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Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000
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Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148

2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing

2nd International Conference on Sustainable Materials Processing and Manufacturing
(SMPM 2019)
(SMPM 2019)
A Sustainable Hybrid Inductive Joining Technology for Aluminum
and Composites
A Sustainable Hybrid Inductive Joining Technology for Aluminum
andRochala,
Alexander Fröhlich*, Patrick Composites
Danilo Mattheß, Verena Kräusel
Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes (IWP), Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
Alexander Fröhlich*, Patrick Rochala, Danilo Mattheß, Verena Kräusel
Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes (IWP), Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany

Abstract

Sustainable
Abstract manufacturing technologies as well as lightweight and multi-material design in production have become key factors
for success in industrial sectors such as transportation, automotive production or aerospace. Therefore, an automatable hybrid
joining technology
Sustainable is required
manufacturing with a highasindustrial
technologies output. Mechanical,
well as lightweight chemical and
and multi-material thermal
design technologies
in production havecanbecome
be applied
key to join
factors
fiber-reinforced thermoplastics
for success in industrial sectors(FRP)
suchwith metals. The advantage
as transportation, of induction
automotive productionheating as a thermal
or aerospace. joining process
Therefore, is the immediate
an automatable hybrid
generation of heat inside
joining technology the electrically
is required with a highconductive
industrialmaterial at the joiningchemical
output. Mechanical, surface. and
Duethermal
to the direct conversion
technologies can of
beelectricity
applied tointo
join
heat the joining process
fiber-reinforced can be (FRP)
thermoplastics emission-free if theThe
with metals. energy is produced
advantage by regenerative
of induction heating as asources.
thermalHowever, the distance
joining process between
is the immediate
coil and joining
generation partners,
of heat the electrically
inside the transport ofconductive
the workpiece to theatpressing
material toolsurface.
the joining and theDue
subsequent separate
to the direct coolingofinelectricity
conversion conventional
into
inductive joiningprocess
heat the joining methodscan reported in the literature
be emission-free if the result
energyinispower losses
produced by and extendedsources.
regenerative process However,
times. Thethe unique newbetween
distance hybrid
inductive contactpartners,
coil and joining joining (ICJ) process isofcharacterized
the transport the workpiece bytothe
theintegration of heating,
pressing tool and thepressing
subsequentandseparate
cooling into one in
cooling hybrid process
conventional
step whichjoining
inductive is performed
methodsby one tool. in
reported Thethe
conducted
literatureexperiments and finite
result in power losseselement simulations
and extended provide
process times.data
Theforunique
the mainnewprocess
hybrid
parameters during joining
inductive contact joining,(ICJ)
jointprocess
strengthisascharacterized
well as the impact of surface preparations
by the integration and demonstrate
of heating, pressing and coolingtheinto
advantages
one hybridof the ICJ
process
process in comparison
step which is performed with
by conventional
one tool. Thethermal
conducted joining processes.
experiments and finite element simulations provide data for the main process
parameters during joining, joint strength as well as the impact of surface preparations and demonstrate the advantages of the ICJ
© 2019 The
Keywords: Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
process ininduction
comparisonjoining,
with composite, metal thermal
conventional joining processes.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
Keywords: induction joining, composite, metal

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 371 531-32195; fax: +49 371 531-832195.
E-mail address: alexander.froehlich@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 371 531-32195; fax: +49 371 531-832195.
2351-9789
E-mail © 2016 The
address: Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
alexander.froehlich@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
2351-9789 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.

