ERGONOMICS 1

Lesson 1– (INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS)

WHAT IS ERGONOMICS

- Coined from the Greek word ergon (meaning “work”) and nomos (meaning “rules”).

- Interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to design tools, equipment, system and tasks
to optimize human capabilities.

- “Make the work fit the person, not the person fit the work”

HISTORY OF ERGONOMICS

 STONE AGE ERA

When human first started to use tools to achieve tasks, they seem not do it with their
bare hands they applying Ergonomics.

 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ERA

The process of change from an agrarian and craftsmanship economy to one ruled by
industry and machine manufacturing within the period approximately about 1760 to at
some point between 1820 and 1840.

5 CHANGES DURING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ERA

1. Use of Basic Material – Use of Iron and steel

2. New Organization of Work – The use of DIVISION OF LABOR for FACTORY

SYSTEM.

3. Technological Changes – advancement of manual production to mass production of

goods.

4. Use of Energy Sources- Use of Coal, steam engine and electricity

5. Development in Transportation and Communication – Development of automobile or

vehicle. Development of communication channels such as telegraph and radio
OTHER IMPORTANT INVENTIONS DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ERA

1775: STEAM ENGINE by James Watt

1798: INTERCHANGEABLE PARTS by Eli Whitney

1836: TELEGRAPH by Samuel B. Morse

1844: SEWING MACHINE by Eliase Howe

1876: TELEPHONE by Alexander Graham Bell

1879: INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULB by Thomas Edison

1888: INDUCTION ELECTRIC MOTOR by Nikola Tesla

1892: DIESEL ENGINE by Rudolf Diesel

1903: FIRST AIRPLANE by Orville & Wilbur Wright

1908: MODEL T by Henry Ford

SPINNING JENNY

- is a multi-spindle spinning frame that decreased the sum of work required to create
yarn, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once.

WORLD WAR II

- World War II prompted greater interest in human-machine interaction as the efficiency

of sophisticated military equipment (i.e., airplanes).

PIONEERS OF ERGONOMICS

 BERNARDO RAMAZZINI

In 1717, Bernardo Ramazzini first introduced to physicians the common injuries or

disorders that arose from eighteen century occupations in his treatise De Morbis
Artificum Diatriba (The Disease of Workers).
  WOJCIECH JASTRZEBOWSKI

He created the word ergonomics in 1857 in a philosophical narrative, “based upon the
truths drawn from the Science of Nature” (Jastrzebowski, 1857).

HUMAN FACTORS VS ERGONOMICS

In the United States to refer to cognitive design issues as “human factors” and

physical design issues as “ergonomics.”

 HOW DOES ERGONOMICS AFFECT YOU?

1. It can make you do work safely

2. It can prevent injuries or accident

3. Increased efficiency & productivity

2 GOALS OF ERGONOMICS

1. Increase productivity by identifying ergonomic hazards that can result in an injury

and correcting these hazards which leads to healthier workplace.

Some of the factors evaluated in an ergonomic analysis are:

• Repetitiveness of a task

• Physical strength required for a task

• Design and use of tools

• Design and layout of the work area or equipment

2. Minimize employee exposure to hazards which may lead to soft tissue disorders
caused by wear and tear from repetitive motions.
  BENEFITS OF ERGONOMICS

• Improved safety and health in the workplace

• Improved employee morale and job satisfaction

• Improved productivity

• Improved quality of work

• Improved competitiveness in the marketplace

• Reduced probability of accidents and errors

• Reduced absenteeism and employee turnover

• Reduced medical and workers' compensation costs associated trauma

disorders

MUSCULO-SKELETAL DISORDER

- Are injuries and disarranges that influence the human body’s movement or
musculoskeletal system.

Examples of Musculo-skeletal Disorder

1. Muscles 4. Blood vessels

2. Tendons 5. Ligaments

3. Discs 6. Nerves

WORK RELATED MUSCULO-SKELETAL DISORDER

They are soft tissue injuries which occur gradually. It is also known as:

1. Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)

2. Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs)

3. Overuse injuries
Symptoms:

 Discomfort  Swelling
 Pain  Change in color
 Numbness  Tightness, loss of flexibility
 Inflammation

Causes:

 Heavy, Frequent, or Awkward  Working in Awkward Postures

 Lifting  Hand Intensive Work
 Pushing, Pulling or Carrying  Vibration
Loads  Contact Stress

Risk factors:

Heavy Lifting – there are only recommended of weight for a person can lift.

