Reference books: IR Part 66 Module 9

Presented by:
Tamanna Sahib
 Chapter 1 Introduction
The Need To Take Human Factors Into Account

 During the early days of powered flight, mechanical

failure was the major contributing factor in aircraft
accidents. Human error naturally played its role
because humans are fallible and all of us are prone to
make mistakes for one or another We can modify and
improve machines but we cannot redesign human
beings.
Machine / Human Causes for
Accidents
 Human error 120
defined by red line. 100
 Machine error defined 80
by yellow line.
60

40

20

0
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
What is “Human Factors”?
 "Human factors" refers to the study of human
capabilities and limitations in the workplace.
 Human factors researchers study system
performance. That is, they study the interaction of
maintenance personnel, the equipment they use,
the written and verbal procedures and rules they
follow, and the environmental conditions of any
system.
 The aim of human factors is to optimise the
relationship between maintenance personnel and
systems with a view to improving safety, efficiency
and well-being”
The SHEL Model
 The Shel model is often used to demonstrate
how human factors should fit into the structure
of a task.
 A model which is often used is the SHEL model,
a name derived from the initial letters of its
components:
 Software(e.g. maintenance procedures,
maintenance manuals, checklist layout, etc.);
 Hardware(e.g. tools, test equipment, the physical
structure of aircraft etc.)
 Environment (e.g. physical environmentsuch as
conditions in the hangar, conditions on the line,
etc.)
 Liveware (i.e. the person or people at the centre of the
model, including maintenance engineers, supervisors,
etc.)
 Liveware at the centre of the fig. is the human
operative. The software , hardware, environment
and liveware interfaces must all be aligned correctly
to support the human at the centre.
The Reason Model
 Prof Reason put a model forward in 1990 that
shows how a complex system can break down as a
result of the actions of various humans that
contribute to it.
 Key elements of model are:
 Decision makers
 Line management
 Productive activities
 Pre condition and defences.
 The decision makers are the executives responsible
for setting 2 important goals i.e.
 To achieve the task on time
 To do this safely

 The line management are responsible for

implementing the decisions made by the decision
makers by carrying out actions that will result in
effective productive work force activities.

 They can achieve this effectively and safely only

when the necessary precondition exist.
 The Reason Model points to 2 types of failure in the
system:
 Active failure occurs when an error has an immediate and
quantifiable effect.
 Latent failure occurs much further back up the chain of
actions and may remain undetected for some time before it
finally surfaces to cause an accident.
 Latent failure can be introduced at any level in the
system for reasons that may range from negligence to
poor motivation, fatigue or stress.
MURPHY’S LAW
 CHAPTER 2

HUMAN
PERFORMANCE &
LIMITATIONS
Vision
 NOTE: The amount of light allowed to enter the eye can
be adjusted by a factor of five to one by the pupil

This 5:1 factor is not sufficient to cope with the different

light levels experienced between full daylight and a dark
night and a further mechanism is required. In reduced
light levels a chemical change takes place in the light
sensitive cells on the retina (cones and rods). This dark
adaptation does take time, about 7 minutes for the
cones and 30 minutes for the rods. When complete the
chemical change can cope with large changes in
luminance level (of the order of 150,000 : 1 for the
cones). After passing through the pupil the light passes
through a clear lens, which can change its shape
(accommodation) to achieve the final focusing onto the
retina.
The Basic Function of the Eye
 The basic structure of the eye is similar to a
simple camera with an aperture (the iris), a
lens, and a light sensitive surface (the
retina).

 Light enters the eye through the cornea, then

passes through the iris and the lens and falls on
the retina. Here the light stimulates the light-
sensitive cells on the retina (rods and cones)
and these pass small electrical impulses by way
of the optic nerve to the visual cortex in the
brain. Here, the electrical impulses are
interpreted and an image is perceived.
THE CORNEA
 IRIS AND PUPIL
 The iris (the coloured part of the eye)
controls the amount of light that is allowed
to enter the eye. It does this by varying the
size of the pupil (the dark area in the
centre of the iris). The size of the pupil can
be changed very rapidly to cater for
changing light levels.

 The amount of light can be adjusted by a

factor of 5:1.
 The Lens
 After passing through the pupil, the light passes
through the lens.
 Its shape is changed by the muscles (cillary
muscles) surrounding it which results in the
final focusing adjustment to place a sharp image
onto the retina.
 The change of shape of the lens is called
accommodation.
 In order to focus clearly on a near object, the
lens is thickened. To focus on a distant point, the
lens is flattened. The degree of
accommodation can be affected by factors
such as fatigue or the ageing process.
 The Retina
 The retina is located on the rear wall of the eyeball.
 It is made up of a complex layer of nerve cells
connected to the optic nerve.
 Two types of light sensitive cells are found in the
retina - rods and cones.
 The central area of the retina is known as the fovea
and the receptors in this area are all cones.
 It is here that the visual image is typically focused.
Moving outwards, the cones become less dense and
are progressively replaced by rods, so that in the
periphery of the retina, there are only rods.
THE OPTIC NERVE
BLIND SPOT
The Visual Acquity
Normal Sight
 Factors Affecting Sight
 Angular Magnitude
Parallax
Short Sight
Long Sight
Presbyopia

Astigmatism
 Double Vision

 This is an abnormality called diplopia

where two images of the same object are
seen.
 It is due to some abnormality in the
refraction of the eye.
 If it disappears when one eye is closed
then it is called double vision.
 This may caused by weakness in cilliary
muscles.
 Colour Blindness
This is a common term used to describe
a colour defective vision condition
called Achromatopsia.

