Nervous system

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 Introduction
 The nervous system is one of the smallest and the
most complex of the 11 body systems.
 The nervous system is an intricate, highly
organized network of billions of neurons and
more neuroglia.
 It accounts 2kg ,about 3% of total body weight
 The structures that make up the nervous system
include the brain, cranial nerves and their branches,
the spinal cord, spinal nerves and their branches,
ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors.
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 Cont…
 Brain - which contains about 100 billion
neurons.
12 (right and left) of cranial nerves, numbered CNI
up to XII, emerge from the base of the brain.
 Spinal cord contains about 100 million
neurons.
 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal
cord, each serving a specific region on the right or
left side of the body.
 Nervous cells are neurons
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 Cont…
Ganglia singular is( ganglion) are small masses of
nervous tissue , that are located outside the brain
and spinal cord.
 the walls of organs of the gastrointestinal tract,
extensive networks of neuron, enteric plexus,help
regulate the digestive system.
 sensory receptor is neurons (specialized cells) that
monitor changes in the internal or external
environment,
such as photoreceptors in the retina of the eye

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 Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory input – gathering information ,this sensory information is
carried into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal
nerves.
 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body detect
internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood acidity,
 Changes are called stimuli

Integration To process and interpret sensory input and decide if

action is needed

Motor output
 A response to integrated stimuli
 The information is carried out side the brain and spinal cord
 The response activates muscles or glands
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 Nervous Tissue
 Consist of 2 types of cells
1. Neurons
 Functional, signal conducting cells
2. Neuroglia
 It doesn’t conduct impulse
 Supporting cells & nutrition
 Neurons = nerve cells , the functional and
structural unit of the nervous system
 Specialized to conduct information from one part of the
body to another.
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 Major regions of neurons
 Cell body (soma) – contain nucleus and other organells,
metabolic center of the cell
One or more slender processes – fibers that extend from the cell
body (dendrites and axons)
 Dendrites An input region - to wards the cell body
 Axon conducting component , away from the cell body
A secretory (output) region (axon terminal)

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 Cont…
 Cell body
 Contains nucleus ,large
nucleolus, plus most normal
organelles
 Biosynthetic center of the
neuron
 Contains many bundles of
protein filaments
(neurofibrils) which help
maintain the shape, structure,
and integrity of the cell.
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 Structural classification of neurons
Structurally, neurons are classified according to
the number of processes extending from the cell
body

Multipolar- neurons
usually have several
dendrites and one
axon
 Most neurons in the
brain and spinal cord

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 Cont…
Bipolar -neurons have
one main dendrite
and one axon
 They are found in the
retina of the eye, in
the inner ear, and in
the olfactory (to
smell) area of the
brain.

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 Cont…
Pseudounipolar-
neurons have dendrites
and one axon that are
 fused together to form a
continuous process that
emerges from the cell
body
 Found in dorsal root
ganglia

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 Neuron Anatomy
Axolemma -axon plasma membrane.
Surrounded by a myelin sheath,
a wrapping of lipid
Protects the axon and electrically
isolates it
Increases the rate of Action potential
transmission
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from
the next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft gap b/n adjacent
neurons
Synapse junction between nerves
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 Functional Classification of Neurons

 Sensory = afferent neurons

Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
Cutaneous sense organs
Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
Most sensory neurons are Unipolar in structure.

 Motor = efferent neurons

Carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles or
glands
Most motor neurons are multi-polar in structure.

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Interneurons (association neurons)
Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
b/n the connection of sensory and motor neurons
Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.