Frequent Lifting – Lifting more than twice per minute

Awkward Lifting- Lifting above the shoulders, below the knees, or at arm’s length

VOODOO ERGONOMICS

It is a misunderstood the application of Ergonomics. Forcing to fit the work environment

to the worker to plan the product without considering worker’s or user’s satisfaction.

Lesson 2– (VISUAL SENSE)

WHAT IS LIGHTING ERGONOMICS?

Lighting ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. It
has a significant effect on productivity, workplace wellness and preventing CVS (a
condition resulting from focusing the eyes on a computer for prolonged periods of time).

COMMON LIGHTING PROBLEMS

 Insufficient light – not enough (too little) light for the need.
 Glare – too much light for the need.
  Improper contrast.
 Poorly distributed light.
 Flicker.

GOOD LIGHTING IN THE WORKPLACE PROMOTES:

 a reduced risk of occupational accidents and health problems;

 better concentration and accuracy in work;
 a brighter, cleaner workplace resulting in a more active, cheerful environment;
 improved work performance;
 better visibility, improved accuracy and increased work speed enhancing
production.
AMOUNT OF LIGHT NEEDED FOR VARIOUS TASKS

The amount of light we need varies and depends on:

 Type of task being done (such as demands for speed and accuracy).
 Type of surfaces (does it reflect or absorb light).
 General work area.
 Individual's vision.

Take note: The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux. Lux =
Lumens (quantity of light) per square meter.
TIPS IN MANAGING LIGHTING FOR COMFORT

1. Make Full Use of Daylight/Natural Lighting

Natural lighting is most effective in improving illumination. Using daylight improves

morale and it is free. However, it can also create problems with glare on your monitor.
To avoid this, position your desk to the side of the window. Here are some tips on how
to use natural lighting:

1. provide skylights, for example by replacing roof panels with translucent ones;

2. equip the workplace with additional windows;

3. place machines near windows;

4. move work requiring lighter near windows.

2. Use of Local Light

The use of local light has many advantages. Local lighting requires less power to get
adequate brightness since brightness is decreased exponentially by the distance from a
light source.

1. place and direct light the way it seems best for the work being performed;

2. light up the spot where light is needed;

3. Paint Ceilings and Walls in a Light Color

Light colors create more reflection than dark colors. Light colors make it easier to keep
ceilings and walls clean. Glossy white painted surfaces reflect 100% of the light
whereas black surfaces reflect no light at all. To achieve improved illumination, follow
these recommendations:

1. use white or a very light color on ceilings;

2. paint walls white;

3. use light or half-tone colors on tables and machines.

4. Choose an Appropriate Background

The background at the workstation is important, especially for visual tasks that demand
close, continuous attention. A simple background will allow for more accuracy and an
increase in production whereas a complex background may disturb the work and
increase the workload. To obtain an optimum visual task background:

1. eliminate potential sources of distraction, such as posted papers, forms or schedules

on walls;

2. use light-colored partitions and screens to eliminate or screen sources of distraction;

3. select an appropriate color for the work background. The following table provides
some guidance for making the selection.

Material Appropriate background color

Steel, cast iron Cream colored
Bronze, copper Grey-blue
 Light colored wood Dark
Aluminum, tin Cream colored
Dark wood Grey-blue
Ground casting Light
GLARE

Glare is a common lighting problem. Glare is what happens when a bright light source
or reflection interferes with how you are 'seeing' an object. In most cases, your eyes will
adapt to the brightest level of light.

Reflected glare is caused by:

 Light reflected from polished, shiny or glossy surfaces.

 Glass on picture frames, or windows at night.
 Monitors / screens.

Direct glare is caused by:

 Very bright light from poorly positioned light fixtures.

 Sunlight.

ILLUMINANCE

Illuminance is the amount of light falling on a surface.

The unit of measurement is lux (or lumens per square meter = 10.76 foot candles, fc).

A light meter is used to measure it.

Readings are taken from several angles and positions.

Luminance

Luminance is the amount of light reflected from a surface. The unit of measurement is
candela per square meter (equals 0.29 foot-lamberts). An illuminance meter is used to
measure it.

