Cuaderno de Biologia

Propietario: Camilo Brito

Active transport
Look at Figure 1. The height difference between the reservoir behind the dam
and the lake at the

the bottom of the dam is very similar to a concentration gradient. The water
flows down from the dam

easily, just as diffusion allows molecules to move easily down their

concentration gradient.

Figure 1. A dam holding back a large reservoir.

Credit: irakite iStock

But what if something wants to move the other way? How could you get water
from the lake at the bottom of the dam back to the reservoir behind the dam?
How can molecules move against a concentration gradient?

The water in the lake will need help to move back to the reservoir. For
example, you could use a pump, or you could carry the water in buckets. Note
that you would need to use energy to move the water.

The cell membrane of a cell is like a dam in many ways, as it allows certain
substances to pass through easily. However, with a little help – and a little
energy – a cell membrane can also move substances against the
concentration gradient. You will learn about this process, active transport, in
this subtopic.
Active transport
Active transport (Figure 1) is the movement of particles through a cell
membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration, using energy from respiration. Active transport works in the
opposite direction to diffusion.

Figure 1. Active transport occurs against a concentration gradient. Energy is used to drive
the movement of a substance across a membrane.

Study skills

Remember that mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration and supply energy to the
cell. Cells that carry out lots of active transport typically contain more mitochondria than
cells that do not.

Extended
Explaining active transport
Cell membranes contain different proteins. Some of these are 'carrier
proteins', which connect one side of the membrane to the other. Carrier
proteins can pick up the substances the cell needs and pass them through
the membrane. These proteins can change their shape to make this
happen. The process uses energy, which is supplied by respiration. Watch
this short video to see how glucose is transported across a cell membrane
using energy transferred by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules.

Active transport in plants and animals

Sometimes, a plant needs substances that are not at a high concentration
outside the plant. For example, the concentration of nitrate ions is likely to
be higher inside a plant's root hairs than in the soil surrounding them.
Diffusion would cause nitrate ions to move out of the plant. However, active
transport allows the plant to take in these vital ions (see subtopic 6.3).

Active transport is important in the human body. For example, glucose in

the intestines is taken up by the epithelial cells of villi and transported into
the cells (see subtopic 7.5). This happens by active transport because the
concentration of glucose is lower in the intestines than in the cells where
the glucose is needed. Active transport is also involved when glucose is
reabsorbed into the blood from the kidney tubules (see subtopic 13.2).

Comparing transport processes

Table 1 summarises the main features of diffusion, osmosis and active
transport.
 Diffusion Osmosis Active transport

Substance(s) Gases and other Water only Substances in

transported substances in solution
solution, e.g. O2 and
CO2

Needs energy from No No Yes

respiration?

Requires a No (but can happen Yes (must be Yes

membrane? across membranes) partially permeable
membrane)

Needs carrier No No Yes

proteins?

Direction of transport From high to low From high to low From low to high
concentration of water potential (dilute concentration of
substance solution to substance
concentrated
solution)
Diffusion
Think about each of the following scenarios:

● the colour of tea spreading through water (Figure 1)

Figure 1. A tea bag in water.

Credit: Jurajkovac iStock

● the smell of deodorant spreading around a changing room

● smelling food cooking from the next room
● walking past a flowerbed in full bloom (Figure 2)
● a leaf carrying out photosynthesis
 ●

Figure 2. A flowerbed in full bloom.

● Credit: kata716 iStock
● a helium-filled party balloon becoming smaller over time (Figure 3)
● food molecules getting into your bloodstream
● oxygen moving from your lungs into your bloodstream.
 Figure 3. Helium-filled party balloons.
Credit: ddggg iStock

This is quite a range of different scenarios, but they all have one thing in common –
diffusion. In this subtopic, you learn how diffusion works and why it is important to
living organisms. Next time you smell food cooking in another room, you will be able
to explain why you can smell it!
Explaining diffusion
In all the scenarios in ‘The big picture’, a substance was spreading from a region in
which it was highly concentrated to a region in which it was less concentrated. The
difference in concentration causes a

concentration gradient (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A
concentration gradient.
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region where their concentration is higher
to a region where their concentration is lower, down a concentration gradient, as a result of
their random movement.
Particles in liquids and gases are in constant, random motion. They move in all
directions. However, more particles overall move down the concentration gradient.
This is their ‘net movement’.

