UNIT 3

Fourier Series

3.1: ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS

Definition: Functions y1 ( x), y2 ( x),... defined on some interval are called orthogonal on a x  b
b

with respect to the weight function p(x) > 0 if  p ( x) y

a
m ( x) yn ( x)dx  0 for m  n.

 p( x) yn ( x)dx is called the square of the norm of yn (x) and written as yn

2 2
. If the norm is
a
unity, we say that the set of functions is an orthonormal set. If the weight function is unity, we
simply say that the set is orthogonal on a x  b.
Examples of sequences of orthogonal functions are: The set of functions 1, cos (nx) , n = 1, 2, 3, … or
1, sin(nx) , n = 1, 2, 3, … or 1, cos(nx), sin(nx), n = 1, 2, 3, , on the interval a  x  a  2 with
weight functions p(x) = 1 for any real constant a.
The chief advantage of the knowledge of these orthogonal sets of functions is that they yield series
expansions of a given function in a simple fashion. Let y1 , y2 , be an orthogonal set with respect
to the weight function p(x) on an interval a  x  b . Let f(x) be a given function that can be

represented in terms of yn (x) by a convergent series,


f ( x)   am ym ( x)  a0 y0 ( x)  a1 y1 ( x)  a2 y2 ( x)  
m0
This is called an orthogonal expansion or the generalized Fourier series. The orthogonality of the

functions helps us to find the unknown coefficients a0 , a1 , a2  in a simple fashion. These are
called Fourier coefficients of f(x) with respect to y 0 , y1 , y 2 , . If we multiply both side of the above
expansion by p(x)yn(x) for a fixed n, and then integrate over a  x  b, we obtain, assuming term by
term integration is permissible,
  
b b

a p ( x ) f ( x ) y n ( x ) dx  a  m0 a m y m ( x) y n ( x)dx

p ( x )

 b b
  a m  p( x) y m ( x) y n ( x)  a n  p( x) y n2 ( x)dx  a n y n (x) , all other
2

m0 a a

integrals being zero in the right hand side, because of the orthogonality of the set.

1
 b

 p ( x) f ( x) y n ( x)dx
Thus a n  a
2
.
y n ( x)

Definition: A function f is said to be a periodic function with period p if p is the least positive number
such that f(x +p) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f. It follows that f(x+np) = f(x) for all x in the
domain of f and all integers n.

Example : f(x) = sinx and g(x) = cos x are the familiar periodic functions with period p = 2.
The constant function h(x) = c is a periodic function, since h(x +p) =c = h(x) for all p (0, ).
Proposition: If f and g are periodic functions with period p, then H(x) = af(x) + bg(x), for some
constants a & b, is a periodic function with period p.
Proof: H(x+p) = a f(x+p) +bg(x +b) = af(x) + bg(x) = H(x) since f(x+p) = f(x) &g(x+p) = g(x)
Therefore, H(x) is a periodic function with period p.
Definition : A functional series of the form
a0
 a1 cos x  b1 sin x  a2 cos 2 x  b2 sin 2 x    an cos nx  bn sin nx  ...
2

a0
=   a n cos nx  bn sin nx  is called a trigonometric series; where a0 , an , bn (n = 1, 2, 3, 
2 n 1
are real constants,) are called the coefficients of the trigonometric series.

a
If the series converges, say to a function f(x), i.e, 0   (a n cos nx  bn sin nx)  f ( x)
2 n 1
Then f is a period function with period p = 2 , by the above proposition.
a0 
Thus f(x+2) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f, where f ( x)    an cos nx  bn sin nx  .
2 n1
3.2 Fourier Series
3.2.1 Fourier Series of function with period
Definition : The Fourier series for the periodic function f(x) in an interval α < x < α + 2 is given by.
a0 
f ( x)    an cos nx  bn sin nx  And the coefficients
2 n1
a0 , a n and bn , n = 1, 2, 3,  are called the Fourier coefficients.
To evaluate the Fourier Coefficients, the following integrals, involving sine and cosine functions are
useful.
  2   2

i) 

cos nxdx  

sin nx  0 , n = 1, 2, 3, 

2
   2   2
1
ii) 

cos mx cos nxdx 
2 

[cos(m  n) x  cos(m  n) x]dx

1 1 1    2
  sin(m  n) x  sin(m  n) x  = 0, m  n.
2 m n mn 


  2

iii)

 cos mx sin nxdx  0

  2   2

 cos (nx)dx   sin 2 (nx)dx  , n  0

2
iv)
 