 People with this condition are unable

to distinguish between certain colours
or shades of colours.
 Amongst other things, good colour vision for maintenance
engineers is important for:
 Recognising components;
 Distinguishing between wires;
 Using various diagnostic tools;
 Recognising various lights on the airfield (e.g. warning
lights).

 Colour defective vision is usually hereditary, although may also

occur as a temporary condition after a serious illness.

 Colour-defective vision (normally referred to incorrectly as

colour blindness) affects about 8% of men but only 0.5% of
women. The most common type is difficulty in distinguishing
between red and green. More rarely, it is possible to confuse
blues and yellows.
 Affect of Foreign Substances
 Vision can be adversely affected by the use of
certain drugs and medications, alcohol, and
smoking cigarettes.

 With smoking, carbon monoxide which builds up

in the bloodstream allows less oxygen to be carried
in the blood to the eyes.

 This is known as hypoxia and can impair rapidly

the sensitivity of the rods.
 Affect of Lighting Levels
 Vision can be improved by increasing the lighting level, but
the affects of glare can easily counteract it.
 Moving from an extremely bright environment to a dimmer
one has the effect of vision being severely reduced because
your eyes are light adapted.
 If an engineer works in a very dark environment for a long
time, his eyes gradually become dark adapted allowing
better visual acuity
 This can take about 7 minutes for the cones and 30 minutes
for the rods. As a consequence, moving between a bright
hanger (or the inside of an aircraft) to a dark apron area at
night can mean that the maintenance engineer must wait
for his eyes to adjust (adapt).
Environment
Visual Cues
 Many factors associated with the object being viewed can
also influence vision. We use information from the objects
we are looking at to help distinguish what we are seeing.
These are known as visual cues.

 Visual cues often refer to the comparison of objects of

known size to unknown objects.

 Movement and relative motion of an object, as well as

distance and angle of the object from the viewer, can all
increase visual demands.
Hearing
The Basic Function of the Ear
 The ear performs two quite different functions.
 It is used to detect sounds by receiving vibrations in the
air, and
 Secondly, it is responsible for balance and sensing
acceleration.
 Of these two, the hearing aspect is more pertinent to the
maintenance engineer, and thus it is necessary to have a
basic appreciation of how the ear works.
 A healthy young person can hear sound in the frequency
range of 20 hz to 20 khz.
 The unit used to measure the intensity of sound is decibel.
 The branch of science that is concerned with the ear is
called otology.
Outer Ear
Middle Ear
 Beyond the eardrum is the middle ear which transmits
vibrations from the eardrum by way of three small bones
known as the ossicles, to the fluid of the inner ear.

 The cavity houses the ossicles in the form of a chain of 3

small bones that conduct the vibration from the tympanic
membrane across to the wall of inner ear.

 The names of bones connected to the tympanic

membrane :
 First - malleus or hammer.
 Second - incus or anvil
 Third - Stapes or stirrup
 The middle ear also contains two muscles which help to
protect the ear from sounds above 80 dB by means of the
acoustic or aural reflex, reducing the noise level by up to
20 dB.

 The middle ear is usually filled with air which is refreshed

by way of the eustachian tube which connects this part of
the ear with the back of the nose and mouth.

 This protection can only be provided for a maximum of

about 15 minutes, and does not provide protection against
sudden impulse noise such as gunfire.
Inner Ear
FACTORS THAT AFFECT HEARING
Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
 Hearing may be impaired by exposure to high intensity
sound.
 High intensity sound puts the hair-like cells on the basilar
membrane in the cochlea under stress and take time to
recover.
 The extent of damage caused to hearing by exposure to
loud noise is dependent on the noise intensity and
duration.
CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS
 When damage occurs to the eardrum or the osscicles it can
interfere with the transmission of sound by conduction to
the organs of the inner ear and may produce what is called
conductive deafness.
Presbycusis
 A person,s hearing gradually deteriorates as they grow
older, usually from the age of 30 years. This is called
presbycusis and it normally affects the higher pitch sound
range effect.

Tinnitus
 This is the medical condition that produces a sensation of
constant ringing or other noises in the ear.

Catarrh
 Te arrangement of the Eustachian tube means that mucus
can cause a blockage and impair hearing.
AFFECT OF SOUND ON PERFORMANCE
 Noise can create acute stress in people.
 Noise also causes insidous effect in that it is tiring and
starts to interfere with concentration and decision
making.

Hearing Protection
 Hearing protection is provided in the form of earplugs
or ear defenders.
 Earplugs have a limited use in being capable of
reducing noise intensity by up to 20 db.
 Ear defenders can reduce the intensity level by upto
40db.
Information Processing
 Information processing can be represented as a model.
This captures the main elements of the process, from
receipt of information via the senses, to outputs such
as decision making and actions.
Sensory Receptors and Sensory Stores

 Physical stimuli are received via the sensory

receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and stored for a very brief
period of time in sensory stores (sensory memory).