2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SMPM 2019.
10.1016/j.promfg.2019.05.017
144 Alexander Fröhlich et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148
2 Alexander Fröhlich/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000

1. Introduction

Technologies for joining metals and fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) can be subdivided into mechanical, thermal and
hybrid technologies [1]. In thermal techniques for joining metals and FRPs the thermally assisted partial or complete
melting of one joining partner or a filler material is required in order to establish a joint during the cooling step of the
process. FRP components with a thermoplastic matrix are well-suited to be joined thermally. Usually, the metallic
part of the assembly conducts the thermal energy to the FRP part until the matrix melts. The required heat can be
generated by radiation (e. g. laser), convection or friction (e. g. ultrasonic) or electromagnetism (e. g. induction
heating) [2].Usually an additional fixture is required for the transmission of the joining force [3].
An efficient way of heat generation in the joining zone is conduction heating because here heat is generated directly
at the joining surface of the metal component [4]. Prior research which refers to inductive heating focuses on
continuous and discontinuous process variants [5]. The discontinuous variant consists of the three steps of heating,
transport and application of joining force that run sequentially during the joining process. As a result, this variant is
less flexible and less energy efficient due to longer process times compared to continuous variants. State of the art
joining techniques that are used for the production of FRP-metal joints are not very productive due to the high number
of process steps or the long process times for curing the applied glue. Additionally, the complexity of the parts and
the surfaces that can be joined is limited, depending on the technique and its advantages or disadvantages. The new
inductive contact joining (ICJ) joining technique presented in this paper combines the three steps of heating,
application of joining force and cooling in one single step. Thus, transportation of the joined compound is not required
during the joining process.
The condition of the joining surface has a major impact on the strength of the joint. This correlation is investigated
intensely in literature [6], [7]. The strength of metal-FRP joints without prior treatment of the joining surfaces is
mostly insufficient. Thus, surface modifications of the metal joining partner can create small geometries that support
the interlock between the joining partners and increase the joint strength.

2. Inductive contact joining

Inductive contact joining is a result of further development of inductive joining known from literature [3]. Figure 1a
presents the schematic design of the technology and process flow (Fig. 1b), including the three major process variables
of temperature T, joining force F and induction power Pi.

I II III
a) b)

Fig. 1. a) The hybrid Induction Contact Joining (ICJ) tool and main parameters. b) Schematic diagram of joining force, temperature and induction
power in the joining zone during the ICJ process.

In order to produce hybrid metal-FRP joints with the new ICJ technique, the parts to be joined are placed in an
overlap configuration. The induction tool (Fig. 1a) is set on top of the joining area and the joining force F is applied
through the induction tool (area I in Fig. 1b). When activating the generator, the electrically conductive part is heated
inductively. By means of conductive heat transfer and thermal radiation, the FRP part is heated and the thermoplastic
matrix starts to melt (area II in Fig. 1b). The liquid plastic melt spreads over the metal surface and floats into the
structure of the metal surface, supported by the joining force F. By switching the generator off, the plastic melt cools
 Alexander Fröhlich et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148 145
Alexander Fröhlich/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000 3

down immediately and consolidates (area III in Fig. 1b). Mechanical clamping is established between the solidifying
plastic matrix and the metal surface structure (micro form closure) as well as the formation of secondary bonds at the
interface of the joint (adhesion). Additionally, chemical primary bonds can be established to the metal by functional
groups of the polymer.
The induction tool provides multiple functions: it generates the electro-magnetic field that heats the metal joining
partner and transmits the necessary joining force into the joining area. Furthermore, the water-cooled induction tool
accelerates the cooling of the joint and the consolidation of the liquid polymer matrix. The processes of heating and
cooling are carried out in very short sequences, and the energy efficiency as well as the cost-effectiveness of the
technique is very high. Additionally, only one-sided accessibility to the joining area is required and the induction tool
can be designed to be very small, compact and robust. By varying the applied frequency of the electro-magnetic field
and by considering the electro-magnetic properties of the respective material, the technology can easily be adapted
for all kinds of material combinations that provide the basic requirements for joining.

3. Experimental setup and procedure

3.1. Materials

Since the focus was placed on components for automotive applications, the selected joining partners comprised a
laminate of Tepex® dynalite 102-RG600(x)/47% roving glass polyamide (PA) 6 with a thickness of d = 2 mm,
hereafter referred to as GF/PA6, and EN AW-6016 sheet metal with a thickness of d = 1.15 mm. The PA6 matrix
determines the composite melting temperature of T = 220 °C. The decomposition temperature starts above
Tdec ≥ 300 °C [8].