  2   2
1  cos(2nx) 1 1 
 cos (nx)dx  2
 dx   x  sin 2 x 
  2


1
a  2  a  
  2 2 2n  2
In addition to these properties of integrals involving sine and cosine functions, we often need the
following trigonometric functions for particular arguments.
 
i) sin(2n  1)  cos n  (1) n and (ii) sin n  cos(2n  1)  0, n = 1, 2, 
2 2
Theorem : (Euler’s Formulae): The Fourier coefficients in
a0 
f ( x)    an cos nx  bn sin nx  are given by
2 n1
  2   2   2
1 1 1
a0 
 

f ( x)dx, an 
 

f ( x) cos nxdx and bn 
 

f ( x)sin nxdx

Corollary : 1. If  = 0, the interval becomes 0 < x < 2 , and Euler’s formulae are given by:
2 2
1 2


a0  1
 f ( x) sin nxdx .
1
f ( x)dx , an   f ( x) cos nxdx , bn 
 0  0
 0

2. If  = - , then the interval becomes -< x < , and the Euler’s Formulae and given by:
  
1 1
 f ( x) cos nxdx ,  f ( x) sin nxdx .
1 a0  bn 
a0 
  f ( x)dx ,

 
 

  x   2  cos nx
2

Examples If f ( x)    in the range (0, 2), show that f ( x)   .

 2  12 n 1 n 2
a0 
Solution: The Fourier serves for f in (0, 2) is f ( x)    an cos nx  bn sin nx  , where
2 n1
2
2
1   x 
2 2 2 1  2 1 3 2
a0 
1
 f ( x)dx     dx 
1
0       x  x 2
 x 
3 
2 2
( 2 x x ) dx
 0
  2  4 4  0
6

3
 2 2 2 2
1 1   x  1
an   f ( x) cos nxdx     cos nxdx   (  x)
2
cos nxdx )
 0
 0 2  4 0
2
1  (  x) 2   cos(nx)  ( sin(nx)  1  2 2  1
  sin(nx)  2(  x) 2  =    2
4  n  n 2
 n3  0
4  n 2 n 2  n
2 2 2
1 1   x 
bn 
 0
f ( x) sin(nx)dx 
 0  2 
  sin(nx)dx

2
1  2   cos(nx)    sin(nx)  2 

4 (  x)    2(  x)   3 cos(nx)  0
    n
2 2
 n n 0

  x   2  cos(nx)
2

Therefore, f ( x)     
 2  12 n1 n 2
DIRICHLET’S CONDITIONS:
Suppose that:
a) f(x) is defined and single – valued except possibly at a finite number of points in(α, α + 2).
b) f(x) is periodic outside (α, α + 2) with period 2.
c) f(x) and f (x) are sectionally continuous in (α, α + 2).

a0
Then the series   (an cos(nx)  bn sin(nx) with coefficients
2 n 1
a  2 a  2 a  2
1 1 1
a0 
 
a
f ( x)dx, an 
 
a
f ( x) cos(nx)dx & bn 
  f ( x) sin(nx)dx converges to
a

i) f(x) if x is a point of continuity

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x c  x c 
ii) if c is a point of discontinuity .
2
Moreover, when f(x) has finite number of discontinuities in any one period, for instance if in an
  ( x) , for a  x  c
interval (α, α + 2), f(x) is defined by f ( x)   , i.e., c is a point of
 ( x), for c  x  a  2
discontinuity, then:
a  2
1  
c

  ( x) dx   ( x)dx 
  
a0 
a c 
a  2
1  1
a  2

c c
a0     ( x) cos(nx)dx    ( x) cos(nx)dx  and bn 
  a  ( x) sin(nx)dx 
  ( x) sin(nx)dx 
 a c  c

Example: Find the Fourier series expansion for

4
   , if    x  0

1 1 1 1 1 2
f ( x)   and deduce that         .
 x, if 0  x   n 0 ( 2n  1)
2
12 32 5 2 7 2 8
a0 
Solution: Let f ( x)     an cos(nx)  bn sin(nx)dx 
2 n1
  