 Visual information is stored for up to half a second

in iconic memory and sounds are stored for slightly
longer (up to 2 seconds) in echoic memory. This
enables us to remember a sentence as a sentence,
rather than merely as an unconnected string of
isolated words, or a film as a film, rather than as a
series of disjointed images.
Attention and Perception
 Having detected information, our mental resources are
concentrated on specific elements - this is attention.

 Attention can take the form of:

 • selective attention,
 • divided attention,
 • focused attention
 • sustained attention.

 Selective attention occurs when a person is monitoring

several sources of input, with greater attention being given
to one or more sources which appear more important.
 Divided attention is common in most work
situations, where people are required to do more than
one thing at the same time.

 Focused attention is merely the skill of focussing

one’s attention upon a single source and avoiding
distraction.

 Sustained attention as its name implies, refers to the

ability to maintain attention and remain alert over
long periods of time, often on one task.
Perception
 Perception involves the organisation and
interpretation of sensory data in order to make it
meaningful, discarding non-relevant data, i.e.
transforming data into information.

 Perception is a highly sophisticated mechanism and

requires existing knowledge and experience to know
what data to keep and what to discard, and how to
associate the data in a meaningful manner.
FALSE PERCEPTION
 Decision Making:-
 Decision making is a process of thinking
resolving problems and exerting judgment.
While we are engaged in this process, we are
calling on our knowledge, understanding,
experience, ambitious goals etc. It identify
alternative courses of action based on the
latest information available and then
choosing the course that we consider to be
most suitable.
 MEMORY
 3 Main forms of memory:-

 Ultra short term

 Short term memory
 Long term memory
MEMORY
 Ultra Short Term Memory
 It contains the sensory stores that briefly retain
information coming in from our sensory receptors to
give us time to decide whether to transfer it to our
short term or long term memory. The things that you
see are initially retained in our iconic memory store
for about half a second. The things that you hear are
retained in the echoic memory store for about 2
seconds.
 These stores allow us to read sentences as a
connected string of words and view films a sequence of
& smooth movements.
 Short Term Memory
 The short term memory receives selected
information from our sensory stores and
retain it long enough to enable us to use it.
That is why often referred to as being the
working memory.
 This memory has a limited
capacity and can store between 5-9 pieces of
associated information for between 10-20
second.
 Long Term Memory
The capacity of the long term memory
appears to be limitless. It is used to store
information that we are not currently using
in out working memory. This memory is
split into 3 parts:-
 Semantic Memory
 Episodic Memory
 Motor Programme.
 Semantic Memory
 This is where we store general knowledge,
factual knowledge, concepts, rules, language
and just about anything else we need to
remember in order to operate this modern
world of outs:- including module nine
Human Factors:
 The Semantic memory stores
information permanently.
 Episodic Memory
 This is where we store the memories of
specific events in our lives. These include
past experience, people, events and objects.
It consist of the things happened to us in the
past, our part in them and the people
associated with them.
 Amnesia mainly affects the episodic
part of the long term memory.
 Motor Programmes
 When certain tasks are repeated many
times they will become automatic and
the sequence of actions required to do
them will be then stored in the long
term memory to be pulled out
automatically to the working memory
when required. These are behavioral
sub routine called Motor Programme.
 Amnesia
 This is the general term used to
describe a partial or complete loss of
memory the condition may be
permanent or temporary. Total amnesia
is highly unlikely as there always be
some mental activity.
 Verbal Amnesia
 This is the most common form
encountered and reveals. Itself as an
inability to recall the names of
common objects. Another form of this
type of amnesia affects the ability to
express thoughts fully.
 Situation Awareness
 Can be illustrated again by the role of driver
of a car. The driver needs to be aware of
what state of motion the car is in and where
it is:-
 When an engineer is carrying out task
on the a/c, the needs to be aware of the
meaning of what is going on in work area.
We also need to understand the importance
of what we are working on other people and
other aircraft systems.
 Forgetting
 The limited information storage
periods in the sensory stores and the
working memory not be stored or it
may be stored incorrectly because of a
problem with attention or perception.
Claustrophobia & Physical Access
 Claustrophobia is an irrational fear of
being in an enclosed space. Many
people are not aware that they suffer
from it until first contact with an
accident that triggers it.
 Fear of Heights
This is another fairly common
occurrence that can affect people.
The symptoms are called vertigo
and give rise to sensation of
giddiness and loss of equilibrium
that can is escalate to a feeling of
panic.
 Conclusion
 Without the human, there would be no
technology or industry so it is rather
important that we understand the
workings of such a critical and complex
component.
 Social Psychology
Individual
Group Responsibility
 The Individual
 The senior accountable manager formulates
policies that are interpreted by middle
management into rules, procedures and task plans
that are delegated down to supervision of team
who allocate work out to individuals.
 Approved maintained organization operate a
system where all maintained and repair action are
recorded and signed for on local task records. This
system provides traceability back to individuals
who did the work and clearly defines their
responsibility.
 Routine Violation
An engineer who has developed his
own authorized way of doing a task
is said to be routine violation.
 Group Responsibility
How a group of individuals can feel
responsible for a collective task.
 Diffusion of Responsibility
Each assumes some one else is
going to do it. This is referred is
diffusion of responsibility.
 Group Polarization
Decisions made by a group tend to be
better, but more extreme, than those made
by an average member of group. This is
known as group polarization.
 Social Loafing
 Intergroup Conflict
 Shared Responsibility
 Motivation & De-Motivation
Motivation is simply “ the will to do
something”. This is often
influenced by moral and that is
linked to positive attitudes and
optimism.
 Hierarchy of needs
This is often used to explain human
motivation. We are motivated by 2 goals.
First:-- We need to ensure our
survival & to do this first we need
to fulfill some physical &
psychological needs.
Second:-- To satisfy those needs.
 Signs of Motivation
Motivated people are energetic
enthusiastic, optimistic and
determined & do good work.
 Sign of Demotivation
Includes impunctuality,
absenteeism, apathy, indifference,
shabby appearance, irrational,
grievances, loss of cooperation etc.
 Factors that affect Motivation
Many otherwise motivated people will
descend into an apparent de motivated state
for a variety of reasons like.
 Debt or domestic disputes are known
as stress factors.
 Poor or harsh working conditions.
 Poor pay.
 A lack of recognition etc.
 Peer Pressure
This is described as being the
perceived or actual pressure that an
individual may feel to conform to
what he/she believes that his
colleagues expect.
 Peer Pressure
Effect of Status
Size of Group
Effect of Self esteem
 Susceptibility
 combating peer pressure
 Safety culture
 Individuals & groups within the
organization will have certain way of doing
because i.e. human nature. The group will
adopt a ‘safety culture’ to do work.
 Safety culture
 ICAO human factors Digest 10 contains a
description of what a safety culture is – ‘A
set of beliefs, norms, attitudes, roles and
social and technical practices concerned
with minimizing exposure of employees,
managers, customers and no. of general
public to conditions considered dangerous
or hazardous.
 Safety Culture
 A safety culture drives an
organization towards the
achievement of maximum safety
regardless of management or
commercial interests.
 GROUP BEHAVIOUR

