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com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Available ScienceDirect
Availableonline
onlineatatwww.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
ScienceDirect
ScienceDirect 
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
9th Conference on Learning Factories 2019
9th Conference on Learning Factories 2019
Application of robotics in rail car manufacturing learning factory: A
Application of roboticscase in welding
of rail car manufacturing
complex joints learning factory: A
Manufacturing Engineering Society
case2017, International
of welding complex jointsMESIC 2017, 28-30 June
Conference 2017,
Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
John Ogbemhea,*, Khumbulani Mpofua, Nkgatho Tlalea, Boitumelo Ramatsetsea
John Ogbemhea,*, Khumbulani Mpofua, Nkgatho Tlalea, Boitumelo Ramatsetsea
Costing Department
models a
for capacity
of Industrial optimization
Engineering, Tshwane inPretoria
University of Technology, IndustryWest, 0183,4.0: Trade-off
South Africa
Department of Industrial Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria West, 0183, South Africa
a

between used capacity and operational efficiency

Abstract
Abstract A. Santanaa, P. Afonsoa,*, A. Zaninb, R. Wernkeb
The use of a learning factory creates a platform for putting to use research innovations, directly into industrial
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This paper of presents
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suggest
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© 2019 The Authors.
contributions from bothPublished by Elsevier
the practical andB.V.
theoretical perspectives. This paper presents and discusses a mathematical
© 2019
Peer Theunder
review Authors. Published by Elsevier
the management
responsibility ofbased B.V. committee of the 9th Conference on Learning Factories.
the scientific
© 2019
model Thecapacity
for Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
on different costing models (ABC andonTDABC). A generic model has been
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the 9th Conference Learning Factories.
Peer review and
developed under
it the
wasresponsibility of theidle
used to analyze scientific committee
capacity and toof the 9thstrategies
design Conferencetowards
on Learning Factories.
the maximization of organization’s
Keywords: Digital manufacturing; Advance manufacturing; Learning Factory; Appropriate Technology; Industrial Robot
value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity
Keywords: Digital manufacturing; Advance manufacturing; Learning Factory; Appropriate Technology; Industrial Robot
optimization might hide operational inefficiency.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference
1. Introduction
2017.
It is becoming popular to apply industrial robots to tasks which previously depend solely on human labour; this is
because
It
Keywords: robots
is becomingcanpopular
Cost Models; effectively doCapacity
to apply
ABC; TDABC; tedious jobs
industrial for long
robots
Management; to hours
Idletasks leading
which
Capacity; to better
previously
Operational qualitysolely
depend
Efficiency [1]. The Industrial
on human robotthis
labour; is an
is
appropriate
because technology
robots for solutions
can effectively thatjobs
do tedious require process
for long hoursoperations (such quality
leading to better as shot[1].
blasting, painting,robot
The Industrial welding,
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appropriate technology for solutions that require process operations (such as shot blasting, painting, welding,
1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +27611336733.
The cost of idle capacity is a fundamental information for companies and their management of extreme importance
E-mail address:author.
johnogbemhe@gmail.com
in*modern
Corresponding
production Tel.: +27611336733.
systems. In general, it is defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured
E-mail address: johnogbemhe@gmail.com
in several ways: tons of production, available
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.hours of manufacturing, etc. The management of the idle capacity
* Paulo Afonso.
Peer review©under
2351-9789 Tel.:
2019the +351 253 510
Theresponsibility 761; fax: +351
of the scientific
Authors. Published 253 604 741
committee
by Elsevier B.V. of the 9th Conference on Learning Factories.
E-mail address: psafonso@dps.uminho.pt
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the 9th Conference on Learning Factories.

2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the 9th Conference on Learning Factories.
10.1016/j.promfg.2019.03.050
 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322 317
2 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

grinding, and so forth), the movement of materials, the assembly and the production control [2]. They have gained
significant acceptance in manufacturing for over fifty years; this is because of the continuously growing role of
transforming industries ranging from automobiles to household commodities. Large and small firms have also
benefited from the technological innovation of industrial robots; whether applied in a large or a small manufacturing
firm, they have a comparative advantage of cost reduction, improved quality, increased output, cleaner production
and improved safety. Nevertheless, programming the robots to the do these complex jobs is not an easy task because
it involves transferring the operating skill of the human to the robot operation by the use of a teach pendant [3-5] or
Teach and Playback Programming. Teach and playback may cause disruption to the entire systems because of
downtime, and it requires skilled that artisans do not have. The limitations of the teach and playback method can be
addressed using simulation/offline programming that guarantees the control algorithms are in order before uploading
on a physical robot. This method allows the programming of the robot task by the use of the virtual replica; hence,
making it convenient to run simulation trials of different configurations to the same task. The section of this paper
discusses related works on the application of robotic solutions in manufacturing. The third section describes the
system, while the fourth and the fifth section describe the design of the work cell and the derived benefit from
integrating this concept to a Learning Factory.