Contrast
Contrast is the relationship between the brightness of an object and its background. A
luminance meter is used to measure it. The following formula is used to calculate
contrast and provides a number between 0 and 1. The average contrast should be
above 0.5:

Reflectance

Reflectance is the ratio of light falling on a surface to the light reflected from a surface,
expressed as a percentage. A light meter is used to measure it. Reflectance can also be
measured using a reflectometer or by comparing the surface of interest with color chips
of known reflectance.

LIGHTING CALCULATION BASIC TERMS

1. Candela (cd)- is the standard unit of luminous intensity in the International System of
Units (SI). One candela is equivalent to the illumination from one standard candle.

2. Lux (lx) - the amount of illumination on a surface created by a light source of one
candela that is a meter away from the surface. Lux (lx) measures illuminance.

3. Lumens (lm) - The lumen (lm) is a measurement of luminous flux, or the total
amount of visible light.

4. Watts (W) -The Wattage of the light is the amount of energy it takes to produce a
certain amount of light. The higher the wattage, the brighter the light, but also the more
power it uses.

LIGHT RAYS & SHADOWS

A geometric analysis may be made of shadows by tracing light rays from a point light
source.

LUMINOUS FLUX

It is the portion of total radiant power which can affect the sensation of sight that can
affect your sense of sight. The unit for luminous flux is the LUMEN.

STERADIANS
Working with luminous flux requires the use of a solid angle measure called the
steradian (sr). A solid angle of one steradian (1 sr) is subtended at the center of a
sphere by an area A equal to the square of its radius (R 2).

Lesson 3– (AUDITORY SENSE)

WHAT IS NOISE?

• The words noise comes from the “Latin” word nauseas, means “injury” or “hurts”

• Sound that is unwanted, unpleasant and annoying sound caused by vibration of the
matter.

• When there is a lot of noise in the environment, it is termed as noise pollution.

• Sounds becomes undesirable when it disturbs the normal activities such as working,
sleeping, and during conversation.

THREE (3) CHARACTERISTICS OF NOISE

1. Frequency - The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. This is
measured in Hertz cycles per second.

2. Loudness - Intensity of the sound; measured in Decibel.

3. Duration - Continuous, intermittent, burst, waxing/waning.

TYPES OF NOISE

1. Continuous Noise - Continuous noise is what it says on the tin. It is noise that is
continuously produced by machinery which continues to run without interruption. This
may come from manufacturing equipment, heating or ventilation systems.

2. Intermittent Noise - Intermittent noise is a noise level that is rapidly increasing and
decreasing. This could be a transiting freight train, factory equipment that operates
overhead in cycles or aircraft.

3. Impulsive Noise - Impulsive noise is most commonly associated with the

construction and demolition industry. With its fast and surprising nature, this sudden
burst of noise can startle you. Explosions or construction equipment such as pile drivers
generate impelling noise.

4. Low Frequency Noise - Low frequency noise is an integral part of our daily
soundscape fabric. We are constantly exposed to low frequency noise whether it is the
low background humming from power plants or the roaring of large diesel engines.

NOISE MEASUREMENT: DECIBEL METER

 A decibel meter is a measuring instrument used to assess noise or sound levels

by measuring sound pressure. A sound level meter used a microphone to
capture sound is often referred to as a sound pressure level (SPL) meter, decibel
(dB) meter, noise meter, or noise dosimeter.
 Sound energy travels in waves and is measured in frequency and amplitude.
 Amplitude measures how forceful the wave is. It is measured in decibels or dBA
of sound pressure.
 Frequency is measured in the number of sound vibrations in one second. A
healthy ear can hear sounds of very low frequency, 20 Hertz (or 20 cycles per
second) to a very high frequency of 20,000 Hertz.

HAZARDOUS NOISE

 Sounds louder than 60-80db are considered potentially very dangerous. Hair
cells of the inner ear & the hearing nerve can be damaged by an intense brief
pulse.
 It is an underrated environmental problem because of the fact that we can’t see,
smell, or taste it.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Acute Effects

- Acoustic Trauma (Explosion, Gunshot) – refers to permanent cochlear damage from a

one-time exposure to excessive sound pressure.
- Temporary Threshold Shift

- Poor Communication

2. Chronic or Long-Term Effects:

- Permanent Threshold Shift (Noise induced hearing loss- NIHL) – it refers to an

increasingly prevalent disorder that results from exposure to high-intensity sound
especially over a long period of time.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON ANIMALS

- Hearing loss

- Masking – masking is the inability to hear important environmental clues and animal
signal

- Physiological effect – such an increase in heart rate, respiratory difficulties and stress

- Behavioral effects- which could result in abandonment of territory and loss of ability to
reproduce.