3.2. Simulation of the inductive heating process

In this investigation the ICJ process was simulated using the software COMSOL Multiphysics 5.3a by applying
the inductive heating module. The analysis was carried out under physical conditions depending on temperature and
time, by using detailed material data from the software database. Based on the geometry and material of the inductor
(mCu = 99.9% copper), an electro-magnetic field of individual shape, and density of the magnetic flux lines can be
calculated and visualized by the simulation software. In a further step, the inductor geometry is adjusted virtually in
order to adapt the shape of the electro-magnetic field to the geometry of the metal joining partner to achieve
homogeneous heat generation at the joining surface of the metal. The aim of this work was firstly to create a valid
model that provides data for the process of heat generation and heat transfer, and secondly, to find optimized induction
tool geometry and process parameters that allow heating of the FRP part to a temperature that is slightly above the
melting temperature of the GF/PA6 matrix material.

3.3. Preparation of specimens

The geometry of specimens was in accordance with DIN ΕΝ ΙSΟ 14273. Dimensions were specified with
105.0 mm × 45.0 mm for metal and GF/PA6.
High mechanical strength of the joint can be obtained by an expanded effective joining surface or by increasing the
roughness of the metal joining surface. Ideally, the metal surface is prepared with undercuts so that the liquid plastic
melt of FRP can flow there and establish a firm form closure during cooling and solidification of the melt. Defined
geometries were formed into the aluminum surface by mechanical pretreatment to investigate the impact of the joining
surface condition on the bond strength. The pretreatment was performed by the so called “rota-tool” (Fig. 2b). When
applying an axial force on the tool and rotating it slightly, small structures are formed into the metal surface (Fig. 2a
and c). On the overlapping area of the aluminum sheet five structured regions were formed with a diameter of dP = 14.0
mm and nP = 21 structured pins each. The maximum height of a single pin was hP = 0.3 mm, having an undercut depth
of sP = 0.18 mm.
146 Alexander Fröhlich et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148
4 Alexander Fröhlich/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000

ͲǤͷ
ͳͲ

sP

ƒȌ „Ȍ …Ȍ

Fig. 2: Aluminum sheet with structured pins (a) formed with the “rota-tool” (b). Cross section and undercut depth sP of a pin (c).

3.4. Process of joining

After cleaning the specimens with ethanol, they were arranged in an overlapping setup according to Fig. 3. For this
purpose, the aluminum sheet was placed at the bottom and the GF/PA6 at the top of the layout. The overlapping area
had a dimension of A = 35.0 mm × 45.0 mm. Subsequently, the induction tool was placed on the middle of the
overlapping area with its front side perpendicular to the length axis of the specimen (Fig. 3). A compressive force of
F = 445.0 N was exerted on the induction tool, i.e. also on the joining surface.

induction tool
FRP

front side of the induction tool

flux concentrator material
Al

Fig. 3: Experimental setup for joining.