OFFICIAL GROUP
UNOFFICIAL GROUP
 OFFICIAL GROUP
The official group will be motivated
to solve problems, create ideas,
make decisions and coordinate
tasks to achieve goals that are set by
management.
 UNOFFICIAL GROUP
 The unofficial group aspect may also
decide to operate without
authorization to a certain level of
output over a time chosen regardless of
any targets that have been set by
management.
 The Hawthorne Effect
 The conclusion that was drawn from
the experiment is that the workers were
not reacting to good or bad working
conditions, they were reacting to the
fact that they had been made the focus
of attention and therefore has special
status.
 Team Working
 A team may consist of individuals who
work in parallel to achieve a single
common goal. A team can be a shift,
group of people working in one
location or a group working on a task.
 Advantage

Advantage of group working is that

members can share resources,
discuss problems and accurate
shared solution.
 Management
 It is said that management is a science and
leadership is an art.
 Management is an activity where
we plan, organize and control resource to
achieve an objective whilst creating the
conditions where our workforce become
motivation and commit themselves to the
task.
 Management activity:- Plan,
Organize, Motivate and control.
 Scientific Management
 The scientific approach is to remove the
planning and organizing initiation from the
individual the complex task then can be
analyzed to find the most effective way of
doing it and it can be broken down into
simpler steps.
 The advantages are that the task is
paid out in a rational sequence of standard
actions that can be measured and
specifications for e.g. pressure and torque
valves can be identified.
 The Manager
 Managers in AMO are not just responsible
for planning they have a responsibility to
ensure safety.
 Manager has to continually look for
alternative ways of cutting costs whilst
maintaining adequate safety practices.
 Manager has to be able to: negotiate, plan,
organize, motivate, monitor communicate
act as company spokesman and be
arbitrators of disputes.
 Manages have to create bonds of mutual
respect between themselves and the staff.
 Supervision
 When the manager has formulated a plan, it
has to be put into action and be controlled.
A team leader, or supervisions, it the direct
link to the work force who will carry out
plan. The supervisor puts the plan into
action by allocating out tasks to the team
members & then exercises controlled by
monitoring the work progress and standard
against the plan.
 The Supervisor
 The supervisor is responsible for putting the
wishes at the same line attending to the
immediate needs of workers. A trim and fair
balance has to be struck where the needs of
both sides are addressed without alienating
one side.
 Leadership
 A leader is a person whose ideas and
actions influence the thoughts and
behaviors of other the given situation.
A good leader possess the ability to
motivate people and influence their
attributed and behavior.
 Leadership

 Appointment also plays a part in our

reception of a leader. A very important
function of a leader is to encourage
positive attitudes and behavior.
 Styles of leadership
 There are 3 recognized styles of leadership:-
Autocratic
Democratic
Permissive.
 Autocratic
 Leaders are very single needed people
and do not consult anyone when
reaching a decision.
 Democratic
Leaders work on mutual respect
and consult with participants by
inviting their ideas before making a
decision.
 Permissive
 Leaders are reluctant to impose their
authority on people and allow their
group member to make collective
decisions.
 Behavior