- Ecological effect - it leads to migration of birds which disturbs the ecosystem

Lesson 4– (VESTIBULAR SENSE)

WHAT IS VIBRATION?

- is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point

- comes from LATIN WORD “vibrare” meaning shaking or brandishing

TYPES OF VIBRATION

1. FREE OR NATURAL VIBRATION

 are vibration that has no external force acts on the body.
  Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system with an initial input is set in
motion and vibrations are allowed free. Examples of this kind of vibration are to
pull a child back on a swing and let it go or hit a tuning fork and let it ring. At one
or more of its natural frequencies, the mechanical system vibrates and dampens
down to motionless.

a. Longitudinal - the shaft is elongated and shortened alternate

b. Transverse - the shaft is straight and bent alternate

c. Torsional - the shaft is twisted and untwisted alternate

2. FORCED VIBRATION
 it is when the body vibrates under the influence of external force
 is when a time-varying disturbance (load, displacement or velocity) is applied to a
mechanical system. Periodic and steady-state input, a transient input, or a
random input can be the disruption. The periodic input can be either harmonic or
non-harmonic. Examples of these types of vibration include a washing machine
shaking due to an imbalance, transportation vibration caused by an engine or
uneven road, or the vibration of a building during an earthquake.
3. DAMPED VIBRATION
 a vibration in which there is reduction in amplitude over every cycle of
vibration.
 When friction and other resistance gradually dissipate the energy of vibrating
system, the vibrations are said to dampen. The vibrations gradually decrease
or change or cease in frequency or intensity and the system rests in its
position of equilibrium. An example of this type of vibration is the vehicular
suspension which the shock absorber dampens.

VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

- Vibration used to be measured by an accelerometer, proximity probe and vibrometer.

- The unit used in vibration can be expressed in m/s^2 or unit of gravitational constant
(g)

- Generally, it has components of amplitude and of frequency. Single frequency

vibration is usually reduced to:

a. amplitude measured in displacement, velocity or acceleration. SI units of m,

m/s, or m/sec^2

b. Frequency in Hz.

- However, in real life vibration is a complex summation of multiple frequencies at

relatively different amplitudes.

- Vibration sensors are usually electronic, and a continuous voltage signal is generated
that can be captured by recorders. It can be reduced to a time series if digitalized.

VIBRATION EQUIPMENTS

1. ACCELEROMETER
 Known as High Frequency Transducer
 Used to measure the acceleration of a vibrating body
 It also displays velocity and displacement of an object
2. VIBROMETER/VIBRATION METER
 Also known as Low Frequency Transducer
 Used to measure the high frequency of a vibration body
3. PROXIMITY PROBE
 are sensors used to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its
support bearing.
 Commonly used in turbines, compressors and motors.

Lesson 5– (BIOMECHANICS)

WHAT ARE BIOMECHANICS?

 Bio = Living Mechanics = Forces & Effects
 “The application of mechanical principles in the study of living organisms”
 The study of biological structures, processes and functions by applying the methods
and principles of mechanics. Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned
with the description of motion and how forces create motion.
 Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools that are necessary for
understanding how living things move and how kinesiology professionals might
improve movement or make movement safer.

WHY STUDY BIOMECHANICS?

1. IMPROVEMENT OF PERFORMANCE

Effective movement involves anatomical factors, neuromuscular skills, physiological

capacities, and psychological/ cognitive abilities. Biomechanics is most useful in
improving performance in sports or activities where technique is the dominant factor
rather than physical structure or physiological capacity. Another way biomechanics
research improves performance is advances in exercise and conditioning programs.
Biomechanical studies of exercise movements and training devices serve to determine
the most effective training to improve performance.

2. REDUCTION OR TREATMENT OF INJURY

Movement safety, or injury prevention/ treatment, is another primary area where

biomechanics can be applied. Biomechanics helps the physical therapist prescribe
rehabilitative exercises, assistive devices, or orthotics. Orthotics are support
objects/braces that correct deformities or joint positioning, while assistive devices are
large tools to help patient function like canes or walkers.

WHAT IS MECHANICS?

Mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the motion of objects and the forces that
cause that motion. The science of mechanics is divided into many areas, but the three
main areas most relevant to biomechanics are: rigid-body, deformable-body, and
fluids.
  In rigid-body mechanics, the object being analyzed is assumed to be rigid and
the deformations in its shape so small they can be ignored.
 Deformable-body mechanics studies how forces are distributed within a
material, and can be focused at many levels (cellular to tissues/organs/ system)
to examine how forces stimulate growth or cause damage.
 Fluid mechanics is concerned with the forces in fluids (liquids and gasses).
 Statics is the study of objects at rest or in uniform (constant) motion.
 Dynamics is the study of objects being accelerated by the actions of forces.
 Kinematics is motion description. In kinematics the motions of objects are
usually measured in linear (meters, feet, etc.) or angular (radians, degrees, etc.)
terms.
 Kinetics is concerned with determining the causes of motion.

NINE (9) PRINCIPLES FOR APPLICATION OF BIOMECHANICS

1. FORCE- MOTION PRINCIPLE - Says that says that unbalanced forces are
acting on our bodies or objects when we either create or modify movement.
2. FORCE-TIME - It is not only the amount of force that can increase the motion of
an object; the amount of time over which force can be applied also affects the
resulting motion.
3. INERTIA - can be defined as the property of all objects to resist changes in their
state of motion.
4. RANGE OF MOTION - is the overall motion used in a movement and can be
specified by linear or angular motion of the body segments.
5. BALANCE - is a person's ability to control their body position relative to some
base of support.
6. COORDINATION CONTINUUM - principle says that determining the optimal
timing of muscle actions or segmental motions depends on the goal of the
movement.
7. SEGMENTAL INTERACTION - says that the forces acting in a system of linked
rigid bodies can be transferred through the links and joints.
 8. OPTIMAL PROJECTION - says that for most human movements involving
projectiles there is an optimal range of projection angles for a specific goal.
9. SPIN - or rotations imparted to projectiles, and particularly sport balls.

JOINT MOTIONS

1. SYNOVIAL JOINT - Also known as a diarthrosis, the most common and most
movable type of joint in the body of a mammal.
 SIX (6) TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
 GLIDING JOINTS - only allow sliding movement
 HINGE JOINTS - allow flexion and extension in one plane
 PIVOT JOINTS - allow bone rotation about another bone
 CONDYLOID JOINTS - perform flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction movements
 SADDLE JOINTS - permit the same movement as condyloid joints
and combine with them to form compound joints
 BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS - allow all movements except gliding
2. ABDUCTION - The movement that separates a limb or other part from the axis,
or middle line, of the body.
3. FLEXION - The act of bending a joint. The counteraction of extension.
4. ADDUCTION - The action by which the parts of the body are drawn toward its
axis.

BIOMECHANICS IN MANUAL LIFTING

NIOSH LIFTING EQUATION - It is a tool used by occupational health and safety

professionals to assess the manual material handling risks associated with lifting and
lowering tasks in the workplace.

Lesson 6– (MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDER)

WHAT ARE MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDER?

Such injuries and disorders affect the movement of the human body or the Musculo-
skeletal system (muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, blood vessel). It affects the
muscles, nerves, blood vessels, ligaments and tendons. Workers in many different
industries and occupations can be exposed to risk factors at work, such as lifting heavy
items, bending, reaching overhead, pushing and pulling heavy loads, working in
awkward body postures and performing the same or similar tasks repetitively. Exposure
to these known risk factors for MSDs increases a worker's risk of injury.

WHAT IS WORK-RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDER (WMSD)?

• WMSDs are also known as:

• Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)

• Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs)

• Overuse injuries

• They are soft tissue injuries which occur gradually.

• When a muscle, tendon, nerve or joint is stressed and traumatized on a repeated

basis for days, months or years, those body tissues eventually become damaged. This
leads to a work-related musculoskeletal disorder.

SYPTOMS OF (WMSDs)

• Discomfort • Burning

• Pain • Swelling

• Numbness • Change in color

• Inflammation • Tightness, loss of flexibility

• Besides the most common upper extremity disorders, WMSDs may also affect the low
back, knees, ankles and feet.

CAUSES OF (WMSDs)

• Heavy, Frequent, or Awkward Lifting • Pushing, Pulling or Carrying Loads

• Working in Awkward Postures • Vibration

• Hand Intensive Work • Contact Stress

HOW DO WMSD’S OCCUR?

