CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Crude oil is Nigeria’s greatest source of revenue since its discovery in the 1950’s and

its commercialization in 1958. Nigeria ranks 6th as an exporter of crude oil. The oil from the

Niger Delta region accounts for more than 90% of Nigeria’s export and about 80% of the

government’s revenue (Kadafa et al, 2012). There are eleven (11) oil companies operating

one hundred and fifty-nine (159) oil fields and one thousand, four hundred and eighty one

(1,481) wells in the Niger Delta region (Kadafa et al, 2012). The major cause of oil spills in

Nigeria include corrosion of pipelines and tankers, this accounts for 50% of oil spills,

sabotage (28%), oil operations (21%) and inadequate or non-functional equipment

accounting for 1% (Nwachukwu and Osuagwu, 2014).

Nigeria has seen a great deal of environmental stress due to oil spills that occur as a

result of the activities of oil production from exploration, extraction, transportation to

refinement. The oil spills in Nigeria began as early as 1976 and has continued till date. There

have been over 6000 spills with an average of 150 spills per annum (Inoni et al, 2006). To

prevent theses spills and its adverse effects on the environment several laws, legislations and

agencies have been put in place including Oil Polllution Act of 1990, National Oil Spill

Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA), Niger Delta Development Commission

(NDDC) among others.

 Despite all these efforts, oil spills still occur as a result of nonchalance by the

enforcing bodies and lack of interest in research in order to deal with the spills.

1.1 EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL POLLUTION

1.1.1 ON SOIL: The presence of oil in the soil hinders soil aeration as oil film on the soil

surface acts as a barrier between air and soil. The presence of oil in the soil affects

physiochemical properties of soil such as temperature, structure, nutrient status and pH.

Crops like pepper and tomatoes when cultivated in contaminated soil die off due to

blockage of stomata which inhibits photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration (Inoni et

al, 2006).

1.1.2 ON BIODIVERSITY: When oil pollution occurs, the biodiversity of the immediate area

is affected as the organisms who cannot adapt to the new condition die off leading loss of

that particular gene pool. In the case of microbes, studies show that Total Heterotrophic

Bacteria (THB) is 89% lower in polluted soil than unpolluted soil and Total Fungi (TF) is

78% lower in polluted soil than unpolluted soil. The decrease in THB and TF led to an

increase in Hydrocarbon Utilizing Bacteria and Hydrocarbon Utilizing Fungi (Adesina

and Adelasoye, 2014), thereby leading to a decrease in diversity.

1.1.3 ON CROP YIELD: As oil pollution affects soil properties it also directly affects the

yield of crops planted in contaminated soil. Studies show that oil pollution in soil induced

stress on plants by reducing cell size and mitotic division and also induces changes in

starch degrading enzymes (Achuba, 2006). Oil pollution also leads to depleted soil
 nutrients and inhibition of enzymatic and soil microbial activities leading to decrease in

the number of leaves and stunted growth in crops (Adesina and Adelasoye, 2014).

1.1.4 ON WATER QUALITY: Oil pollution does not only affect the soil and water bodies

but also the underground water which many people rely on as a source of clean drinking

water especially in Nigeria. Contamination of underground water has been proven to

have adverse effects on human health as known carcinogens like bezo[a]pyrere and

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) were found in the water as even a few molecules

of these compounds can have severe genotoxic effects. Oil spills has also been shown to

cause a 45% increase of normal background radiation level leading to increase of certain

cancers years after the oil spill. Dermal contact, ingestion and inhalation of other

constituents of spilled crude oil can lead to acute and long term health complication,

severe exposure can result in acute renal failure, hepatoxicity and hemotoxicity

(Ordinioha and Brisibe, 2013).

1.2 PHYTOREMEDIATION

Despite the various efforts put in place to prevent the release of crude oil and its

products into the environment, oil spillage still occurs. Due to these spills various methods by

which this oil and its constituents can be removed from the environment has been developed

but the most economical and environmentally friendly is BIOLOGICAL REMEDIATION.

Biological remediation or Bioremediation are environmentally friendly approaches for the

treatment of polluted soils (Agnello et al., 2015). Bioremediation is classified according to

the remediating agent; there is Phytoremediation (use of plants), Bioaugmentation (addition

of more microbes indigenous to the soil), Vermiremediation (use of earthworms) and

Mycoremediation (use of fungi).

Phytoremediation is a bioremediation technique that entails the use of plants and its

associated microorganisms for the treatment of contaminated soil and sediments (Ayotamuno

et al., 2010). Phytoremediation has been shown to be efficient for different kinds of

pollutants, for example heavy metals, radionuclides and a wide range of organic pollutants

but its application in the remediation of soil contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbon is the

most promising (Izinyon and Seghosime, 2013).