1 
0 0
1 1 2 1 1
Then a0    dx  0    0
xdx    dx  xdx    x      
  2 0 2 2
 
1   
0
an      cos(nx)dx   x cos(nx)dx    cos(nx)dx   x cos(nx)dx 
1 sin(nx)

  0  0  0 n 0
 
1  x sin(nx) sin(nx)  cos(nx)
 

 2  1  1
1
 dx 
n

  n 0 0
n  n 0 n
2

 
1 
0 0
1
  
and bn      sin(nx)dx   x sin(nx)dx    sin(nx)dx 
0
x sin(nx)dx 
0  

cos(nx)
0
1   x cos(nx)
 
cos(nx)  1  (1)
n
1    (1) n Sin (nx) 
    dx      
n    n 0 0
n  n   n n 2 0 

1  (1) n1 (1) n1 1  2(1) n1

  0
n n n
1
  (1) n  1 

1  2(1) n 1
Hence, f ( x)  2    cos(nx)  sin(nx) 
2 n 1  n 2
n 
   2 2 2   1 1 3 
   Cosx  2 Cos(3x)  2 Cos(5x)     3Sinx  Sin(2 x)  Sin(3x)  Sin(4 x)  Sin(5 x) 
4  3 5   2 4 5 
  2  Cosx Cos(3x) Cos(5 x)   1 
   2       3 sin x  Sin(2 x)  Sin(3x)   .
4  1 3 2
5 2
  2 
By Dirichlet’s Condition, we have that
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
 2  1 
  2  2  2    0  0  
x 0  x 0  1 1

2 4  1 3 5 
  0  2  1 1 1 
    2  2  2  
2 4  1 3 5 
1 1 1 1   2
  2  1 1 1         

2
   2  2  2         2  2  2  .i.e;  .
n 0 (2n  1)
2
4  1 3 5   4  2  8 1 3 5 8

5
3.2.2 Fourier Series of Functions with arbitrary period P = 2L
In many engineering problems, the period of the function required to be expanded is not 2 but some
other interval say 2L. In order to apply the foregoing discussion to functions of period 2L, this interval
must be converted to the length 2 . This involves only a proportional change in the scale.

Consider the periodic function f(x) defined on (α, α + 2L). To change the problem to period 2 put
 L
t  x which implies that x  t . This gives when x  (a, a  2L) . Thus the function f(x) of period
L 
L      L 
2L in (α, α + 2L) is transformed to function f  t  of period 2 in  ,  2  . Hence f   t 
   L L   
can be expressed in Fourier series as:

L  a
g (t )  f  t   0   an cos(nt )  bn sin(nt )  , where
   2 n1
  2
  2
L 
  2
L  1 L 

1 1
a0   f  t  dt , an   f  t  cos(nt )dt , and bn  f  t  sin(nt )dt , where
        
a L
 and x  t .
L 
 
Marking the inverse substitution t  x and noting that dt  dx in the above formula, the Fourier
L L
series Expansion of f(x) in the interval (α, α +2L) is given by
a0        
f ( x)     a n cos n x   bn sin n x   where
2 n1   L   L 
 2L
 2 L  2 L
   1   
a0 
1
L  f ( x)dx, an 
1
L  f ( x) cos  n x  dx and bn 
 L  L 

f ( x)sin  n x  dx
 L 
 

Corollary :
i. Putting α = 0 in these formulae, we get the corresponding Fourier Coefficients for the
interval (0, 2L)
  
2L 2L
1 1
a0 
L 
0
f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos  n x  dx
L0  L 

  
2L
1
bn 
L  f ( x) sin n L x  dx
0

6
 ii. Putting a = - L in the above formulae, we get the results:
  
L
   1
L L


1 1
a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos n x  dx and bn  f ( x)sin  n x  dx are the Fourier coefficients
L L L L  L  L L  L 
in the interval (-L, L).

