SUBJECT CODE : 18EC42

As per Revised Syllabus of

Visvesvaraya Technological University
OBE & CBCS, SEM - IV (EC / TC)

Analog Circuits
Atul P. Godse
M.S. Software Systems (BITS Pilani)
B.E. Industrial Electronics
Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg.
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Pune.

Uday A. Bakshi
M.E. (Electrical)
Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg.
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Pune.

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SINCE 1993 An Up-Thrust for Knowledge

(i)
Analog Circuits
Subject Code : 18EC42

Semester - IV (EC / TC)

First Edition : January 2020

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Syllabus
Analog Circuits (18EC42)
Credits : 04 CIE Marks : 40 SEE Marks : 60 Exam Hours : 03

Module-1

BJT Biasing : Biasing in BJT amplifier circuits : The Classical Discrete circuit bias (Voltage divider
bias), Biasing using a collector to base feedback resistor.

Small signal operation and Models : Collector current and transconductance, Base current and

input resistance, Emitter current and input resistance, voltage gain, Separating the signal and the

DC quantities, The hybrid  model.

MOSFETs : Biasing in MOS amplifier circuits : Fixing VGS , Fixing VG, Drain to Gate feedback
resistor.

Small signal operation and modeling: The DC bias point, signal current in drain, voltage gain,
small signal equivalent circuit models, transconductance. (Chapters - 1,2,3,4)
Module-2

MOSFET Amplifier configuration : Basic configurations, characterizing amplifiers, CS amplifier

with and without source resistance Rs, Source follower.

MOSFET internal capacitances and High frequency model : The gate capacitive effect,

Junction capacitances, High frequency model.

Frequency response of the CS amplifier : The three frequency bands, high frequency response,

Low frequency response.

Oscillators : FET based Phase shift oscillator, LC and Crystal Oscillators (no derivation)

(Chapters - 5, 6)
Module-3

Feedback Amplifier : General feedback structure, Properties of negative feedback, The Four
Basic Feedback Topologies, The series-shunt, series-series, shunt-shunt and shunt-series
amplifiers (Qualitative Analysis).
Output Stages and Power Amplifiers : Introduction, Classification of output stages, Class A
output stage, Class B output stage: Transfer Characteristics, Power Dissipation, Power Conversion
efficiency, Class AB output stage, Class C tuned Amplifier. (Chapters - 7, 8)

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Module-4

Op-Amp with Negative Feedback and general applications : Inverting and Non inverting
Amplifiers – Closed Loop voltage gain, Input impedance, Output impedance, Bandwidth with
feedback. DC and AC Amplifiers, Summing, Scaling and Averaging Amplifiers, Instrumentation
amplifier, Comparators, Zero Crossing Detector, Schmitt trigger. (Chapters - 9)
Module-5

Op-Amp Circuits : DAC - Weighted resistor and R-2R ladder, ADC- Successive approximation type,
Small Signal half wave rectifier, Active Filters, First and second order low-pass and high-pass
Butterworth filters, Band-pass filters, Band reject filters.

555 Timer and its applications : Monostable and a stable Multivibrators. (Chapters - 10, 11)

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Table of Contents
Module - 1

Chapter - 1 BJT Biasing : Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits

(1 - 1) to (1 - 8)
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 - 2
1.1.1 Need for Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
1.1.2 Q Point and Stability Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
1.2 Classical Discrete Circuit Bias-Voltage Divider Bias ......................................... 1 - 3
1.3 Biasing Using a Collector to Base Feedback Resistor ....................................... 1 - 6
Chapter - 2 Small Signal Operations and Models (2 - 1) to (2 - 10)
2.1 The Collector Current and the Transconductance ........................................... 2 - 2
2.2 Base Current and Input Resistance .................................................................. 2 - 4
2.3 Emitter Current and Input Resistance ............................................................. 2 - 5
2.4 Voltage Gain ..................................................................................................... 2 - 6
2.5 Separating the Signal and the D.C. Quantities. ................................................ 2 - 7
2.6 The hybrid  Model .......................................................................................... 2 - 9
Chapter - 3 MOSFETs - Biasing in MOS Amplifier Circuits
(3 - 1) to (3 -10)
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 3 - 2
3.2 Biasing by Fixing VGS ...................................................................................... 3 - 2
3.3 Biasing by Fixing VG ........................................................................................ 3 - 2
3.4 Biasing by Drain to Gate Feedback Resistor ................................................... 3 - 7
Chapter - 4 Small Signal Operation and Modeling (4 - 1) to (4 - 12)
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................4 - 2