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 Neuroglia
 Neuroglia are the supporting cells of the central nervous
system .
 These cells are non -excitable and undergo mitotic division
 About half of the total volume of human brain is composed
of neuroglial cells.
 The neuroglial cells are of two types - macroglial and
microglial cells.
 The macroglial cells include Astrocytes ,Oligodendrocytes
and Ependymal cells .
 The macroglial cells are derived from the embryonic
neuroectoderm and the microglial cells are mesodermal in
origin.
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 6 types of supporting cells (neuroglia)
 4 &2are found in the CNS and PNS
1. Astrocytes
 Star-shaped, abundant, and
versatile
 Guide the migration of developing
neurons
 Function in nutrient transfer
 Support neurons; protect neurons
from harmful substances; help
maintain proper chemical
environment for generation of
nerve impulses
•
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 Neuroglial cells of CNS
2. Microglia
Protect CNS cells from disease by
engulfing invading microbes; migrate to areas
of injured nerve tissue where they clear away
debris of dead cells.
Specialized immune cells that act as the
macrophages of the CNS
 the main phagocytic cell and antigen-
presenting cells in the CNS.
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 Neuroglial cells of CNS
3. Ependymal Cells
 Some are ciliated which facilitates the
movement of cerebrospinal fluid and circulation
4. Oligodendrocytes
 Produce the myelin sheath which provides
the electrical insulation for certain neurons in
the CNS

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 Neuroglia in the PNS
1.Satellite cells
 Surround clusters of neuronal cell bodies in
the PNS
 Support neurons and regulate exchange of
material b/n neural cell bodies and intertistial
fluid
2.Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheaths around the axon of
larger nerve fibers in the PNS.
 Vital to neuronal regeneration
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 Organization of the Nervous System
 is divided into
1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)
the brain
spinal cord
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Includes all nervous tissue outside
the CNS
 Component of PNS
 the cranial nerves and their
branches
 the spinal nerves and their
branches, ganglia and sensory
receptors
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What covers and protects the CNS ?
 The entire delicate CNS is protected by:
a bony -cranial bone & vertebrae
The menings,
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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Meninges
are a connective tissue membranes
that cover and protect the brain and
spinal cord
They are three layers from outside to
inside respectively
 the Dura mater(outer layer)
 the Arachnoid mater(Middle layer)
 the Pia mater(Inner layer)
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 Cont…
1. The Dura mater
is in contact with bone
 is composed primarily of dense connective
tissue.
The cranial dura mater is a double-layered
structure.
The thicker outer periosteal layer adheres
tightly to the cranium, and meningeal layer .
It extends to S2(second sacral vertebra)

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The spinal dura mater is single layered and is
similar to the menigeal layer of the cranial
dura mater.
2. The arachnoid mater
 is the middle layer of the three meninges.
 The subarachnoid space is located between
the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
The subarachnoid space contains the CSF

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3. The pia mater
 is the deepest meninges attached to the surfaces
of the CNS
It is composed of modified loose fibrous
connective tissue.
It is highly vascular and the ligamentum
denticulatum is the lateral extensions of the pia
mater which attaches the spinal cord to the dura
mater.
 Both the pia mater and the arachnoid mater
specialize over the roofs of the ventricles to form
the choroid plexuses.
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 Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF)
 CSF is secreted by choroidal epithelial cells
(ependymal cells) of the choroid plexuses in the
lateral, 3rd, and 4th ventricles
 Fills the space between
the arachnoid and pia mater
 ventricles
 Central canal Spinal C.
 Functions:
Shock absorption
Support
Nourishment
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 Based on embryological dev’t the brain subdivided in to
three as:
 the forebrain (cerebrum and diencephalons)
 midbrain
hindbrain (cerebellum, pons, and medulla).
 The Cerebrum
 is the largest portion of the brain.
located in the region of the telencephalon
It accounts for about 80%
 is responsible for the higher mental functions including
memory and reason
 consists of the right hemispheres & left hemispheres
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The two hemisphere are connected internally by the
corpus callosum
 Each hemisphere contains a central cavity called the
lateral ventricle

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 The cerebrum consists of two layers.
 Cerebral cortex
The surface layer
 is composed of gray matter( nerve cell bodies.)
has numerous folds and grooves called convolutions.
The elevated folds of the convolutions are the cerebral
gyri (singular, gyrus)
 the grooves are the cerebral sulci (singular, sulcus)
 White matter
 Beneath the cerebral cortex
 constitutes the second layer.