Example : Find the Fourier series of the periodic function f(x) of period 2, where
 1, for  1  x  0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 
f ( x)   and show that 1  2  2  2    and 1      
 2 x, for 0  x  1 3 5 7 8 3 5 7 4
a0 
Solution: 2L = 2  L = 1, and f ( x)    an cos nx  bn sin nx 
2 n1
1 1
L 1 0 1
1 1
where a0   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   dx   2 xdx  x  x 2  1  1  0
L L 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1
1
an   f ( x) cos(nx)dx    cos(nx)dx   2 x cos(nx)dx
1 1 1 0

1 1
sin(nx)
 
2
x sin(nx) 10  22 2 cos(nx)
n 0 n n
0

2 2

2
(1) n
1   
(1  (1) n )  2 2 1  (1) n 1 
n 
2 2
n 
2 2
n 
1 0 1
1
bn   f ( x) sin(nx)dx    sin(nx)dx  2 sin(nx)dx
1 1 1 0

cos(nx)
0
2  x cos(nx) 1  1 cos(nx)dx
 
n 1 n  0 0 

2  sin(n x)  1  (1)  2(1) 1  3(1)n 1  3(1) n 1

 
2 n n
1
1   1   1    
n n
 
n n  n 0 n  n n

a0 
Thus f ( x)    an cos(nx)  bn sin(nx) 
2 n1

 0   

  2 1  (1) n1
cos( nx ) 

1  3(1) n1 
sin(nx) 
n 1  n2 2
n 
4 4 2 4 4
 cos x  sin x  sin 2x  cos 3x  sin 3x
2   32  2 3
2 4 4
 sin 4x  2 2 cos(5x)  sin(5x)  
4 5  5

7
 4  cos x cos 3x cos 5x  2 sin 2x 2 sin 4x
 2 
      2 sin x   sin 3x 

 
  1 2
3 2
5 2
  2 3 4 
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
When x = 0, the series converges to x0 x0 1

2 2
1 4 1 1 1  2
Therefore,   2  2  2  2    (0  0  0  )
2  1 3 5  
4 1 1 1  1 1 1 
1 2 .
=    
 2  12 3 2 5 2
    
 12 3 2 5 2
   
n  0 ( 2n  1)
2

8
1 1
When x  , f    1 , giving 1   24 (0  0  0  )  2  2  0  2  0  2  
2 2   2 3 3 3 
 1 1  1  1   

(1) n


2 2 2 2
 3 5 7
 4 1 1 1
 2       1     
  3 5 7  3 5 7
  2n  1
n 0 4
3.2.3 Fourier Series of Odd and Even Functions
Definition: A function f(x) is said to be odd iff f (-x) = -f(x)
A function f(x) is said to be even iff(-x) = f(x)
Example : The functions sin(nx) and tan (nx) are odd functions. Graph of odd function is symmetric
about the origin.
Example : The functions cos(nx), x2, sec(nx) are even functions. Graphs of even functions are
symmetric about y-axis.
Proposition : If f(x) is a periodic function with period p = 2L, then
 L
L f ( x)dx   0
2 f ( x)dx, if f is even
L

 0,
 if f is odd
Recall that a periodic function f(x) defined in (- L, L) can be represented by the Fourier series:
a 
 nx nx 
f ( x)  0    an cos  bn sin ,
2 n1  L L 
   
where a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos  n x dx&
L L L
1 1 1
L L L L  L 
bn  
L L
f ( x) sin  n x  dx
 L 
L L
1 2
When f(x) is an even function a 0  
L L
f ( x)dx   f ( x)d x ,
L0
1 L    2 L      
an 
L  L
f ( x) cos n x  dx   f ( x) cos n x  dx, sin ce f ( x) cos n x 
 L  L 0
 L   L 
     
L
1
is even, and bn  
L L
f ( x) sin n
 L
x dx  0, sin ce f ( x) sin n
  L
x  is odd.


8
Therefore, the Fourier series expansion of a periodic even function f(x) contains only the cosine terms

whose coefficients are a0   f ( x) dx and a n   f ( x) cos n x dx
L L
2 2
L L0  L 
 2       
L L
1
 f ( x)   f ( x) dx   

n 1  L
 f ( x) cos n x dx 
 L   cos

n x .

