energy + carbon dioxide + water vapour

2 Without 没有 photosynthesis, oxygen and glucose cannot be produced. Living organisms in nature 自然界
will cease 停止 to exist 生存 without these basic needs 基本需求.
3 Both photosynthesis and respiration complement each other 互相弥补 to support living organisms and
maintaining 保持 the balance 平衡 of oxygen and carbon dioxide content 容量 in the atmosphere.大气

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