2. Related works on the application of learning factory technology in manufacturing

Learning Factory (LF) serve as platforms to disseminate research findings into industrial practice and to educate
prospective engineers in hands-on courses [6]. The use LF offers the potentials to transfer digitally designed
solutions to real systems for testing and demonstration, within the framework of digital manufacturing [7]. A review
of the state of the art and prospects of LF found that it could play a vital role in developing new solutions for
changeability of manufacturing systems; engineers in the industries can now be educated with the new solutions[7].

In [8], a cognitive framework that uses industrial learning process of attitude, knowledge, skill and competences
to solve the need of engineers and blue-collar workers, within the framework of digital manufacturing is suggested.
The teaching based conceptual framework accounts for the needed knowledge for factories of the future. The use of
LF is been used to prepare students and employees on the understanding of Industry 4.0 [9], where workplace-
related scenarios could be mapped through practical learning of the workings of smart factories by using
communication and information technology modules. In a related development, the transfer of industry 4.0
knowledge to the small and medium sized enterprise using LF has been reported in [10]. The method makes use of
hitherto existing learning factory to optimise the process using industry 4.0. Also, the LF framework, based on the
digitalisation of the production line is proposed in [11]. The facility provides design, prototyping and manufacturing
processes that incorporate Internet of Things, Industrial Internet of things and Industry 4.0 technologies.

State of the art research in robotic methodologies can also benefit from the use of LF. For instance, manufacturing
companies have to deal with assembly and joining of complex (TKY) joints as shown in Fig. 1. It means that the
algorithm needs to be flexible to accommodate the complex features of the components. Based on the difficulties
encountered by the current robotic welding algorithms, there is a need for exploring alternative options of path
planning and work planning more efficiently.

Fig. 1. Common complex joints in a various welding applications.

In [12], the integration of a hybrid vision system that uses both passive and structured light methodology has
been applied on an industrial welding robot for the identification of the welded parts and path correction during spot
318 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 3

welding of commercial vehicle doors. In [13], a grid-based path search is used to find an optimal path that leads to
the desired position and orientation of the end effector. The scheme makes use of decision horizon, maximum
number of alternatives and sample rate as grid parameters. In addition, a conclusion that a higher sample rate for the
joint angles, outside the decision horizon should be used when orientation of the end effector is desired. In [14], a
sensor-based robot operating system that incorporates a vocabulary of body and hand gestures was applied to
demonstrate to the non-expert and familiar user the movement of a robot using accepted ways of interaction.

An approach for configuring a robotic work cell for welding application in a small and medium-sized enterprise
(SMEs) was reported in [15]. A knowledge repository, made of workpieces and appropriate technologies for
processing them is proposed in [16]. The knowledge repository is designed by systems engineers using automation
strategies, production skill and heuristic knowledge. In [17],.an off-line programming scheme that assists students to
acquire industrial robot programming skills and also reduce the downtime of equipment while programming new
workpieces and fast-tracks the programming of complex paths has been reported. In a related development, [18]
proposed an approach for programming that involves teaching by using action identification and segmentation, skill
sequence formulation, perception and assembly tree establishment, and robot movement mapping.

A common shortcoming of the methods above is that they lack a sufficient and robust geometric-based weld path
generation within the digital manufacturing framework. In this study, a framework for delivering an offline-line
programming scheme, through the learning factory methodology that is highly productive and instinctive is
proposed. It uses geometric-based, arc weld, robot path generation/modification within the framework of product
lifecycle management to reduce errors and rework in welding robot cell development.

3. System Description

The conventional industrial robotic welding system consists of subsystems as shown in Fig. 2 . The Teach box is
a handheld device that allows the operator to specify welding parameters; the gas source, which may be pure gases is
used to provide arc stability, metal transfer mode, melting rate and weld bead shape. The controller supplies power
to the robot, stores program and uses it to move the robot and positioner while working; the weld power source
distributes energy to the welding torch for the production of an electric arc. The Industrial manipulator, mounted on
a pedestal, is equipped with a multi-axis degree of freedom and tools such as a welding torch. The positioner is used
to holding a workpiece as it is welded.

LEGEND
A=Teach Box; B=Gas Source
C=Water Tank; D=Robot Controller
E=Interface Box; F=Weld Power Source
G=Computer=Industrial Robot
I=Positioner; J=Vision Sensor

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the welding systems [19].

4. Appropriate technology for 3D robotic simulation of welding

Industrial robotic welding simulation using dynamic simulation can be used to identify design glitch in the initial
stage using a reiterative model from the conceptual design stage to the finished product. The benefits of this
technique are enormous. It allows the generation and modification of geometry-based arc weld trajectories. The
optimal values of the workpiece positioning device are computed automatically; seam search trajectories is created
using controller-specific constraints; it enhances robot motion by using standard parameters along its trajectories and
allows without difficulty the positioning of robots in an accessible position at the same time allowing for the
mapping of the robot task. Based on the research problem and gained experiences, a process model for disseminating
 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322 319
4 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

research within the framework of LF was developed, see Fig. 3 In this work, Delmia V5 was employed to
demonstrate the usefulness of robotic welding as an appropriate technology. The Robotics V5® has tools that are
easily accessible using noticeable icons in the main screen; it has a compass used for the movement and positioning
of the model and the tree icon representing the Product, Process, and Resource (PPR). The CAD files of the
resources required to develop the automated robotic work cell are as shown in Fig. 4.