L 0 0  L

When f(x) is odd function: a0  1  f ( x)dx  0, an  1  f ( x) cos n  x  dx  0 , since f ( x) cos n  x  is odd,

L L

L L L L  L   L 
        
L
and bn  1 2 L
f ( x) sin n x  dx  
L
f ( x) sin n x  dx , since f ( x) sin n x  is even.
L  L  L 0
 L   L 
Thus, if a period function f(x) is odd, its Fourier series expansion contains only the sine terms, whose
coefficients are bn  2  f ( x)sin  n  x  dx , so that
L

L0  L 
 
      
L
2
f ( x)     f ( x) sin n x dx  sin n x  .
n 1  L 0  L    L 
 
Coefficients

Example: Find a series to represent f(x) = x2 in the interval (, ) . Deduce the values of i)

(1) n 1 1  2 
1 1 1 1 2

n 1 n 2
1 2
1
3
1
 2  2  2  =
12
and ii) 
n 1 n
2
 2  2  2  
1 2 3 6

Solution: Let f(x) = x2 in the interval (, ) be represented by Fourier series as

a0   n n  f ( x)  ( x) 2  x 2  f ( x), i.e, f ( x) is even in (, ) .
f ( x)     an cos x  bn sin x  . Here
2 n1  
l l
2 2 2 2l 2
Therefore, a0   f ( x)dx   x dx 
l 0 l0 3
2  n x  2  n 
x  dx  2  x 2 sin n x   n  


 f ( x) cos  dx   x cos 


an  2
  2 x sin  x dx 
0  0   n     0 0    

4   n   4 

 n 
 

 x dx   2 2 (1) n   sin n x    4 2(12 ) and bn  0
2 n
  x cos  x   cos
n  
2 2
   0 0     n   n    0  n

  2 3 

(1) n  n   2 4 2  cos x cos
2 2
4 x cos x
Therefore, = f ( x)  x 2 
3

2
 n2
cos 

x 

  2       ,
 
n 1 3   1 2
2 2
32

 
 2
4  1 2
1 1 
which is the required Fourier series. i) Putting x = 0, we get f (0)  0   2  2  2  2  
3  1 2 3 

(1) n 1  2
i.e, 
n 1 n2

12

9
 lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x    2
2 2
4 2 1 1 1 1 
ii) Putting x   , we get x
  2
  2 
 2 2 2 2 
2 2 3   1 2 3 4 

1 2
1 4 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1  2  
 1   2  2  2  2  2    2  2  2  2     
2

 n 2

6
 3  1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4  3  4 
n 1

2

3

HALF – RANGE EXPANSION

In many problems of physics and engineering there is a practical need to apply a Fourier Series to a
non – periodic function F(x) on the interval 0 < x < T. Because of physical or mathematical
considerations, it may be possible to extend F(x) over the interval –T < x < T, making it periodic of
period P = 2T. The following figures illustrate the odd and even extensions of F(x) which have
Fourier Sine and Fourier Cosine series, respectively.
a) Original function

b) Odd Extension c) Even Extension

Examples : Express f(x) = x as a half – range

a) Sine series in 0 < x < 2.b)Cosine series in 0 < x < 2.
Solutions: The graph of f(x) = x in 0 < x <2 is the line OA. Let us extend the function f(x) in the
interval -2 < x < 0 (shown by the line BO) so that the new function is symmetric about the origin and ,
therefore, represents an odd function in (-2, 2)
y
A
-2
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2
X
-1

B -2

Hence the Fourier series for f(x) over the full period (-2, 2) will contain only sine series terms given by
 nx   nx 
2 2

 nx  Where b  2
f ( x)   bn sin  n  f ( x) sin  dx   x sin  dx
n 1  2  2 0  2  0  2 

10
 2
    4(1) n 4(1) n 1
2 x cos n x 
 0
2

  2   4 Sin n 
n n 2 2
 x n n
 2 0
0

  3
4 
(1) n1  nx  4     sin x sin x
 f ( x)  
 n1 n
sin 
 2
  sin x  
   2 
 2 
 
2 3 
 
b) The graph of f(x) = x in (0, 2) is the line OA. Let us extend the function f(x) in the interval (-2, 0)
(shown by the B O ) so that the new function is symmetric about the
y – axis and, therefore, represents an even function in (-2, 2).
Y

B A

X
-2 0 2

Hence the Fourier series for f(x) = x over the full period (-2, 2) will contain only cosine terms given by
a 
 nx 
f ( x)  0   an cos  a0  2  f ( x)dx   xdx  2 and an  2  f ( x) cos nx dx
2 2 2