 An individual,s behavior has a

significant impact on team work or the
style of leadership that person might
adopt.
 Habit
 A person’s regular day-to-day behavior
and tendency to perform certain
actions is described as habit.
 Personality
 May be defined as a person’s
distinctive and enduring
characteristics.
 Maintenance Resource
Management (MRM)
 The MRM concept that is applied to
flight crews i.e. crew resource
management (CRM). CRM is
concerned with managing resources in
and out of the flight deck to promote
flight safety.
 The Dirty Dozen
 Lack of communication
 Complacency
 Lack of Knowledge
 Distraction
 Lack of team work
 Fatigue
 Lack of parts
 Pressure
 Lack of Assertiveness
 Stress
 Lack of awareness
 Norms.
 Fitness/Health
2 aspects to fitness & health, physical
and mental.
 Physical Fitness:- This is related in the strength and
endurance of our muscles, the flexibility of our skeletal
joints, our body mass and our cardio respiratory
efficiency.
 Psychological Fitness:-- This is influenced by factors
such as motivation towards our work and our
interactions with other people.
 Body Mass Index (BMI)
 The relation of the weight of a person to
his/her height is called BMI. The BMI is
calculated by:-
 BMI = Weight(kg)
Height (m )
 Body Composition
 The composition of a person’s body is
really a ratio between fat and lean
tissue
 Aerobic Fitness
 This is another way of describing cardio
respiratory endurance & it is inversely
related to the risks of coronary heart disease
and high blood pressure. It is combined
efficiency of the heart lungs, blood,
circulation and muscle in using energy.
 A fit person may be using about
20% of their maximum energy output
whereas a very unfit person will be usually
around 50% & will therefore become very
tired.
 Coronary Heart Disease

 Coronary heart Disease is one of the

major causes of death among human.
Ironically, the chief risk factor is
heredity and lies in people who have a
family history of coronary heart
disease.
 Composition of Atmosphere
The composition of earth’s
atmosphere from sea level up to
around 74000 ft. consist of 21%
oxygen, 78% nitrogen, & 1% other
gases.
 Heart & Lungs
The heart is a form of double pump servicing 2
circuits.
 1st ckt :-- carries blood from the heart through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs where it is
oxygenated through the capillaries on the alveoli
in the lungs and passed back to the heart through
pulmonary veins.
 IInd ckt :-- Carries the bright red oxygenated
arterial blood from the heart through artery called
the aorta to the capillaries around the body.
 Exercise
Fitness is transient situation. A
person who undergoes a regular
programme exercise will maintain a
related level of aerobic fitness as
long as they do this.
 Risks of Exercise
 All exercise programs, of whatever
nature, should commence slowly and
build up gradually over time allowing
the muscles to develop mass and
endurance. There should be no sudden
increases in exercise intensity.
 Measures to Maintain Fitness and Health

There are a few common sense tips

can be used, eating regular & well
balanced meals, taking regular
exercise, controlling the intake of
alcohol and not smoking.
 Domestic and Work Related Stress

 It is an emotional or physical reaction

to the stimuli we encounter in our
everyday lives. The amount of stress we
experience with a particular task is
dependent on the perceived demand
and ones perceived ability rather than
actual demand and or actual ability.
Level of stress
 SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
 Symptoms of stress in yourself:-- Stress can have
effects both on mental & physical condition of
individuals.
 Physiological Symptoms:-- Cold sweats & clammy
palms, dryness in mouth, rapid breathing etc.
 Behavioral Symptoms:-- Loss of appetite,
restlessness, nervous laughter, biting fingernails, chain
smoking etc.
 Cognitive Effects:-- Lack of concentration,
forgetfulness, indecision.
 Signs of stress in other:-- The most noticeable
indication that someone you know well is suffering
 Dealing with stress
2 common strategies:-
 Defense strategy
 Coping Strategy

 Defense Strategy:-- Trying to ease the symptoms and

escape the anxiety rather than dealing with stress.

 Coping Strategy:-- Concerned with dealing with the

source of the stress rather than the symptoms.
 TIME, PRESSURE AND DEADLINES
 Paper Signature
 Managing Time, Pressure and deadlines:-
 Remember Few Points:-
 Work should be prioritized in a logical order
 Sufficient staff on the right specialization should be
made available to do work.
 Sufficient time allocated to tasks.
 Availability of spaces and support facilities.
 Certification rules should be kept
 Workload- Over load & Under Load
 If the person is under loaded, they will be under
aroused and their performance will suffer. If a person
is over loaded, they will become over loaded and they
will become over arouse.
 Factors Determining Workload
The workload relates to the level of stimulation we are
going to experience when carrying out work.
• Made up of 2 capacities:- Mental, Physical.

Workload will vary person to person & depend on:-

 Nature of work.
 Condition under which work carried out
 Nature of person carrying out work
 Sleep, Fatigue and Shift Work.
 SLEEP:- Sleep is a state of lowered consciousness in
which the brain and the body undergo changes that
replenishes and store them.