Diffusion in liquids
Unless you stir your tea, the colour and flavour of the tea will gradually spread from
the tea bag into the water in the cup. The particles in the tea spread by diffusion. There
is a net movement of tea particles from the tea bag (where their concentration is
highest) to the water (where their concentration is lowest), down a concentration
gradient as a result of their random movement.

Watch this video, showing the diffusion of purple potassium manganate (VII). You
can clearly see how the colour diffuses from the crystals into the water.

Diffusion in gases
The smelly particles from flowers gradually spread from the flowers into the air
around them. This happens by diffusion. There is a net movement of smelly particles
from the flowers (where their concentration is highest) to the air (where their
concentration is lowest), down a concentration gradient as a result of their random
movement.
The particles in gases move much more quickly than the particles in liquids. Diffusion
happens much faster in gases than it does in liquids. This is why you need to stir your
tea to spread the tea through the water quickly, but it is easier to smell flowers,
deodorant and food cooking. During

photosynthesis in a leaf, carbon dioxide diffuses quickly from the air into the leaf.

Diffusion across membranes

Substances must cross the

cell membrane if they are to enter or leave a cell. Diffusion is one way in which this can
happen. The cell membrane is permeable to many substances – they can pass freely
through it in both directions. Figure 2 shows diffusion of a substance through a permeable
membrane.

Figure 2.
Diffusion through a permeable membrane.
In part (a) of Figure 2, there is a concentration gradient from left to right across the
membrane. There is a net movement of these particles from the left-hand side (where
their concentration is highest), through the membrane, to the right-hand side (where
their concentration is lowest), down the concentration gradient as a result of their
random movement.

Part (b) of Figure 2 shows the situation later, when the concentration of particles is
the same on both sides of the container. Although particles still move randomly in
both directions across the membrane, there is no net movement because there is no
longer a concentration gradient.

Diffusion through a membrane happens when a helium-filled party balloon becomes

smaller, food molecules get into your bloodstream, and oxygen moves from your
lungs into your bloodstream.

Examples of diffusion in organisms

Table 1 summarises examples of diffusion and where you can find out about them in
this book.

Example of diffusion Where you can find out more

Movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen in Topic 6

leaves

Movement of glucose and other food Subtopic 7.5

molecules into and out of the blood

Movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen in Section 11.1.1

our bodies

Factors affecting diffusion

Molecules and ions have kinetic stores of energy. This means that they are always
moving. The energy for diffusion comes from this energy in randomly-moving
molecules and ions. Diffusion is a passive process – it does not require any energy
input, because all of the energy required is already in the diffusing particles.
The rate of diffusion is influenced by several factors. In general, the rate of diffusion
increases if:

● the temperature increases

● the distance decreases
● the surface area increases
● the concentration gradient increases.

Osmosis
Osmosis involves partially permeable membranes and water.

A partially permeable membrane allows only certain substances to pass through it. Visking
tubing is used in laboratory experiments. It is an example of an artificial partially permeable
membrane. The cell membrane can also act as a partially permeable membrane. It lets small
particles pass through, such as water molecules, but not larger solute particles such as
proteins, starch and some ions.
In osmosis, water moves through a partially permeable membrane. This means that
water can move into and out of cells by osmosis. This property is useful for supporting
plants. Water inside the vacuole of a plant cell exerts a pressure which presses
outwards on the

cell wall. This helps to keep the cell rigid. If a plant does not get enough water, its cells
become less rigid and the plant wilts (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The effect of water pressure on plant cells and plants.

The direction that water moves across a cell membrane depends on the concentration
of the solution outside the cell. You can investigate the effects of different
concentrations of solution using plant tissue such as cubes of potato. This practical
describes one of these experiments. The mass of cubes increases or decreases
depending on whether water moves into or out of the cells.

Explaining osmosis
To explain osmosis, you need to be clear about two ideas: concentration of solution,
and water potential.