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 Lobes of cerebrum
Each cerebral hemisphere is subdivided into
five lobes by deep sulci called fissures
The central sulcus (fissure of Rolando)
b/n the frontal lobe and the parietal
lobe.
 The lateral sulcus (fissure of Sylvius)
b/n the frontal and temporal lobes

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Frontal Lobe:
forms the anterior portion of each
hemisphere.
extends from the central sulcus to the frontal
pole
lies above the lateral sulcus and anterior to
the central sulcus
 concerned with initiating voluntary motor
impulses for the movement of skeletal
muscles and responses related to memory,
emotions, reasoning, judgment, verbal
communications, etc
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 Parietal lobe:
 extends from the central sulcus to
the occipital lobe
 lies superior to the temporal lobe,
 posterior to the central sulcus.
 functions: receives and integrates
sensory information

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Temporal lobe:
 lying below the lateral sulcus.
 located below the parietal lobe and the posterior
portion of the frontal lobe.
 is separated from both by the lateral sulcus.
 extends from the temporal pole to the occipital lobe,
 extends from the lateral sulcus to the collateral
sulcus.
 contains auditory centers that receive sensory fibers
from the cochlea of the ear

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Occipital lobe:
lies posterior to the parieto-occipital
sulcus and the preoccipital notch.
forms the posterior portion of the
cerebrum.
lies superior to the cerebellum.
contains the visual cortex
The principal function of the occipital
lobe is concerned with vision.
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 Functions of Cerebrum
Frontal
 voluntary motor functions
 planning, mood, smell and social judgment
Parietal
 receives and integrates sensory information
Occipital
 visual center of brain
Temporal
 areas for hearing, smell, learning, memory,
emotional behavior
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 Special Senses
 Organs of special senses project to specialized
regions of the brain
 Taste - lower end of parietal lobe
 Smell - medial temporal lobe and inferior frontal lobe
 Vision - occipital lobe
 Hearing - superior temporal lobe
 Equilibrium - cerebellum and lateral and central sulcus
 Language
Includes reading, writing, speaking and understanding
words.

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 Wernicke area
 permits recognition of spoken and written
language and creates plan of speech
 Diencephalon
 is the second subdivision of the forebrain and
divide in to:
1.Thalamus
2.hypothalamus
3. the epithalamus
 The 3rd ventricle forms a cavity on the median plane
within the diencephalon
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1.Thalamus
a paired, large, avoid mass of gray matter,
constituting nearly 80% of the
diencephalon.
Each portion is located immediately below
the respective lateral ventricle
 Its principal function is to act as a relay
center for all sensory impulses, except
smell.

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2.Hypothalamus
 a small portion of the diencephalon which forms the
floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle.
The hypothalamus performs numerous vital
functions
 hormone secretion (pituitary)
 autonomic NS control
 thermoregulation (thermostat)
 food & water intake (hunger & satiety)
 sleep & circadian rhythms
 memory (mammillary bodies)
 emotional behavior anger, aggression, fear, pleasure, sex
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3. Epithalamus
the dorsal portion of the diencephalon that
includes a thin roof over the third ventricle.
The pineal gland extends outward from the
posterior end of the epithalamus.
 The inside lining of the roof consists of a
vascular choroids plexus where CSF is
produced.

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 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
is supported by the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone
positioned on the inferior aspect of the
diencephalon and is attached to the
hypothalamus by a stalk-like structure called
the infundibulum.
 The pituitary gland is divided into
anterior portion (adenohypophysis )
 posterior portion (neurohypophysis)

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 The brain stem
 The brain stem contains nuclei for
autonomic functions of the body and their
connecting tracts.
 It is the portion of the brain that attaches to
the spinal cord it :
includes
 the midbrain
 pons
 medulla oblongata
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1. Midrain (Mesencephalon)
is a short section of the brain stem b/n the diencephalon
and the pons.