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 Module - 2

Chapter - 5 MOSFET Amplifier Configuration (5 - 1) to (5 - 22)

5.1 Basic Configurations ........................................................................................ 5 - 2
5.2 CS amplifier ...................................................................................................... 5 - 5
5.3 CS Amplifier with a Source Resistance ............................................................. 5 - 7
5.4 Source Follower (Common-Drain Amplifier) ................................................... 5 - 9
5.5 MOSFET Internal Capacitances and High Frequency Model .......................... 5 - 12
5.5.3 High Frequency Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 14
5.6 Frequency Response of the CS Amplifier ....................................................... 5 - 15
5.6.1 High Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 16
5.6.2 Low Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 20

Chapter - 6 Oscillators (6 - 1) to (6 - 38)

6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6 - 2
6.2 Basic Theory of Oscillators ............................................................................... 6 - 2
6.3 Barkhausen Criterion ....................................................................................... 6 - 4
6.3.1 | A | > 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.3.2 | A | = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.3.3 | A | < 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.3.4 Starting Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.4 FET based Phase Shift Oscillator ..................................................................... 6 - 7
6.4.1 RC Feedback Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 8
6.4.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 9
6.4.2.1 Mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 10
6.4.3 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.4.4 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.5 LC Oscillators ................................................................................................. 6 - 14
6.5.1 Operation of LC Tank Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
6.6 Basic Form of LC Oscillator Circuit ................................................................ 6 - 16
6.6.1 Types of LC Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 19

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 6.7 Hartley Oscillator ........................................................................................... 6 - 19
6.7.1 Transistorised Hartley Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 19
6.7.2 FET Hartley Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.8 Colpitts Oscillator .......................................................................................... 6 - 23
6.8.1 Transistorised Colpitts Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.8.2 Colpitts Oscillator using FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.9 Clapp Oscillator .............................................................................................. 6 - 26
6.9.2 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 27
6.10 Crystal Oscillators ........................................................................................ 6 - 28
6.10.1 Constructional Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 29
6.10.2 A.C. Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 29
6.10.3 Series and Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 30
6.10.4 Crystal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 31
6.10.5 Pierce Crystal Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 32
6.10.6 Miller Crystal Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 33
6.10.7 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 34
6.10.8 Comparison between Crystal and LC Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 34

Module - 3

Chapter - 7 Feedback Amplifiers (7 - 1) to (7 - 46)

7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 7 - 2
7.2 General Feedback Structure ............................................................................ 7 - 3
7.2.1 Sampling Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.2.2 Feedback Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
7.2.3 Mixer Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
7.2.4 Transfer Ratio or Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
7.2.5 Gain with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 5
7.2.6 Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 7
7.3 Properties of Negative Feedback.................................................................... 7 - 12
7.3.1 Desensitivity of Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 12
7.3.2 Bandwidth Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 14

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 7.3.3 Reduction in Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 19
7.3.4 Reduction in Nonlinear Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
7.4 Basic Feedback Topologies ............................................................................ 7 - 22
7.4.1 Voltage Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 23
7.4.2 Current Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 25
7.4.5 Ideal Amplifier Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 25
7.5 Effect on Input and Output Resistances of Negative Feedback ......................7 - 26
7.5.1 Input Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 26
7.5.2 Output Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 27
7.6 Series-Shunt (Voltage Series) Feedback Amplifier ..........................................7 - 27
7.6.1 Input and Output Resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 27
7.6.2 Analysis of Practical Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 30
7.7 Series-Series (Current Series) Feedback Amplifier ..........................................7 - 32
7.7.1 Input and Output Resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 32
7.7.2 Analysis of Practical Current Series Feedback Amplifier Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 35
7.8 Shunt-Shunt (Voltage-Shunt) Feedback Amplifier...........................................7 - 37
7.8.1 Input and Output Resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 37
7.8.2 Analysis of Practical Voltage-Shunt Feedback Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 40
7.9 Shunt-Series (Current Shunt) Feedback Amplifier...........................................7 - 42
7.9.1 Input and Output Resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 42
7.9.2 Analysis of Practical Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 44