WMSD’s include three types of injuries:

 Muscle injury - When muscles contract, they use chemical energy from
sugars and produce by-products such as lactic acid which are removed by
the blood. A muscle contraction that lasts a long time reduces the blood
flow.
 Tendon injury - Tendons consist of numerous bundles of fibers that
attach muscles to bones. Tendon disorders related to repetitive or
frequent work activities and awkward postures occur in two major
categories – tendons with sheath.
 Nerve injury - Nerves carry signals from the brain to control activities of
muscles. They also carry information about temperature, pain and touch
from the body to the brain, and control bodily functions such as sweating
and salivation. Nerves are surrounded by muscles, tendons, and
ligaments. With repetitive motions and awkward postures, the tissues
surrounding nerves become swollen, and squeeze or compress nerves.

HOW DO YOU TREAT WMSDs?

Treatment may involve a combination of approaches

such as:

 Job modifications
 Services of health professionals, such as
 physiotherapists or massage therapists
 Exercise program
 Use of medication for pain relief
 Application of heat or cold
EXAMPLES OF WMSD

Lesson 7– (POSTURAL ANALYSIS)

WHAT IS POSTURE?
Posture is the position in which you hold your body upright against the forces of gravity
while standing or sitting. The key to good posture is training your body to sit, stand and
walk in positions where the least strain is placed on supporting muscles and ligaments
during weight bearing activities.

NEUTRAL POSTURE

The optimal design of work provides tasks that can be performed while maintaining a
neutral range of postures. A neutral range of postures is not just one posture or position
of a joint, but includes a range of postures where the muscles are at or near their resting
length, and the joint is naturally aligned. Neutral ranges of postures are usually the most
comfortable positions for our joints.

Postures within this range:

 Allow for the greatest control

 Result in maximum force production
 Minimize the stress and strain applied to muscles, tendons, nerves and bone

AWKWARD POSTURE
It refers to positions of the body that deviate significantly from the neutral position while
performing work activities. It occurs when joints are not in neutral positions. When you
are in an awkward position, muscles operate less efficiently, and more force must be
expended to do the task. Working in these postures is a common contributing factor to
musculoskeletal disorders.

Awkward postures increase the total exertion required to complete a job:

 The body must apply force to joints and muscles to deviate body parts from the
 neutral position
 The further the deviation, the more force that is applied
 The further the deviation, the less force you are able to apply to your tool
 Working in awkward postures will cause fatigue, leading to injuries

The following list provides examples of awkward postures that may involve range of
movement near extreme positions:

 bending neck forward greater than 30 degrees

 raising the elbow above the shoulder
 Bending the wrist downward with palm facing downward greater than 30
degrees
 bending the back forward greater than 45 degrees
 squatting

STATIC POSTURE

Static postures involve little or no movement. Because blood flow through muscles,
which provides energy and removes waste, depends on movement, static postures
elevate the risk of discomfort and MSDs. Even neutral postures can result in discomfort
if one posture or position is maintained for a prolonged period of time.

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF AWKWARD POSTURE?

  Poor joint alignment
 General muscle/head aches
 Increased shear forces within the spine effecting disc integrity
 Compression of disc and joint structures
 Reduced blood flow to muscles resulting in increased fatigue
 Overuse injuries

HOW TO REDUCE THE RISK OF HAVING AWKWARD POSTURE?

1. MAINTAIN THE S-CURVE OF THE SPINE

 The spinal column is curved roughly in the shape of an “S”. For the lower
back, this involves maintaining some degree of lordosis, that is, a slight
“swayback,” whether sitting or standing.
 Bending forward or otherwise flattening the slight swayback puts pressure on
the sensitive discs of the lower back, which can ultimately lead to severe back
injury. Twisting of the back is similarly a key issue

2. KEEP ELBOWS IN AND SHOULDERS RELAXED

 The elbows should be held comfortably at the side of the body; the shoulders
should be relaxed and not hunched.

3. KEEP THE NECK IN ITS PROPER ALIGNMENT

 The neutral posture of the neck is fairly self-evident; namely, it should not be bent
or twisted.

4. KEEP WRISTS IN NEUTRAL

 The hand should be in the same plane as the fore arm and angled somewhat in,
more or less as if holding the steering wheel of a car at the 10 and 2 o’clock
position.