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 2. Pons
 b/n the midbrain and the medulla oblongata .
 it has two respiratory centers of the pons are called the
apneustic and the pneumotaxic areas.
3. Medulla oblongata
 function as autonomic centers for controlling vital visceral
functions include
 Cardiac center- adjusts rate & force of heart beat
 Vasomotor center -adjusts blood vessel diameter
 Respiratory centers- control rate & depth of breathing
 Reflex centers- for coughing, sneezing, gagging,
swallowing, vomiting, salivation, sweating, movements of
tongue & head
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 Cerebellum
is the second lager structure in the brain.
occupies the inferior and posterior aspect of the
cranial cavity.
 attached to the brain stem by three paired bundles of
nerve fibers called cerebellar peduncles

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 Function
Balance the body
 Coordinating skeletal muscle contractions by
recruiting precise motor units within muscles.
Impulses for voluntary muscular movement originate
in the cerebral cortex and are coordinated by the
cerebellum
 The cerebellum can be permanently damaged by trauma
or stroke or temporarily affected by drugs such as
alcohol.
 These alterations can produce ataxia is a disturbance in
balance

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 Spinal cord
extends through the vertebral canal and
surrounded by three meninges
provides a means of neural communication to
and from the brain through tracts of white
matter.
 These are:
Ascending tracts
Descending tracts
 serves as a center for spinal reflexes
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 Cont…
Extends from foramen
magnum to L2 vertebra
Consists of:
Cervical region
Thoracic region
Lumbar region
Sacral region
Coccygeal region

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Location
in adults, from the foramen magnum to the
lower border of the first lumbar vertebra or
(L2)
 in newborns, it extends to the third
lumbar(L3) vertebra.
is continuous with the medulla oblongata at
the spinomedullary junction.

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 Internal Morphology
 in transverse sections, the spinal cord consists of
central gray matter and peripheral white matter.
A. Gray matter
 is located centrally within the spinal cord
 unmylinated
 is butterfly- or H- shaped in a configuration that varies
according to spinal cord level.
 contains a central canal.
 is divided into three horns or cell columns on
each side
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1. Dorsal/ posterior horn
 receives and processes sensory input
2. Lateral horn
receives viscerosensory input.
 is found between the dorsal and ventral
horns.
3. Ventral/anterior horn
 contains predominately motor nuclei.
 is found at all levels.
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B . the white matter
Tracts of the spinal cord
 are divided into ascending and descending
pathways.
1. Ascending spinal Tracts
Represent functional pathways that convey
sensory information from soma or viscera to
higher levels of the neural axis.
2. Descending spinal Tracts
are concerned with somatic and visceral motor
activities.
It is mylinated ,with myelin sheath
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 PNS -subdivided into
I. Somatic nervous system
Consist of :
Sensory neurons- convey information
from somatic receptors and special
senses to CNS
Motor neurons –conduct impulses from
CNS to skeletal muscle only- voluntarly

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 Cont..
II. The Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS) Consist of:
 Sensory neurons- convey information from
autonomic sensory receptors, located primarily
in visceral organs to CNS
Motor neurons- conduct impulse from CNS
to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands-
involuntary

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  The motor part of the ANS consists of two branches
 sympathetic division
 parasympathetic division.
With few exceptions, effectors receive nerves from both divisions,
and usually they have opposing actions
Sympathetic Nervous System
“Fight or Flight”
Exercise, excitement, emergency,
embarrassment
and,ejaculation
Parasympathetic Nervous System
“Rest and Digest”
Digestion, defecation, and diuresis
and erection of clitoris and penis

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 The peripheral nervous system.
 is that portion of the nervous system
outside the CNS.
 The PNS functions to convey impulses to
and from the brain or spinal cord.
 The nerves of the PNS are classified as
 cranial nerves (I-XII) pairs and
 spinal nerve (31) pairs

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 Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
 The cranial nerves are designated by roman numerals
Their names indicate the structures innervated or the
principal functions of the nerves
I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor fibers to
chewing muscles
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VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance and
hearing
IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers
to the pharynx
X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for pharynx,
larynx, and viscera
XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper back
XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