Chapter - 8 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers (8 - 1) to (8 - 64)

8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 8 - 2
8.2 Features of Power Amplifiers .......................................................................... 8 - 2
8.2.1 Comparison of Small Signal and Large Signal Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 3
8.3 Classification of Output Stages ........................................................................ 8 - 4
8.3.1 Class A Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 4
8.3.2 Class B Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
8.3.3 Class C Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 6

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 8.3.4 Class AB Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 7
8.4 Comparison of Amplifier Classes ..................................................................... 8 - 8
8.5 Class A Power Amplifiers ................................................................................. 8 - 9
8.6 Series Fed, Directly Coupled Class A Amplifier ................................................ 8 - 9
8.6.1 D.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 10
8.6.2 D.C. Power Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
8.6.3 A.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
8.6.4 A.C. Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
8.6.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 12
8.6.6 Maximum Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 13
8.6.7 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 14
8.6.8 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 14
8.7 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier .......................................................... 8 - 16
8.7.1 Impedance Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 16
8.7.2 D.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 18
8.7.3 D.C Power Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 18
8.7.4 A.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 18
8.7.5 A.C. Output Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 19
8.7.6 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 20
8.7.7 Maximum Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 21
8.7.8 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 22
8.7.9 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 22
8.7.10 Comparison of Series Fed and Transformer Coupled Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 23
8.8 Analysis of Class B Amplifiers ......................................................................... 8 - 28
8.9 Push Pull Class B Amplifier.............................................................................. 8 - 29
8.9.1 D.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 31
8.9.2 D.C. Power Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 31
8.9.3 A.C. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 31
8.9.4 A.C. Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 32
8.9.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 32

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 8.9.6 Maximum Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 33
8.9.7 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 33
8.9.8 Harmonic Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 35
8.9.9 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 36
8.9.10 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 36
8.9.11 Transfer Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 40

8.10 Class B Output Stage (Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier) ...........8 - 42

8.10.1 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 43
8.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 43

8.11 Comparison of Push Pull and Complementary Symmetry Circuits................8 - 49

8.12 Cross-Over Distortion .................................................................................. 8 - 50
8.12.1 Elimination of Cross-Over Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 50
8.12.1.1 Push Pull Class AB Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 51

8.12.1.2 Complementary Symmetry Class AB Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 51

8.13 Complementary Symmetry Single Supply Version ....................................... 8 - 52
8.14 Class C Tuned Amplifier ............................................................................... 8 - 54
8.14.1 Resonant Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 54
8.14.2 Load Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 56
8.14.3 A.C. Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 56
8.14.4 D.C. Clamping of Input Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 57
8.14.5 Filtering the Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 57
8.14.6 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 58
8.14.7 Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 58
8.14.8 Output Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 59
8.14.9 Transistor Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 59
8.14.10 D.C. Input Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 60
8.14.11 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 61

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 Module - 4

Chapter - 9 Op-Amp with Negative Feedback and General Applications

(9 - 1) to (9 - 88)
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9 - 3
9.2 Op-amp Symbol and Terminals ........................................................................ 9 - 3
9.3 Ideal Op-amp Characteristics ........................................................................... 9 - 5
9.4 Characteristics of Practical Op-amp ................................................................. 9 - 7
9.4.1 Thermal Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.4.1.1 Effect on Input Offset Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9

9.4.1.2 Effect on Input Offset and Bias Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9

9.5 Voltage Levels and Saturating Property of Op-amp ...................................... 9 - 11
9.6 Op-amp IC 741 ............................................................................................... 9 - 11
9.7 Op-amp in Open Loop Mode ......................................................................... 9 - 13
9.8 Closed Loop Configuration of Op-amp .......................................................... 9 - 14
9.9 Realistic Simplifying Assumptions .................................................................. 9 - 15
9.10 Ideal Inverting Amplifier (Voltage Scale Changer) ....................................... 9 - 16
9.10.1 Derivation of Closed Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 16
9.10.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 17
9.11 Ideal Non-inverting Amplifier ...................................................................... 9 - 19
9.11.1 Derivation of Closed Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 20
9.11.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 21
9.12 Analysis of Op-amp Feedback Amplifiers .................................................... 9 - 22
9.12.1 Practical Inverting Amplifier (Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier) . . . . . . . . . 9 - 22
9.12.1.1 Closed Loop Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 23