 NON-REM SLEEP – Stage 1-4

 REM (RAPID EYE MOVEMENT) – Stage 5

 NON-REM SLEEP – Stage 1-4
Stage 1 Sleep:-
 From being awake to sleeping
 Lasts for 10 minutes
 Heart rate reduces
 Muscles relaxes
 Can be easily awaken
 STAGE 2 SLEEP
 Deeper state of sleep
 Can still be easily awaken
 Lasts for twenty minutes
 Half of normal sleeping time is spent in this
stage
 Stage 3 Sleep
 Deeper state of Sleep
 Heart rate, body temperature, blood
pressure falls
 Persons ceases to respond to external
stimuli and it will now be difficult to
awaken them
 Stage 4 Sleep

Deepest state of sleep

Very difficult to awake a person
 RAPID EYE MOVEMENT(REM) SLEEP
 Also known as Paradoxical Sleep
 Brain Activity same as awaken stage
 Yet the person is more difficult to be awaken
 Muscles are totally relaxed
 Eyes move rapidly under the closed eyelids
 People experience complex dreams that may
be recalled after the person is awakened
CYCLE OF REM AND NON-REM SLEEP
 SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
 Stage 1 to 4 are non-REM stage
 Stage 3 to 4 are known as slow wave sleep or
orthodox sleep. In this stage body tissue is
restored
 In REM stage the memory is strengthen and
organised
 The first REM stage occurs after 90 minutes of
sleep
 Sleeping person continue to cycle through non-
REM and REM sleep stages at 90 minutes interval
 SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
 The major part of the slow wave deep sleep
process occurs in the first three hours of
sleep
 The length of the REM gradually increases
as the period of sleep progresses after that
 Rebound Effect
 CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
 Physiological Process and behaviour pattern are
influenced by the time of day.
 Body temperature and Hunger changes over a period
of time equating to about 25 hours.
 Food intake – Heat energy( Calorie ) – Work - Loss of
Heat Energy – Body becomes colder and human
becomes hungry – Food intake.
 The whole process of body temperature changes is
controlled by a Circadian Rhythm.
The Circadian Rhythm for Body Temperature
 JET LAG
 Circadian rhythm influenced by light and dark.
 Crossing Time zone by flying East to West or vice
versa your body temperature become desynchronised
because of the alterations to the pattern of day and
night.
 This results in Circadian Disrythmia where you begin
to experience low body temoperature.
 SLEEP CREDIT AND DEBIT ACCOUNT
 We gain two points for each hour of sleep
 We loss one point for each hour of activity

 One hour of sleep is good for two hours of Activity

 If you have the maximum 16 credits you will need to
sleep after sixteen hours. If you do not, you will begin
to accumulate a sleep deficit.
 INSOMNIA
 Difficulty experienced in sleeping at normal times.
 Causes
 Clinical
 Stress
 Both can be treated with medicine

 Conversely the cause may be situational:-

 External factors such as Noise, light, vibration,
temprature, Circadian Dysrythmia.
 FATIGUE

 FATIGUE: Physiological fatigue occurs when the body

and mind genuinely need restoring.

 SUBJECTIVE FATIGUE:-- This is more to do with a
person who feels like going to sleep either because
they are inactive or bored.

 CAUSES OF FATIGUE
 Sleep deprivation.
 Disrupted sleep.
 Desynchronized circadian rhythms.
 Prolonged mental stress.
 Physical exertion.
 Long periods of work.
 Poor health.
 Symptoms of Fatigue in yourself and others
 Signs of weariness ( half-closed eye )
 Reduced perception and awareness
 Slow reactions
 Short-time memory lapses
 Chanelling of concentation
 Impaired judgment and decision making
 Irritability and erratic mood swing
 Easily distracted and frustrated by trivial matters
 Making simple error
 Reduced standard of work
 Lack of communication
 COMBATING FATIGUE
 There are some common sense practices that will help
to delay the onset and reduce the effects like.
 Recognizing early symptoms of fatigue.
 Maintaining a sleep cycle
 Good level of fitness
 Well balanced diet
 Developing relaxation interest
 Gaining control over emotions life
 Considering the positive aspects
 SHIFT WORK
 Some people will be working an a permanent early, late
or night shifts.
 Others will work on rolling shift pattern of alternately
Early, late and night shifts.
 WORKING AT NIGHT
 When a person is working during the
night they can experience difficulties
trying to sleep during the day because
of daylight and noise. This causes
problem due to trough in body temp.
 ROLLING SHIFTS

When a person periodically

changes their work in a times
from one shift to another their
body check does not
immediately readjust.
 ROLLING SHIFTS

 RECOMMENDED:--
Early shift>Late shift> Night shift
or
day shift> Night shift

 Not Recommended :
Night shift>Late shift> Early shift.
 SLEEP, FATIGUE & SHIFT WORK
 The average sleep requirement is 8 Hrs. in each 24 Hrs.
shift workers suffer disrupted sleep patterns and may
sleep for less than 8 Hrs. period.

 It is NOT RECOMMENDED that a person should eat a

heavy meal high in protein prior to sleep

 It is RECOMMENDED a meal of high carbohydrates

after a long night shift.
 TASK CONTINUITY
 There are always going to be
maintenance tasks that cross over shift
periods.
 Informations should be passed from
off-going shifts to oncoming shift.
 ALCOHOL, MEDICATION & DRUG ABUSE
 Airworthiness notice 47 also contained a
statement on licensed AMES in respect of
drink & drugs. That is “Drinking problems
or the use of illicit or prescribed drugs are
unacceptable where a/c maintenance safety
is concerned and once identified will lead to
suspension of the license or company
authorization and possibly further licensing
action being considered.