Concentration and water potential

The concentration of a solution is a measure of how much solute is dissolved in it:

● dilute solutions have little dissolved solute in them and have a low
concentration
● concentrated solutions have a lot of dissolved solute in them.
You can see the difference in concentration of two squash drinks in Figure 1. The
drink on the right is the more concentrated solution.

Figure 1. Two squash drinks of different concentrations.

Study skills

An aqueous solution is a mixture in which one or more substances is dissolved in water.

For example, when sugar dissolves in water to make an aqueous sugar solution:

● sugar is the solute

● water is the solvent.

The water potential of a solution is a measure of how freely water molecules can move.
Pure water has the highest water potential because all its water molecules can move freely.
When a solute is dissolved in water, bonds form between the solute particles and some of
the water molecules. This means that fewer water molecules can move freely, so solutions
have lower water potentials than pure water. In general:

● as the concentration of a solution increases, its water potential decreases.

Defining osmosis
Osmosis can be defined in terms of water potential:

● osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable
membrane.
Since water potential and concentration of solution are related, it may help you to
know that:

● osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Osmosis through a partially permeable membrane

Osmosis in plants
An investigation into osmosis is described in section 3.2.1. The potato cubes:

● gain mass when placed in water

● lose mass when placed in a concentrated solution.
There is also a situation in which the mass of the cubes stays the same. This occurs
when the concentration of the solution outside the cells is the same as the
concentration inside the cells.

When a plant cell gains water by osmosis, the water pressure inside acts against the
inelastic cell wall. This pressure is called

turgor pressure. A plant cell with a high turgor pressure is described as turgid (Figure 3). It is
stiff and helps to support the plant.
 Figure 3. A turgid plant cell.
When a plant cell loses water by osmosis, its cytoplasm and vacuole shrinks. Its turgor
pressure decreases and it becomes

flaccid (Figure 4). The cell becomes less stiff and no longer helps to support the plant. If the
plant cell loses a lot of water, the cytoplasm and vacuole may shrink so much that the
cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis. A plasmolysed cell
(Figure 5) will probably die.

Figure 4. A flaccid plant cell. Figure 5. A plasmolysed plant cell.

Be aware

Turgid is pronounced ‘terjid’ and flaccid is pronounced ‘flassid’. Do take care to spell them
correctly, though.

Water potential and osmosis is also important for the uptake of water in plants. Water
in the soil is often part of a solution that is more dilute than the solution inside the root
hair cells. As a result, water enters the root hair cells by osmosis. The water is then
pulled through the plant by

transpiration (see subtopic 8.3).

Osmosis in animals
Animal cells and tissues must be able to control osmosis in order to function properly.
For example, a

red blood cell that gains too much water could swell and burst. This is because it is not
protected by a cell wall (unlike plant cells).
Body cells can be damaged if they lose or gain too much water by osmosis. To
prevent this type of damage, the water concentration of the blood and of the cytoplasm
in cells is very closely controlled by the kidneys (see topic 13).

Translocation
Think about the last time you ate at school, college, or in a restaurant or hotel.
Depending on the meal, there may be many different food items (Figure 1). How did
all this food get from the farms to your plate?
 Figure 1. Room service is just one of the ways in which a hotel may provide food for its
guests.
Credit: ariwasabi iStock

It is likely that the different foodstuffs will have been transported from the farm to a
food factory. They will have been processed in different ways, sometimes just
washing and packaging, but sometimes also separating the different materials they
contain. These ingredients will then have been delivered to the kitchen, where the
chefs and cooks will have made them into delicious meals.

This is similar in some ways to how nutrients are moved from place to place in a
plant. In this subtopic, you will learn about translocation, and how it transports
sucrose and amino acids around the plant.

Translocation
Translocation involves the movement of sucrose and amino acids through phloem tissue
(Figure 1).
 Figure 1. The
structure of phloem tissue.

Study skills

You do not need to know about the structure of phloem tissue, but you do need to know
about the movement of sucrose and amino acids in it.

The movement of substances in phloem is different from the movement of water and
ions in xylem:

● In xylem, the direction of movement is always from the roots to the leaves.
● In phloem, the direction of movement depends on the circumstances.

Source and sink

When you consider the direction of translocation of a substance, you need to identify
its source and its sink.

