● FILTER

Filter : A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain

frequencies while attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract
important frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant
frequencies.

Filter Type :

1. Low Pass Filters (LPF)

2. High Pass Filters (HPF)
3. Band Pass Filters (BPF)
4. Band Stop Filters (BSF)/ Notch Filters

Transfer Function, T(ω) =

❖ Low Pass Filter : Low Pass Filters cut off all the high frequency parts of a
signal while lower frequencies can pass through the filter. Low pass filters
are closely related to smoothing procedures such as moving averages.
❖ High Pass Filter : High Pass Filters cut off all low frequency parts of a
signal while higher frequencies can pass through the filter. High pass filters
are related to the first derivative of a function.
❖ Band Pass Filter : Band Pass Filters are formed by a combination of low
pass and high pass filters so that only frequencies within a certain range
(band) can pass through the filter.
❖ Band Stop Filter/ Notch Filter : Notch Filters remove a certain band from
the frequency spectrum and are also formed by a combination of low and
high pass filters.

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➢ Filter Characteristics :

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➢ Frequency Response Plot of LP, HP, BP and BS Filters for both Ideal
And Practical Cases:

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 Filter Circuits

Active Filters Passive Filters

● Transistor - Resistor
● Op Amp - Capacitor
● Resistor - Inductor

ω = 0; XC = 1/ ωC = ∞ ; Vo = Vi ; T = Vo/Vi = 1

ω = ∞ ; XC = 0 ; Vo = 0 ; T = 0

ω = 0; XC = 1/ ωC = ∞ ; Vo = 0 ; T = 0

ω = ∞ ; XC = 0 ; Vo = Vi ; T = Vo/Vi = 1

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➢ Deriving The Transfer Function :

○ For Low Pass Filter:

Here,

Vo =

Vo =

T(ω) =

○ For the Cutoff Frequency:

|T(ω)| =| | |
√

We know,

|T(ωc)| = =
√ √

√ √

Going back to the Transfer Function,

T(ω) = =

Therefore for Low-Pass Filter,

T(s) =

For the following circuit the max gain is 1 but it might not be the same for
other circuits.

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 So,

Ao = Maximum Gain

⸫ General Form of Transfer Function of LPF:

T=

The Frequency Response Plot,

o For High Pass Filter:

Here. Vo =

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T=

For Cutoff Frequency: |T(ωc)| =

√

|
√

√ √
( )

1 ( ) =2

( ) =1

=1

Therefore Transfer Function:

T(ωc) =

⸫ T(s) =

General Form for Transfer Function of HPF:

T(s) =

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Passive Filters : Loading Effect

Here,

T(s) = = ; A0 = 1

Now,

Vo =

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⸫ T(s) =
( )

= [ ]

= [ ][ ]

Transfer Function with Load:

T(s) = =

Here,

Cut-Off Frequency with Load:

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❖ Solution to The Load Effect:

➢ Isolate the Load

➢ Instead of connecting the Load directly with the output, connect it through a
Voltage Buffer
➢ Now, the Filter doesn’t observe RL; it observes the OP-AMP with infinite
input resistance and unity gain
➢ The Cutoff Frequency remains the same

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T(s) = =

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For two filters of LOW PASS & HIGH PASS connected in series, the cutoff
frequency of LPF must be greater than that of HPF.

Therefore,

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