The flux concentrator material Ferrotron 559 of Fluxtrol, Inc. was attached to the inductor tool to concentrate the
electromagnetic field in the joining zone and to shield the magnetic field. An EMAG eldec simultaneous dual
frequency generator was used to supply the electrical power of the process, providing medium- and high-frequency
ranges of 8 < f < 25 kHz and 140 < f < 350 kHz respectively.
𝛿𝛿 = (𝜋𝜋 ∙ 𝑓𝑓 ∙ 𝜇𝜇 ∙ 𝜎𝜎)−1/2 can be used for calculating the penetration depth δ of a magnetic field in an electrically
conductive material. ‡”‡ǡ𝜇𝜇”‡’”‡•‡–• –Š‡ ’‡”‡ƒ„‹Ž‹–› ƒ†𝜎𝜎–Š‡ ‡Ž‡…–”‹…ƒŽ …‘†—…–‹˜‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡Ž‡…–”‹…ƒŽŽ›
…‘†—…–‹˜‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤŠ‡ˆ‘”—Žƒ•Š‘™•–Šƒ–ƒ‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹–Š‡ ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡ ƒ‰‡–‹…ˆ‹‡Ž†”‡•—Ž–•‹ƒ
†‡…”‡ƒ•‡‘ˆ–Š‡’‡‡–”ƒ–‹‘†‡’–ŠǤŠ—•ǡ˜‡”›Ž‹‹–‡†Ž‘…ƒŽŠ‡ƒ–‹‰…ƒ„‡ƒ……‘’Ž‹•Š‡†ǤThe utilized aluminum
alloy EN AW-6016 is non-magnetic with a permeability of µAl ≈ 1.0 H/m. At a temperature of T = 200 °C, when an
alternating magnetic field is applied in the medium-frequency range, the theoretical eddy current depth (zone of heat
generation) in the aluminum sheet is approximately s ≈ 0.8 mm. As a result of the thermal conductivity of aluminum
(app. λ = 236.0 W/mK), the heat is quickly removed from the joining area. The application of high-frequency magnetic
fields (f < 250 kHz) reduces the eddy current depth to s = 0.25 mm [9].

3.5. Mechanical testing

Tensile shear tests were carried out with a Hegewald & Peschke Inspekt 150 universal testing machine according to
DIN EN ISO 14273. Five specimens joined by the same condition were tested, recording force F and displacement s
 Alexander Fröhlich et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148 147
Alexander Fröhlich/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000 5

during testing. The preload force and the testing speed were set to Ft = 10 N and vt = 10 mm/min respectively. Finally,
calculations were performed resulting in the mean value of the maximum force for each test and the corresponding
standard deviation.

4. Results

4.1. Results of simulation

ƒȌ „Ȍ Measured current as a function of generator power

ʹͲͲͲ
ͳͺͲͲ
Current I [A]
ͳ͸ͲͲ
ͳͶͲͲ
ͳʹͲͲ
ͳͲͲͲ
ͺͲͲ
͸ͲͲ
Ͳ ͷ ͳͲ ͳͷ ʹͲ ʹͷ
Generator power Pi [%]

Fig. 4. a) Simulation of temperatures during joining in the ICJ process. b) Measured current I and corresponding generator power output Pi.

Using the results from the simulation and a subsequent iterative adjustment of the induction tool, the geometry shown in

Fig. 4a is found to be well suited for the experimental setup. Due to the thickness of the GF/PA6 sheet, the coupling to the aluminum sheet results
in d = 2.0 mm. According to the simulation, heating the specimens for th = 3.5 s with an electric current in the induction tool of I = 1279.0 A
causes almost homogeneous heating of the aluminum sheet up to T = 213 °C directly under the induction tool, which is slightly below the melting
temperature of the FRP. Material data of pure aluminum was used in the simulation. For the joining experiments slightly higher temperatures
were expected because of the lower electrical conductivity of the alloyed aluminum. During the experiments, measurements were taken of the
current as a function of the generator power output (

Fig. 4b). When the current was set to I = 1279.0 A in the induction tool, the generator delivered a frequency of
f = 273.0 kHz and the output reached Pi = 14.0%, which corresponds to an electrical output of P = 21.0 kW.