A source is a region of production in a plant. For example, glucose is made by

photosynthesis in the leaves. It is then converted into sucrose for transport around the plant.
In this example, the leaves are the source of sucrose.
In a plant, a sink can be:
 ● a region of storage
● a region of use in respiration or growth.
A region where carbohydrates are stored as

starch would be a sink for sucrose.

In

aerobic respiration, energy is released when glucose reacts with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water (see subtopic 12.2). The place in the plant where this happens would be a
sink for sucrose. Amino acids are used to make proteins for growth, so a place where
proteins are made in the plant would be a sink for amino acids.

Which direction?
Translocation involves the movement of substances in this direction:

source → sink

The same part of a plant may act as a source at one time in the life of the plant, but
may act as a sink at a different time in its life. For example, Figure 2 shows a potato
plant, freshly removed from the ground. You can see its tubers (the parts you eat) in
the roots of the plant.

Figure 2. A potato plant.

 Credit: Jun Zhang Getty Images

Glucose is produced in the leaves of a potato plant. Some of this is used immediately
for respiration and growth, so the leaf is both the source and the sink. However, excess
glucose is transported as sucrose to the underground tubers, where it is converted into
starch for storage. In this case, the leaves are the source and the tubers are the sink.

You can grow a new potato plant by putting a potato tuber in the ground. Its stored
starch is converted into glucose, and transported as sucrose through the phloem to the
leaves of the growing plant. In this example, the tuber is now the source and the leaves
are now the sink.

Transpiration
Water is transported in plants from the roots to the leaves through the

xylem vessels. Two things happen when it gets there (Figure 1):
1. Evaporation at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells (the cells found between the
upper epidermis and the lower epidermis of the leaf) to form water vapour.
2. The loss of water vapour from the leaf by diffusion through the stomata.

Figure 1.
Evaporation and diffusion of water in leaves.
These two processes together are called

transpiration. Leaves have many more stomata in their lower epidermis than they do in their
upper epidermis, and most transpiration happens there.
This video explains transpiration in detail.

Extended

Explaining transpiration
The cells in spongy mesophyll tissue are loosely arranged. This produces air spaces
in the leaf and a large area of cell surfaces. These features allow for the rapid
evaporation of water from the surface of mesophyll cells (labelled 1 in Figure 1).

The air spaces in the mesophyll tissue are connected to stomata, which lead to the
air outside the leaf. This produces a concentration gradient – the concentration of
water vapour inside the leaf is greater than its concentration outside. As a result,
water vapour diffuses out of the leaf (labelled 2 in Figure 1).

Transpiration pull
There are attractive forces between the molecules in a liquid. These forces cause

cohesion, a property in which the molecules tend to stick together. Water from a
dripping tap forms into water droplets because of cohesion (Figure 2).
 Figure 2. Water leaving a dripping tap.

Credit: serezniy Getty Images

As water molecules leave the plant by diffusion, other water molecules take their
place. This creates a

transpiration pull. Due to cohesion, it causes a continuous column of water

molecules to move up through the xylem tissue.

One of the possible consequences of transpiration is

wilting (Figure 3). This happens when the rate of transpiration is greater than the
rate at which water is absorbed through the root hair cells. The plant cells lose
water, reducing their turgor pressure so they become flaccid. Section 3.2.2 explains
in more detail how plant cells may become flaccid.
 Figure 3. A wilting plant.

ylem and phloem

Plants use two different tissues to transport substances:

● xylem
● phloem
Each tissue transports different solutions in the plant.
Xylem
Xylem tissue consists of hollow tubes (Figure 1). Its functions include:
● transporting water and dissolved mineral ions from the roots, through the stem
and to the leaves
● providing support for the plant, helping to keep it upright.

Figure 1. Part
of a xylem vessel.

Phloem
Phloem tissue consists of living cells (Figure 2). Its functions include:
● transporting sucrose
● transporting amino acids.
 Figure 2. The
structure of phloem tissue.

Study skills

You do not need to know about the structure of xylem and phloem tissue, but you do need
to know their positions in roots, stems and leaves.

Positions in parts of a plant

Xylem and phloem are located in vascular bundles in different positions, depending
on the part of the plant.