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No Nerve Type Function
1 Olfactory Sensory Smell
2 Optic Sensory Vision
3 Oculomotor Motor To all muscles of the eye except two: (superior
oblique and lateral rectus)
4 Trochlear Motor To one eye muscle (superior oblique)
5 Trigeminal Mixed: mainly, sensory; small motor -Sensory to mouth, face and
Ophtalmic part anterior ½ of scalp
Maxillary - Motor to muscles of mastication.
Mandibular
6 Abducent Motor To one eye muscle (lateral rectus)
7 Facial Mixed: motor, sensory, and -Motor to muscles of the face
parasympathetic -Parasympathetic to certain glands in the bead.
-Sensory: taste to anterior 2/3rd of tongue.
8 Auditory Sensory (a)Hearing (cochlear part)
(stato-acoustic) (b)Equilibrium (vestibular part)
9 Glossopharyngeal Mixed: motor, sensory, and -Sensory for pharynx and tongue
parasympathetic -Motor to one muscle of pharynx
(stylopharyngeus)
-Parasympathetic to the parotid gland.
10 Vagus (including Mixed: motor, sensory and -Motor to the muscles of the pharynx (except
cranial accessory) parasympathetic stylopharyngeus), larynx and palate
-Parasympathetic and sensory to the structures in
the thorax and abdomen.
11 Spinal Accessory Motor To 2 important muscles of the neck:
sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
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12 Hypoglossal Motor To all muscles of the tongue (except palatoglossus)
 Spinal Nerves
 31 pairs – contain thousands of nerve fibers
 Connect to the spinal cord
 Named for point of tissue from the spinal cord
8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8)
12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1-T12)
5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5)
5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5)
1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1)

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 Components and branches of SN
 The SN is formed by the union of dorsal and
ventral roots resulting in a mixed nerve .
1. Dorsal root
Cell bodies – located in the dorsal root
ganglion
conveys sensory input from the body
2. Ventral root
convey motor output to visceral and somatic
motor neurons.
 joins the dorsal roots to form the spinal nerve
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Nerve plexuses
Except in the thoracic nerves T2-T12, the
anterior rami of the spinal nerves combine and
then split again as networks of nerves referred to
as plexuses.
There are four plexuses:
 the cervical
 the brachial
the lumbar
 sacral and
small coccygeal plexus
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 Cervical plexus (8pairs)
 formed by the anterior rami of the nerves C1
- C4 and a portion of C5.
Branches of this innervate the skin and
muscles of the neck, and portions of the head
and upper part of the shoulders.
E.g. Fibers from C3, C4, and C5 unite to form
the phrenic nerve (C3-C5) which innervates
the diaphragm thereby causing it to contract
during inspiration
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 Brachial plexus
It’s formed by the anterior rami of the nerves C5
– C8 and T1
 Five major nerves
 axillary- deltoid , teres minor
 radial- posterior compartment of the arm
 musculocutaneous- anterior compartments
of the arm
ulnar -innervates muscles of anterior
medial compartements of the arm
median nerves- anterior compartments of
the arm and some portion of the hand
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Lumbar plexus
It’s formed by the anterior rami of spinal nerves
(L1 - L4)
Branches from this innervate structures of
 the lower part of abdomen
 anterior and medial potions of the lower limb.
E.g. femoral nerve innervates the anterior muscles
of the thigh
 obturator nerve innervates the medial adductor
muscles of the thigh
sacral plexus
Pudendal , gluteal, sciatic nerves are forms the
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 The sciatic nerve
 is the largest branch of the sacral plexus and is
the largest nerve in the body.
 It’s composed of two nerves-
the tibial
common fibular nerves.
Tibial nerve
 innervates most of the posterior thigh and leg
muscles and many of the plantar muscles.
 Common fibular nerve
innervates the anterior and lateral muscles of
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THE SPECIAL SENSES
 Sensory organs have special
receptors that allow us to smell,
taste, see, hear, and maintain
equilibrium or balance.
 Information conveyed from these
receptors to the central nervous
system is used to help maintain
homeostasis
 The accessory structures of the eye
include the eyelids, eyelashes,
eyebrows, the lacrimal (tearing)
apparatus, and extrinsic eye
muscles.
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The Lacrimal Apparatus
 The lacrimal apparatus
is a group of structures
that produces and
drains lacrimal fluid or
tears.
 excretory lacrimal
ducts
 lacrimal puncta
 lacrimal canals
 Lacrimal sac
 Nasolacrimal duct
 Nasal cavity
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles
 These muscles are
capable of moving
the eye in almost any
direction.
 6 extrinsic eye
muscles move each
eye:
 the superior rectus
 inferior rectus
 lateral rectus
 medial rectus
 superior oblique
 inferior oblique
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Anatomy of eye ball
 The adult eyeball measures about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in
diameter.
 Of its total surface area, only the anterior 1/6 is
exposed; other is masked and protected by the orbit
 Anatomically, the wall of the eyeball consists of
three layers:
fibrous tunic
vascular tunic
retina.
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1. Fibrous Tunic
 The fibrous tunic is the superficial layer of the eyeball and
consists of the anterior cornea and posterior sclera
 The cornea is a transparent coat that covers the colored iris.
Because it is curved, the cornea helps focus light onto the
retina.
 The sclera the “white” of the eye, is a layer of dense
connective tissue made up mostly of collagen fibers and
fibroblasts.
 The sclera covers the entire eyeball except the cornea
it gives shape to the eyeball , makes it more rigid, protects
its inner parts, and serves as a site of attachment for the
extrinsic eye muscles.
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2.Vascular Tunic
 The vascular tunic is the middle layer of the eyeball.
 It is composed of three parts
A. Choroid- highly vascularized and it contain melanocyte
 Prevents light rays from scattering and distorting the image
B. Ciliary body the ciliary body appears dark brown in color
because it contains melanin-producing melanocytes
C. Iris -It consists of melanocytes and circular and radial
smooth muscle fibers.
 A principal function of the iris is to regulate the amount of
 light entering the eyeball through the pupil, the hole in the
center of the iris.
 Conjunctiva: external cover of the sclera -keeps the eye
moist
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3. Retina
 The third and inner layer of the eyeball, the retina, lines the
 posterior three-quarters of the eyeball and is the beginning
of the visual pathway
Contains photoreceptors.
 Except at the optic disk (where the optic nerve attaches).
 The lens and ciliary body divide the eye into two cavities.
The anterior cavity is filled with aqueous humor
produced by the ciliary body.
The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor.
The lens, the aqueous humor, and the vitreous humor all
play a role in focusing light onto the retina.
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 Ear
 The ear is an engineering marvel because its sensory
receptors can transduce sound vibrations with amplitudes
Anatomy of the ear
 The ear is divided into three main regions:
 the external ear, which collects sound waves and channels
them inward;
 the middle ear, which conveys sound vibrations to the
oval window
 the internal ear, which houses the receptors for hearing
and equilibrium.