9.12.1.2 Block Diagram of Practical Inverting Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 24

9.12.1.3 Input Resistance with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 25

9.12.1.4 Output Resistance with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 26

9.12.1.5 Bandwidth with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28

9.12.1.6 Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 29

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 9.12.2 Practical Noninverting Amplifier (Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier) . . . . . 9 - 30
9.12.2.1 Closed Loop Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 31

9.12.2.2 Block Diagram of Practical Noninverting Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 32

9.12.2.3 Input Resistance with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 34

9.12.2.4 Output Resistance with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 35

9.12.2.5 Bandwidth with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 37

9.12.2.6 Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 37

9.13 Voltage Follower or Buffer ........................................................................... 9 - 39
9.14 Summing Amplifier and Averaging Circuits .................................................. 9 - 40
9.14.1 Inverting Summing Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 40
9.14.2 Non-inverting Summing Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 41
9.14.3 Average Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 42
9.15 Differential or Difference Amplifier (Subtractor) ......................................... 9 - 45
9.15.1 Input Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 47
9.16 D.C. and A.C. Amplifiers ............................................................................... 9 - 49
9.16.1 D.C. Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 49
9.16.2 A.C. Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 49
9.16.2.1 Inverting A.C. Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 49
9.16.2.2 Non-inverting A.C. Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 52
9.17 Single Supply Biasing .................................................................................... 9 - 53
9.17.1 Inverting Amplifier with Single Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 54
9.17.2 Non-inverting Amplifier with Single Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 55
9.18 Introduction to Instrumentation Amplifiers ................................................ 9 - 56
9.18.1 Requirements of a Good Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 57
9.19 Three Op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier ................................................... 9 - 58
9.19.1 Analysis of 3 Op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 60
9.19.2 Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 61
9.19.3 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 62
9.19.3.1 Temperature Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 62

9.19.3.2 Temperature Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 63

9.12.3.3 Light Intensity Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 63

9.19.3.4 Analog Weight Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 63

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 9.20 Comparator....................................................................................................9 - 69
9.20.1 Basic Non-inverting Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 69
9.20.2 Basic Inverting Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 70
9.20.3 Drawbacks of Op-amp Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 71
9.20.4 Comparator Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 72
9.20.5 Applications of Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 73
9.20.5.1 Non-inverting Zero Crossing Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 73

9.20.5.2 Inverting Zero Crossing Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 74

9.20.5.3 Level Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 75

9.20.5.4 Window Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 75

9.20.5.5 Pulse Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 76
9.21 Schmitt Trigger [Regenerative Comparator] .................................................9 - 77
9.21.1 Inverting Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 77
9.21.2 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 79
9.21.3 Schmitt Trigger Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 82
9.21.3.1 Schmitt Triggers for Eliminating Comparator Chatter . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 82
9.21.3.2 Schmitt Triggers in ON/OFF Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 83
9.21.4 Comparison of Schmitt Trigger and Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 83
9.21.5 Design Steps for Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 84
9.22 Schmitt Trigger with Different UTP and LTP Levels .......................................9 - 85
9.22.1 Another Method of Obtaining Different Trigger Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 86

Module - 5
Chapter - 10 Op-Amp Circuits (10 - 1) to (10 - 54)
10.1 DAC - Weighted Resistor .............................................................................. 10 - 2
10.2 DAC - R-2R Ladder ........................................................................................ 10 - 3
10.3 ADC - Successive Approximation Type ......................................................... 10 - 5
10.4 Small Signal Rectifiers (Precision Rectifiers) ................................................ 10 - 7
10.4.1 Precision Half Wave Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 - 8
10.4.1.1 Positive Precision Half Wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 - 8
10.4.1.2 Negative Precision Half Wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 - 10
10.4.1.3 Two Output Precision Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 - 11

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 Analog Circuits For VTU

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Publisher : Technical Publications ISBN : 9789389750249 Author : A. P. Godse, U. A. Bakshi

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