In roots
Figure 3 shows the position of xylem and phloem in a root of a non-woody,

dicotyledonous plant.
 Figure 3. A
cross-section through a root with simplified detail.

In stems
Figure 4 shows the position of xylem and phloem in a stem.

Figure 4. A
cross-section through a stem with simplified detail.

In leaves
Figure 5 shows the position of xylem and phloem in a leaf. You can find out more
about the structure of a leaf in section 6.2.1.
 Figure 5. A
cross-section through a leaf with simplified detail.
Heart
The heart is the main organ of the cardiovascular system. It has the size of a fist and
It is made up of pure muscular tissues. The main function of the heart is to pump all
the blood around our body. This blood is transported all around the body through the
blood vessels called arteries and veins. The process of transporting the blood is
called circulation.

Structure
The heart is founded in the center of the thorax tending to look at the right side. It is
divided into four main chambers, two ventricles and two atriums:
- The right atrium
- The left atrium
- The right ventricle
- The left ventricle

The oxygenated blood coming from the lungs arrives to the left Atrium to then pass
to the left Ventricle through the Mitral Valve. Finally, the blood in the left Ventricle
passes to the main vein of the body, the Aorta, through the Aortic valve, to pass all
around the body.

On the other side, it is all the opposite. The deoxygenated blood that comes from all
around the body arrives at the right atrium, then it passes to the right ventricle
through the Tricuspid Valve. Finally, the blood in the right ventricle travels to the
pulmonary artery through the pulmonary valve, to arrive to the lungs, take the
oxygen molecules and arrive to the left Atrium and the cycle starts again

Finally, the rest of the parts of the heart are:

- Inferior vena cava: It is the responsible to carry the deoxygenated blood
coming from the abdomen and lower extremities like feet to oxygenate it in the
process aforementioned.
- Superior vena cava: It is the responsible to carry the deoxygenated blood
coming from the upper part of the body to oxygenate it in the process
aforementioned.
 - Pulmonary veins: It is the responsibility to carry the oxygenated blood
coming from the lungs to the left atrium to make the process aforementioned.

Coronary arteries
The coronary arteries are those arteries that carry all the blood to the heart,
providing a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients necessary for it to stay
healthy and function normally. The coronary arteries are divided into two main
branches, the first one is the right coronary artery that supplies blood mainly to the
right side of the heart. The right side of the heart is smaller because it pumps blood
only to the lungs. The second one is The left coronary artery, which branches into
the left anterior descending artery and the circumflex artery, it supplies blood to the
left side of the heart. The left side of the heart is larger and more muscular because
it pumps blood to the rest of the body.

Since the coronary arteries carry blood to the heart muscle, any disorder or disease
of the coronary arteries can lead to serious complications by reducing the flow of
oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle. This can cause a heart attack or death.

Preventing CHD (coronary heart disease)

- Prohibited to smoke
- Create a healthy diet
- Do exercise regularly minimum 30 minutes most of the days
- Decrease the colesterol
- Decrease the artery pressure with diets or medications.
- If you have diabetes, keep this condition controlled to avoid heart attacks and
cardiovascular accidents

Treating CHD
Go to a doctor as he determines the severity of your illness and will recite the drugs
you should consume. But some recommendations for you to know would be:

- Never stop taking medicine without talking to your doctor first.

 - Treatment depends on your symptoms and how severe the disease is.
- They may refer you to a cardiac rehabilitation program to help improve the
condition of the heart.
- Medicines: Statin, anticoagulant, beta-blocker, antianginal and calcium
channel blocker
- Medical procedures: Coronary Stent and Coronary Angioplasty
- Surgery: Coronary bypass

The conclusion of this investigation is that the heart is the main organ of the
cardiovascular system. It’s function is to pump the blood all around the body. It is
divided into four main chambers, The right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle
and the left ventricle. The left atrium and the left ventricle have the function to carry
all the oxygenated blood around the body.The right atrium and the right ventricle
have the function to carry all the deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
The coronary arteries are the arteries that carry all the blood to the heart, providing
a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients necessary for it to stay healthy and
function normally. They are divided into two, the right coronary artery that supplies
blood mainly to the right side of the heart and the left coronary artery which provides
to the left part of the heart.
Finally, we can prevent CHD through adopting a healthier lifestyle or through
medication and surgeries.