2 n1  2  20 0 20  2 

  
2
 nx   4 cos nx   4 (1) 2  1  4 (1)  1 
2
 nx  2 x sin  nx 
2 2 n
2
  x cos
n  2  0 n 0  2 
dx     sin   dx  
0  2  n 2 2  2 0 n 
2 2
n 2 2
2 4 
(1) n  1   
Therefore, the desired result is: f ( x)   2
2 

n 1 n 2
cos n x 
 2 
  3 5 
4 2  2 3 2 5   cos cos  cos x 
 1  2  2 Cos x  2 Cos x  2 Cos     1  8  2 2  2  
 1 2 3 2 5 2   2  12 32 52 
 
 

3.3 FOURIER INTEGRALS:

Consider a function f(x) which satisfies the Dirichlets conditions
a 
 nx nx 
in every interval (-L, L) so that, we have f ( x)  0    a n cos  bn sin  , where
2 n1  L L 
nt nt
L L L
1 1 1
a0   f (t )dt , a n   f(t)cos dt , and bn   f (t ) sin dt . Substituting the values of
L L L -L L L L L
a0 a n and b n in the Fourier series expansion, we get the form
1   nt nx nt nx 
L L L
1
f ( x)  
2L L
f (t ) dt   
 
L n 1   L
f (t ) cos
L
dt cos 
L L  f (t ) sin
L
dt sin 
L 
11
 1  L n
L
1
  f (t )dt    f (t ) cos (t  x) dt ---------------------------------------------------- (*)
2L L L n1  L L


If 

f (t ) dx converges, i.e.; f(x) is absolutely integrable in (- ,), then the 1st – term on the right

L
1 1 
2 L L 2 L 
side of (*) approaches 0 as L, since f (t ) dt  f (t ) dt .

1   n (t  x)
The 2nd – term on the right side of (*) tends to lim
L
 
L n1 
f (t ) cos
L
dt


1 

 lim
 0 
  f (t ) cos n (t  x)dt on writing
n 1 L
  .Thus as L  , (*) becomes

 
1
f ( x) 
   f (t ) cos (t  x)dtd
0 
called the Fourier Integral of f(x).

 
1
Remark: 1. If function f is continuous at x, then f ( x) 
   f (t ) cos  (t  x)dtd .
0 
 
f ( x  0)  f ( x  0) 1
If f is not continuous at x, then    f (t ) cos (t  x) dtd
2  0 
where f ( x  0)  lim f (t ) and f(x - 0)  lim f (t ) .
t x t x -

2. Fourier sine and cosine integrals. Expanding cos(t-x) = cos (t - x)
= cost cosx + sin t sin t, the Fourier integral of f(x) may be written as
   
1 1
f ( x) 
  cos x  f (t ) cos t dt d 
0 
  sin x  f (t ) sin t dt d .
0 

If f(x) is an odd function, f(t) cos (t) is also an odd function while f(t) sin (t) is even. Then the 1st
 
2
term on the right side of the above equation vanishes, and f ( x) 
  sinx  f(t) sin(t)dt d , which is
0 0

known as the Fourier Sine integral.

Similarly, if f(x) is even, the above integral takes the form
 
2
f ( x) 
  cos(x) f (t ) cos(t )dt d , known as the Fourier Cosine integral.
0 0

1, for 0  x  
Example: Express f ( x)   as a Fourier sine integral and hence
 0, for x  

12
 
1  cos( )
evaluate  sin( x )d .
0

 
2
Solution: The Fourier sine integral of f(x) is f ( x) 
  sin(x) d  f(t)sin(t)dt
0 0
 
2

 sin (x) d  sin(t)dt  2 sin(x)d  cos(t ) 
 2  1  cos( )
0


  sin( x )d
0 0  0    0
 

2 1  cos( )  
Therefore, f ( x)   sin (x) d   1  cos(x) sin(x) d   f ( x)   2 , for 0  x  
   2  0, for x  
0 0

At x =, which is a point of discontinuity of f(x), then the value of the above integral is
 f ( x)  lim f ( x) 
  lim

  1  1  cos( ) 
 sin x  d  , at x  
 
x  x 
    0    , i.e, 
2 2  2 2 4 0
4
 

13