LESSON 7.1– (MANUAL MATERIAL HANDLING)

MATERIALS HANDLING AND STORAGE

Is a technique which includes the art of lifting, placing, storing or movement of materials
through the use of one’s physical strength or appropriate handling equipment. Materials
handling has two general classifications: manual materials handling and mechanical
materials handling.

BASIC HANDLING PRINCIPLES:

 Needless handling costs but can’t add value to the product

 Manual handling must be eliminated whenever possible and mechanical means
should be employed
 Handling equipment should be replaced whenever greater efficiency can be
obtained

CATEGORIES OF MATERIALS HANDLING

1. Lifting - Distance is particularly important where lifting is an integral part of the job.

2. Transporting - considerable thought should be given to the planning and routing of

traffic

3. Storing - depends on the type of materials and free flow of materials

TYPES OF MATERIAL HANDLING:

MATERIALS HANDLING PROBLEMS

1. Injuries, sprains and fractures caused by the following:

 Improper lifting  Failing to observe proper foot or

 Carrying too heavy loads hand clearance
 Incorrect gripping  Failure to use or wear of
equipment/ proper personal
protective equipment & clothing

2. Property damage & serious injury/fatality caused by mechanical equipment.

WHAT IS MANUAL MATERIAL HANDLING?

means moving or handling things by lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling, carrying, holding,
or restraining using one’s physical strength. MMH is also the most common cause of
occupational fatigue, low back pain and lower back injuries. Manual materials handling
also involve pushing and pulling motions at work. You use various pushing and pulling
techniques in a wide range of activities, such as:

 using manual carts and trucks  opening and closing doors

 sliding objects such as cartons on  wrapping or enclosing objects in
flat surfaces (tables, floors, etc.) packaging materials
 operating tools and controls

WHAT MAKES MANUAL MATERIALS HANDLING HAZARDOUS?

MMH is always hazardous but the level of hazard depends on what you are handling,
what the task is, and what the conditions are at the workplace or work site. For
example, the material or load that you are handling may be:

- too heavy for the task that you are - wet, slippery, or have sharp edges that
doing makes it hard to grasp
- located too high or low for a safe lift - unstable or can shift its center of
gravity because the contents may flow
- too big or may have a shape that
(e.g., a partially filled drum or concrete
makes it hard to handle
in a wheelbarrow)
- too big to let you see where you are putting your feet
What types of protective clothing should be worn in Manual Material Handling?

- lightweight, flexible, tear and puncture-resistant clothing,

- safety boots with toe caps and slip-resistant soles, and

- protective gloves, appropriate for the materials being handled.

PROPER LIFTNG TECHNIQUES (8 COMMANDMENTS OF LIFTING)

1. Plan the Lift – Before attempting to lift or move something heavy, it is important to
step back and analyze what needs to be accomplished. Think about how heavy the
object is, how far it has to be moved, what is the shape of the object?

2. Ask for help - always get help for heavy and awkward loads.

3. Get a Firm Footing - Stand directly in front of the load, with feet and shoulder width
apart. One foot should be in front of the other for balance.
4. Bend your Knees – Bend your knees and use your legs to lift.

5. Tighten your stomach muscles – This will help grasp and pull it close to the body.

6. Lift with your legs - Leg muscles are stronger than back muscles, lift with the legs
until they are straightened.

7. Keep the load close - Using both hands, grasp the object firmly and pull it as close
as possible to your body.

8. Keep your back upright – Avoid jerky movements. Keep the natural curve in your
spine; don’t bend at the waist.

MECHANICAL / MECHANIZED MATERIAL HANDLING

This pertains to use of rigid, manually or mechanicallypowered equipment mainly for

handling bulky and heavy items. It has 2 types: Manually powered materials handling
equipment and the mechanically powered materials handling equipment.
A. MANUALLY POWERED MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Reduce physical effort, making materials handling easier and safer. Example of
manually powered materials handling equipment:

a. Rolling platforms to assist in carrying and handling heavy objects where limited
space does not allow for comfortable body position.

b. hand truck to move bulky objects.

c. shelf truck to move a variety of objects.

d. platform truck to move heavy, irregularly shaped objects.

e. Use a semi-live skid for temporary storage.

f. Select the rack or bin that suits the task and mount on semi-live skid or platform
truck.

g. Select a stair climbing truck when moving load on stairs.

h. Choose a sturdy frame hand truck with larger wheels to move materials in rough
terrain. Additional set of handles allows for assistance.

i. Use a pump truck to move materials stored on pallets.

j. Move and dump waste materials with dump trucks.

k. Move and empty drums with tilting drum cradles and drum dollies.

l. Handle sheet materials with an "A" frame hand truck or dolly.