Plants to be used for Phytoremediation should be appropriate, that is, they should be

able to withstand the climatic and soil conditions of contaminated sites and also have the

ability to tolerate environmental stress (Izinyon and Seghosime, 2013). Some of the plants

used in phytoremediation act as phytoaccumulators, that is, they take up the pollutants and

store them in its roots and tissues, others have been identified as good phytodegraders of

organic compounds (Anyasi and Atagana, 2018). Various plants have been tested for use in

phytoremediation but grasses and legumes have shown potential in the phytoremediation of

soil contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbon. Grasses are used because they have an

extensive fibrous system, in particular grass root system which has the maximum root surface

area (per m3 of soil) of any plant and may penetrate up to 3m. Legumes are used as they have

the advantage of using their ability to fix nitrogen, that is, legumes do not compete with

microorganisms and other plants for limited supply of available soil nitrogen in contaminated

soils, which is of significance as oil-contaminated soil has a high carbon to nitrogen ratio,

this symbiotic relationship has fostered enhanced biodegradation of hydrocarbon in the soil
 (Merkyl et al, 2005: Izinyon and Seghosime, 2013; Agnello et al., 2015; Anyasi and

Atagana, 2018).

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to ascertain the efficiency of the use cowpea (Vigna

unguiculata) and soybean (Glycine max) in remediating crude oil contaminated soil while

comparing the two plants to find which is better. For this purpose the soil will be

contaminated with known concentrations of crude oil. The objectives of this study were to:

 Determine the concentration of crude oil in the soil before and after the cultivation of

the plants.

 Determine if the plants are phytoaccumlators or phytodegraders by checking the

concentration of crude oil or its constituents in the tissues of the plants.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Pollution by crude oil spills is a major problem in Nigeria and remediation of crude

oil polluted soil especially in the Niger-Delta region is a pressing issue. Millions of Naira is

spent in an effort to remediate the soil and water in this region.

Phytoremediation has been proven to be a cost effective, efficient and

environmentally friendly way to remediate crude oil contaminated soil. A study carried out

by Anyasi and Atagana in 2018 showed that 8% of plants that grew naturally on a site

contaminated with crude oil were legumes.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and soybean (Glycine max) are popular legumes

cultivated and eaten in Nigeria, the seeds of these plants take approximately 60 days to grow
to maturity making them the best to cultivate. V. unguiculata and G. max are food crop used

as a major source of protein and cultivated extensively in West Africa and is the principle

source of dietary protein in Nigeria from swampy rainforest to savannah grassland (Gbadebo

and Adenuga, 2012).

Various studies have been carried out to prove the efficiency of V. unguiculata and G.

max in the remediation of crude oil contaminated soils. V. unguiculata and G max are ideal

because phytoremediation of crude oil is based on the stimulation of microbial degradation in

the rhizosphere (Merkl et al., 2005). These legumes have proven their presence not only

remediates the soil but also supply nutrients to the soil to foster the growth of other plants.

Such studies include Njoku et al., 2009, which stated the ability of soybean to grow in crude

oil contaminated soil which is a very important factor to consider when selecting plants for

remediation. The study by Njoku et al. concluded that the growth of soybean affected the

physic-chemistry of the soil enhancing the degradation of crude oil; this was concluded due

to the significant effect G. max had on the pH and moisture content of the soil, the study also

inferred that the growth of soybean reduces the toxicity of crude oil in the soil.

Also studies carried out by Njoku et al. in 2016 has proved that G. max remediates

through the combined activities of the plants and rhizospheric microbes rather then

phytoaccumulation which makes the plants tissue safe to consume thereby increasing the

economic value.

The seeds used in this study were obtained from the market place, this is to assess the

viability of the use of common seeds from markets other than from the International Institute
 of Tropical Agriculture, this is to promote and advise the members of the public to take the

issue of phytoremediation into their hands.

The Niger-Delta region which is heavily polluted but lacks the funds to carry out

these remediation projects on their own without the aid of the government which is very lax

towards the ordeal of the indigene of this region. This study is a way to confirm or check if

these seeds can be used so that the common people can have the ability to carry out this

process while reaping the benefits which is the food crop value.

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF STUDY

This study is important to determine the rate and efficiency of crude oil cleanup

between Vigna unguiculata and Glycine max. This study is also important to determine the

efficiency of the use of seeds gotten from the market place in remediating the soil, this is to

promote the practice of remediation on a household level.