4.2. Mechanical considerations

Fig. 5 shows the force-displacement curves of the tested samples. Until a tensile force of F = 2500 N (s = 0.3 mm)
is reached, the increase of tensile forces is consistent for all five samples. A slight decrease of force occurs at a
displacement of approximately s = 3.0 mm. The reason for this will be subject to further research. Until a tensile force
of F = 6000 N is reached, all samples show again a linear correlation between elastic deformation and applied force.
Thus, the quality of the joints produced via the ICJ process seems to be consistent. The specimens start to fracture at
a displacement of s = 0.8 mm, which corresponds to the mean value of the maximum tensile forces at FM = 5956 N
(standard deviation: Fdev = 148 N). The decline in tensile forces during fracture does not appear suddenly but gradually
during a displacement of ∆s = 0.2 mm. It can be assumed that a fractional amount of the load-bearing form closure
between pins on the aluminum sheet and the GF/PA6 fails when a critical strain is reached. This causes the joint to
fracture partially and reduces the applied stress. The remaining form closure between pins and plastic matrix remains
undamaged. This causes the samples to fail gradually as the process of testing continues. As a result, the force-
displacement curves exhibit several plateaus after reaching the maximum tensile force, and then decrease successively.
During this process, the adhesive bonds between the parts start to break stepwise. In general it can be stated that good
joint strengths between aluminum and GF/PA6 are achieved at very short process times when using the ICJ technique.
148 Alexander Fröhlich et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 35 (2019) 143–148
6 Alexander Fröhlich/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2016) 000–000

Furthermore, joints that are fabricated by ICJ are not expected to fail spontaneously. Under safety-related aspects, this
behavior of the joints can be considered as positive.

͹ͲͲͲ
ͳ
Tensile force F [N]
͸ͲͲͲ
ʹ
ͷͲͲͲ ͵
ͶͲͲͲ Ͷ
͵ͲͲͲ ͷ
ʹͲͲͲ
ͳͲͲͲ
Ͳ
Ͳ ͲǤʹ ͲǤͶ ͲǤ͸ ͲǤͺ ͳ ͳǤʹ
Distance s [mm]

Fig 5: Force-displacement curve of the five tested samples.

5. Summary and outlook

The ICJ technique makes it possible to join every electrically conductive metal and FRP that offers a thermoplastic
matrix by selective inductive heating and partial melting of the matrix material. The melt acts as a glue in order to
establish the joint. Characteristics of the technology are very short process times (th = 3.5 s), the exceptional selective
heating of the parts in the joining zone as well as the one-sided access to the joining area. The compact geometry of
the induction tool, high efficiency and the reduced loss of energy during the joining process underline the advantages
of the ICJ technique.
The outlined technique can be applied to produce strong joints between aluminum and FRP components with
maximum tensile forces of FM = 5956 N. The surface modification accomplished by the “rota-tool” increases the joint
strength, prevents sudden failure during operation and can be easily integrated into existing production lines.
Future investigations will focus on the further optimization of the induction tool geometry for increased homogeneity
of the generated heat and improved force transmission to the joining zone. In addition, the “rota-tool” will be further
developed to accomplish more defined and effective undercuts for improved bonding.

References

[1] V. K. Stokes, “Joining Methods for Plastic Composites: An Overview,” Polym. Eng. Sci., vol. 29, no. 19,
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2011.
[3] R. Velthuis, “Induction Welding of Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Polymer Composites to Metals,” TU
Kaiserslautern, 2007.
[4] J. Neumeyer, “Induktive Unterstützung von Hybrid-Schweißverfahren zum prozesssicheren und
leistungsstarken Fügen dickwandiger Bauteile,” p. 150, 2013.
[5] P. Mitschang and R. Velthuis, “Process Parameters for Induction Welding of Metal / Composite Joints,” in
1st Eucomas 2028, 2008, pp. 195–202.
[6] A. Roesner, S. Scheik, A. Olowinsky, A. Gillner, U. Reisgen, and M. Schleser, “Laser assisted joining of
plastic metal hybrids,” Phys. Procedia, vol. 12, no. PART 2, pp. 373–380, 2011.
[7] D. Nestler, M. Trautmann, S. Nendel, G. Wagner, and L. Kroll, “Innovative hybride Laminate aus
Aluminiumlegierungsfolien und faserverstärkten thermoplastischen Schichten,” Materwiss. Werksttech., vol.
47, no. 11, pp. 1121–1131, 2016.
[8] “Datasheet Polyamid 6,” 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.rct-online.de/de/HmswGlossar/detail/id/8.
[Accessed: 15-Oct-2018].
[9] G. Benkowsky, Induktionserwärmung: Härten, Glühen, Schmelzen, Löten, Schweissen. 1990.