 ALCOHOL
 Alcohol depress the central nervous system
and impairs the senses, which has the effect
of slowing physical and mental reactions.

 In civil aviation, flight crews are

not recommended to fly until 24 Hrs. after
drinking alcohol.
 MEDICATION
 Medication is defined as any ‘over the counter’ or
prescribed drug that is used for treating a medical
condition. AWN 47 publish the general guidance on
medication.
 Anesthetics.
 Analgesics
 Antibiotics
 Anti depressants
 MEDICATION
 Anti hypertensive agents
 Anti malarial drugs
 Decongestants
 Melatonin
 Oral contra captives
 Pep pill
 Sleeping tablets
 Tranquilizers
 ILLICIT DRUGS

Such as amphetamine carinabis

LSD etc. all have significant
effects on the central nervous
system and seriously impair
mental function.
 HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ACT 1974
 This imposes a general duty on employers to ensure, so
far as; the healthy, safety & welfare at work of their
employees.
 The provisions of this act and its associated
regulations include the employees obligation to
provide and maintain such as adequate and safe levels
of lighting noise, ambient temperature ventilation
situation etc.
 This is an Act of parliament and is thus
enforceable in law.
 NOISE
 The human ear can detect sound in the frequency
range 20 Hz – 20 KHz. The intensity of sound
measured in decibel (db) & hearing protection
should be used where noise of exceed 115db.

 Apart from the effect that noise has on a

person’s concentration the most significant
problem lies in the ability to communicate
properly.
 FUMES
 Fumes have the potential to create both
short & long term health problems for
personal exposer to them. In short term
individuals suffer system like loss of
concentration, narcosis, eye irritation,
allergic skin reaction & breathing.
 Longer term problems include a
wide range of problems depending upon the
substance inhaled & period of exposure.
 DUST
 Dust particles can be harmful to health
depending upon the substance and the
particle size and in some cases may
present an explosion risk.
 Overtime, thick cover of dust can
accumulate on upper surface of hanger
roof girders & on ledges.
 ILLUMINATION
 In poor lighting we are only able to see black
and white shades of grey. Bright lighting
tends to increase arousal levels and thus
performance.
 During the day in open natural light
will normally be sufficient for our needs
when working inside a/c structures and in
buildings we normally have to provide
additional task lighting
 CLIMATE & TEMPERATURE
 In extremes of heat and cold the body will
struggle to control its temperatures.
 Body exposed to high temperature for a
prolonged period causes HEAT STROKE
 Body exposed to low temperature for a
prolonged period causes HYPOTHERMIA
 WIND CHILL FACTOR

 When the temp. are low they will

apparently fall much lower if there is a
wind blowing.
 When we move permanently in
locations that has extreme of
tempereture it can take couple of week
before the body adjusts fully or
Acclimatises to the new condition.
 MOTION
 While using high access equipment the
problem is that the equipment sways
about as a result of people climbing up
and working from it. The sensation of
movement automatically distracts the
attention from the task in hand. The
main problem then is in keeping your
balance as you attempt to carry out
tasks that involve pushing and pulling.

 VIBRATION
 There are a number of hand tools that transmit severe
vibrations.
 Pneumatic riveting guns and drills are bad
in this..Vibration in low frequency range .5Hz to 150
Hz is the most troublesome as the body absorbs most
of the energy in this range.The low frequency range
between 50hz and 150 hz creates the most trouble for
hands it can produce a condition known as Vibratory
Induced White Finger Syndrome (VWF). The
condition associated with reduced blood flow to the
affected parts of hand and causes pain.
 Working in Confined Spaces

1. Claustrophobia
2. Noise, fumes, lighting, vibration
3. Good illumination and ventilation reduces
discomfort
4. No one should be left unattended
5. Additional supervision and communication
6. Flameproof lighting, breathing equipement
7. Presence of colleague to assist and evacuate, if
necessary
 Working Enviornment
 Consists of three components:-
 1. Physical
 2. Social
 3. Task
 Tasks
 Planning: To embark on any task without an
appropriate plan is to invite problems.
 It is being able to answer few questions:-
 Do we know exactly what the task is?
 Do we have the resources to carry out the task properly
in the allotted time?
 Do we have the capacity to take this work on when
required?
 PHYSICAL TASKS
 It is important that a/c designers recognize
the limitations of the human being and
ensure that all the proposed maintenance
tasks in respect of a/c are within the
capabilities of the engineer.
 The study of people in relation to
their working environment is called
ergonomics & it is concerned with the
adaptation of machines to fit individuals so
that they can work at maximum efficiency.
 REPETITIVE TASKS
 Repetitive tasks tend to be boring and
tradesman arousal level may decline.
The work process become a motor
programme and there is a high risk of
error when an obvious fault is missed.
 Visual Inspection
 It is possibly the most used method of checking for
system defects.

 The checks may range from simply checking the

pressure gauge readings to examining components for
leaks, security or cracks.