Research Dynamic Parameter Trajectory Validation Data

Findings Model Identification Optimisation Management

1. Provides the 1. Describes the 1. Trajectory 1a.Preparing the 1a.Joints angles

mathematical dynamic design using work environment. 1b. Process cycle
relationships parameters using Bezier curve. 1b.Creating arc time
between actuation computer aided welding tasks for 1c. Tool Centre
and contact forces design techniques. complex weld. Points
using Euler- 1c.Setting the 1d. Device cycle
Lagrange. working path. time
1e. Device Duty
time

2. The derived 2. Identify and 2. Checking for 2. Simulation of the 2a. Yaw, Pitch and
dynamic equation simulate the collusion and robot work-cell. Roll angles.
provide the systems, thus singularity. 2b. XYZ
foundation for obviating the need coordinates values.
parameter for experimental
identification and measurement.
trajectory
optimisation

3. Optimisation 3. Optimisation 3. Hybrid

problems and the simulation analysis optimisation scheme
design variables within the using Multi-
constraints. framework of objective genetic
MATLAB 2018®. and goal attainment
algorithm.
Fig. 3. Model for research dissemination assistant.

Fig. 4. Conceptual methodology for robotic work cell development.

320 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 5

5. Welding simulation using kr16 industrial robot

The generic software described in the previous section is used to demonstrate the robotic welding within the
framework of Off-Line Programming. This is mainly due to the fact it gives room for more flexibility and
compatibility in the choice of the resources to be used in the virtual design. The framework described in Fig. 5 is
used to build the robotic work cell. Tags are used to denote coordinate points used to carry welding operations; they
are constructed to guarantee a consistent path for the robot. The path can then be reordered after it is created or in the
middle of the process.

3D CAD TAG TASK

MODEL GENERATION ASSIGNMENT

CHECKING FOR
ROBOT
PATH PLANNING COLLUSION AND
PROGRAMME
SINGULARITY
Fig. 5. Framework adopted for Off-line programming.

The tags created are grouped in a tag list where is used to define and assign a task to the industrial robot. The
created tags are placed around the points to be welded followed by the creation of a task that welds the tags points
across the product. See Fig. 6. for a screenshot on the use of the Delmia robotics to manipulate the PPR.

Fig. 6. The screenshot on the simulation of arc welding using Delmia robotics.

6. Simulation results

The bogie frame, with thousands of tags point, illustrates the robotic arc welding of the complex joint. Two Kuka
KR90-R3100-Extra models deployed to run synchronously complete the workstation. The simulation uses a
combination of device task definition, robotic arc welding and robot offline programming workbenches. The use of
the data readout and sensor management tools within the framework of Delmia V5 extracts the simulation data for
analysis. The data from the simulation results shown in Fig. 7, includes but not limited to the following: Energy
consumed by the robots; Robots joint data; Tool Centre Point (TCP) data; Process cycle time; Device cycle time;
and Coordinate values of the tag points.

Some of the data obtained from the simulation, with the aid of the sensor management and data readout toolbox
are documented in the appendix page of this thesis. The data readout is used to read dynamically updated data,
throughout the simulation process concerning cycles times, joint data, TCP data, and so forth (see Some of the data
obtained from the simulation, with the aid of the sensor management and data readout toolbox are documented in the
appendix page of this thesis. The data readout is used to read dynamically updated data, throughout the simulation
process concerning cycles times, joint data, TCP data, and so forth (see Fig. 7.).
 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322 321
6 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

Fig. 7. Data readout for cycle time, joint data and TCP.

The time histories of the joint angles are computed using inverse kinematics, and the DH convention is employed
to specify position and orientation. Over twenty-seven thousands of data points were used to generate the joint
angles trajectories along the weld points captured in Fig. 8 .

Fig. 8. Joints angles trajectories.

7. Conclusion and Discussion

In this work, an appropriate robotic welding technology that can be customised for both small and big
manufacturing business owners is proposed. This technology was applied within the framework of digital
manufacturing technology and implemented by using the integration of the workbenches of mechanical design,
device task definition and arc welding of the Delmia V5 to design a virtual robotic work cell. In order to eliminate
collusion within the work-cell, tags are modified using the position and orientation of the robots joint via parameters
322 John Ogbemhe et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 31 (2019) 316–322
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 7

in the compass. This tags adjustments reduces the operations time and shortens the period of the production
preparation. The data required for developing a framework for robotic optimisation are captured using the sensor
management tool framework.

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to the following; Gibela Rail Transport Consortium, Innovative Manufacturing and
Design Solution (IMDS) Group and the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) for providing relentless support
during the research

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