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 External (Outer) Ear
 The external (outer) ear consists of the
auricle, external auditory canal, and
eardrum
 auricle (pinna)
 Helix
 Lobule
 The external auditory canal
 tympanic membrane
 Ceruminous glands

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Middle Ear
 The middle ear is a small, air-filled cavity in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone that is lined by epithelium on
 It is separated from the external ear by the tympanic
membrane and from the internal ear by a thin bony partition
that contains two small membrane-covered openings:
 the oval window
 the round window.
 the three smallest bones in the body, the auditory ossicles
are found in the middle ear
Malleus(hammer)
Incus(anvil)
stapes(stirrup)
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 Internal ear
 The internal (inner) ear is also called the labyrinth (because
of its complicated series of canals
 Structurally, it consists of two main divisions:
 an outer bony labyrinth that encloses an inner
membranous labyrinth.
 The bony labyrinth is a series of cavities in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone divided into three areas:
 the semicircular canals
 the vestibule- the oval central portion of the bony labyrinth
, which contain receptors for equilibrium
 the cochlea-which contains receptors for hearing.

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 The membranous
labyrinth in the
vestibule consists of
two sacs called the
utricle (little bag) and
the saccule (little
sac), which are
connected by a small
duct.
 Projecting superiorly
and posteriorly from
the vestibule are the
three bony
semicircular canals,
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 Cochlea: Contains a series of fluids, channels, and
membranes that transmit vibrations to the spiral organ
(organ of Corti), the organ of hearing; hair cells in the
spiral organ trigger nerve impulses in the cochlear branch of
the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve.
 Vestibular apparatus: Includes semicircular ducts, utricle,
and saccule, which generate nerve impulses that propagate
along the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII)
nerve.
 Semicircular ducts: Contain cristae ampularis, sites of hair cells
for dynamic equilibrium.
 Utricle: Contains macula, site of hair cells for static equilibrium.
 Saccule: Contains macula, site of hair cells for static
equilibrium.

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