B. MECHANICALLY-POWERED MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

It is classified into two: lifting equipment and transport equipment. Lifting equipment
includes a variety of items for lifting heavy and bulky items with minimal human
intervention such as hoists and cranes.

Transport equipment, on the other hand, consists of forklifts, dump trucks, trailers and
conveyors among others.
To ensure safe operation of mechanically-powered handling equipment, the following
precautions must be observed:

 A worker must not operate an equipment if he is not trained to use it;

 Operators must be certified and authorized;
 Operators must be trained in safety and health involving handling equipment
operation; and,
 Equipment must be properly maintained and regularly inspected.

Lesson 8– (WORKSTATION DESIGN)

WORKSTATION/WORKPLACE DESIGN

The workplace design should aim to propagate intuition, teamwork, and more
importantly, provide a safe and comfortable environment. Workplace design has a
profound impact on the productivity of workers. Making the best use of space through
optimum placement of equipment, integrating the human factor into workplace design,
and effectively aligning the workplace into the surrounding environment are important
aspects of ergonomics.

WORKSPACE

It is the area within which you perform the tasks that add up to your job. The physical
design of a workspace includes setting the amount of space needed and the positioning
of furniture, tools, equipment and any other items necessary to perform the tasks, in
respect to proper posture, access, clearance, reach and vision of the user. Poor design
of the workspace or bad arrangement of furniture or equipment, may result in injuries
and strains due to adoption of uncomfortable working postures, less 'spare' capacity to
deal with unexpected events or emergencies, increased possibility of errors or
accidents, and inefficiency.

The layout or organization of the work area must allow materials to be handled without
excessive bending, twisting and stretching reduces injuries.

 Have all materials at work level.

 Use adjustable elements at the workplace.
  Workbench with adjustable height and tilt improves working position.
 Self-adjusting platform automatically matches worker's height.
 Ensure that there is enough room to turn around to prevent twisting.
 Use adjustable supports or suspenders to operate heavy tools.
 Tool suspender reduces muscular effort and compression on the back.
 Tool support eliminates over-stretching and overreaching.
 Lift-and-tilt device and side opening on bin reduces bending.
 Use bins that allow easy access.

An ergonomically designed workstation promotes good posture and helps to:

 Keep bones and joints in the correct alignment so that muscles are being used
properly.
 Help decrease the abnormal wearing of joint surfaces that could result in arthritis.
 Decrease the stress on the ligaments holding the joints of the spine together.
 Prevent the spine from becoming fixed in abnormal positions.
 Counter fatigue because muscles are being used more efficiently, allowing the
body to use less energy.
 Prevent strain or overuse problems.
 Avert backache and muscular pain.

SITTING BODY POSITION GUIDELINES:

 Lower back supported by a lumbar curve

 Bottom & Thighs distributed pressure
 ARMS minimal bend at the wrist
 The area behind the knee not touching the seat
 Feet flat on the floor or on a footrest
 Wrists and hands do not rest on sharp or hard edges
 The telephone should be used with your head upright (not bent) and your
shoulders relaxed (not elevated)
STANDING: Working Guidelines

 Precision Work – above elbow height

 Light Work – just below elbow height
 Heavy Work – 4-6 inches below elbow height

HANDLING AREAS AND CATEGORIZATION OF WORK TOOLS

Handling areas are defined areas around people, in which objects can be touched,
grasped and moved with the hand without any major change of position. The defined
handling areas can be helpful for furnishing and arranging workplaces. For example,
manual activities requiring a high degree of visual oversight should be performed as
close to the body as possible, as the precise movements becomes more difficult with
increasing distance from the body.

 Zone 1:

Working center/assembly site Both hands work close to one another and are in the
center of the field of vision

 Zone 2:

Extended working center Both hands reach all points in this zone

 Zone 3:

One-handed zone Area for placing items than can be grasped/operated with one hand

 Zone 4:

Extended one-handed zone Outermost still usable zone, e.g., for arranging small parts
in grab containers. In the case of a large number of repetitions or a high load, stress
exerts a deleterious effect on the musculoskeletal system after a short time