Circulation
Many blood through their bodies using one or more hearts. A heart is a hollow, muscular
organ that pumps blood around the body. A heart can be a part of either an open or a closed
circulatory system.

What is an Open circulatory system?

Arthropods and most mollusks have open circulatory systems. In an open circulatory system,
blood is only partially contained within a system of blood vessels as it travels through the
body. One or more hearts or heart like organs pump blood through vessels that empty into a
system of sinuses, or spongy cavities. Their blood comes into direct contact with body
tissues. Blood then collects in another set of sinuses and eventually makes its way back to
the heart

What is a Closed circulatory system?

Many larger, more active invertebrates, including annelids and some mollusks, and all
vertebrates have a closed circulatory system. The blood circulates entirely within blood
vessels that extend throughout the body. A heart or heartlike body tissues by diffusing
across thin walls of capillaries, the smallest blood vessels. Blood that is completely
contained within blood vessels can be pumped under higher pressure and thus can be
circulated more efficiently, that can blood in an open system.

What is a Single Loop Circulation?

Most vertebrates with gills have a single-loop circulatory system with a single pump that
forces blood around the body in one direction. For example, in fishes, the heart consists of
two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle. The atrium receives the blood from the body. The
ventricle then pumps blood out of the heart and to the gills. Oxygen-rich blood then travels
from the gills to the rest of the body and returns,oxygen-poor, to the atrium.

What is a Double Loop circulation?

As terrestrial vertebrates evolved into larger and more active forms, their capillary networks
became larger. Using a single pump to force blood through the entire system would have
been increasingly difficult. This issue was avoided as the lineage of vertebrates that led to
reptiles, birds, and mammals evolved. Most vertebrates that use lungs for respiration have a
double loop, two pump circulatory system. The first loop, powered by one side of the heart,
forces oxygen poor blood from the heart to the lungs. After the blood picks up oxygen (and
drops off carbon dioxide) in the lungs, it returns to the heart. Then, the other side of the heart
pumps this oxygen-rich blood through the second circulatory loop to the rest of the body.
Oxygen-poor blood from the body returns to the heart, and the cycle begins again.

Comparison tables

Closed Similarities Open

This type of circulatory Both systems pumps blood This type of circulatory
systems are found in living from the heart systems are found in living
this with a big circulatory things with a small
system.
The blood is always flowing
around the body through the
blood vessels.
The blood flows efficiently
Blood flow is rapid
Blood is in direct contact
with the surrounding tissues.
Closed spaces involve
arteries and veins.
Single loop circulation
The circulation of the blood
is in one direction
Most of the Vertebrates with
gills has this circulation
system
The capillary networks are
smaller than the the
vertebrates with the double
loop circulation
There is always a receiver
that takes the blood and a
pump that pumps the blood
around the circulatory
The blood always come
back to the heart
The heart or the heartlike
are the sources of the blood.
They pump it.
Similarities
Both systems have well
defined networks where the
blood pass through
All the vertebrates uses one
of the two circulatory
systems
Both circulatory systems
carry out blood
circulatory system.
The blood comes from the
heart and when it is passing
through the blood vessels, it
gets into the tissues
(Sinuses) creating little
blood lakes.
The blood flows doesn’t flow
too efficiently
Blood flow is slow
Blood is not in direct contact
with the tissues.
The open spaces are called
sinuses and lacunae.
Double Loop Circulation
The circulation of the blood
could be in multiple
directions
Most of the terrestrial
vertebrates with lungs use
this circulation system.
The capillary networks are
bigger than the the
vertebrates with the single
loop circulation
This circulatory system has
two loops. The first one
takes the oxygen poor blood
to take more oxygen and
system. release carbon dioxide to
come back to the lungs. The
second loop takes the
oxygen rich blood and
transports it all around the
body.

What is the structure of the heart?

- Artery
- Transport the blood all around the body
- Aorta
- Pulmonary
- Veins
- Transport the unoxygenated blood to the heart
- Inferior vena cava
- Superior vena cava
- Pulmonary veins
- Ventricles
- Right Ventricle
- Left Ventricle
- Atriums
- Right Atrium
- Left Atrium