Alternate inspection method:-

NDT, Magnifiers, Mirrors, borescopes.
 COMPLEX SYSTEM
 A good example of simple system would be cable
operated rudder manual control. We now remove the
rudder cable system and replace it with a power flying
control unit that incorporate “fly by wire” signalling
and automatic flight control.
 When engineers are required to maintain
complex systems they initially have to undergo system
specific training to learn how the system works and
what failures can occur. Many modern electronic
systems are now modularized and fault diagnosis is
often a case of checking fault codes displayed by built
in test equipment (BITE)
 COMMUNICATION
 Aircraft maintenance incorporates a huge volume of
information that must be prepared, understood, used
and recorded.
 Communication can be spoken, written, electronic,
agreed signals.

 Rule 1. Initial communicator must understand

what to be communicated.
 Rule 2. The more people the communication
passes through the more chance of distortion of facts.
 Rule 3. Sender and recipient should share common
language or code.
 Process of Communication
 Sender (Active Information)-------------
Recipient(Passive Information)-------------------
Feedback------------Sender

 Non-verbal communication
 Verbal Communication
 Written Communication
 Non Verbal Communication
 Facial expressions

 Body Language

 Hand signals

 Marking in the gauges of aircraft systems

 VERBAL COMMUNICATION
 Instinctive Communication or Phatic communication,
where speech is being used for social reasons and is
aimed at gaining acceptance or communicating
feelings.
 Medium of Verbal Communication:-
 Face to face
 Remotely through Telephone or Radio
 Written Communication
 Channels are memos, E-mails, circulars,
letters e.t.c

 Engineering drawing

 ATA-100 code
 COMMUNICATION WITHIN TEAMS

Verbal communication is the most common

channel used within teams on a day to day
basis & has the advantage that it offers
freedom of expression.

When individuals within teams

communicate freely it improves the Group
Cohesion
 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TEAMS

 Probably the most error prone

communication that occurs between teams
is the shift handover.
 Shift handovers involve both written and
spoken communication. Good handovers
occurs when supervisors pass on written
reports on tasks to oncoming supervisions
and will back these up worth a verbal
briefing to highlight details.
 COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS
 The common problems that occur in a communication
between teams are lack of communication and poor
communication. When considering these we should
be aware that there is active communication where the
information is passed and passive communication
where information is received.
 Another common problem is assumption.
 Communication must be clear and
unambiguous and the sender should seek feedback
that the recipient has understood.

 WORK LOGGING & RECORDING
 The record should ideally be updated as work
progresses
 The record should include open entries to reflect
the remaining actions necessary to restore the
aircraft to a serviceable condition prior to release.
 Repeated complex tasks should be given to the
preplanned stage sheets (work sheets, job cards,
task cards) to assist in the control, management
and recording of these tasks.
 NEW TECHNOLOGY
 Artificial intelligence system
 Integrated Maintenance Information System
(IMIS):-Portable electronic diagnostic system to
assist in identifying system defects and the
appropriate rectification maintenance procedure.
 Maintenance records are a form of
communication. The information must be
accurate, protected, and remain legible for
whatever period necessary.
 CURRENCY
 New variants of aircraft and their
equipments, introduction of new tools,
modifications, revised work processes and
new maintenance procedures will require
the engineer to keep up to date.

 This achieved by updating training courses,

amendments to maintenance and
airworthiness publications and Service
Bulletins.
 CURRENCY & MAINTENANCE PUBLICATIONS

 Amended to be made effective in all publications

affected by the amendments.

 Obsolete information are to be withdrawn from the

publications.

 Change control system

 Drawing control system

 SERVICE BULLETINS
 Contains special information concerning equipment
and special modification instructions.
 They fall in two categories _
1. Standard bulletin – contains recommendations that
improve reliability of equipments
2. Alert bulletin – for immediate attention and
compliance which is essential for safety of a/c.
Enforced in parallel with airworthiness directives from
the legislative authority.
 TEMPORARY REVISIONS

 Issued from the manufacturer in the interim

period between the normal maintenance
manual revisions.
 Temporary revisions are inserted into the
maintenance manual facing the page they
affect.
 They are incorporated into the manual at
the next formal revision and temporary
revision sheet is then removed.
 INFORMATION MATERIAL
 Informal publications like technical
newsletters to inform customers about
services; service information letters to
supplement information on maintenance
actions; operating instructions that advise
on operating techniques that improve
efficiency or lower costs.
 HUMAN ERROR

Introduction
 It is often said that ‘to err is human’. It is an
acceptable fact of life that if human engage
in any form of activity then sooner or later a
human error will occur.

 This subject is all about how these errors

come about, and the form they take.
CONSEQUENCES OF ERROR
 ERROR MODELS & THEORIES

Design Errors:-
 If the error is made at the aircraft design
stage, and is then allowed to pass
undetected through manufacturing and
testing stages, it would matter little how
well the ‘front line’ people performed
because the ‘seed’ of failure would already
be in place in the aircraft as a ‘latent error’.
 CONSTANT ERROR AND VARIABLE ERROR
Constant error :-
 Errors which have a definite pattern. The causes of
constant errors are predictable and corrective action can
be taken to control them.
 Example- The firing pattern of a rifle shooter.
Variable error :-
 Errors which doesn’t have a definite pattern. The cause
of variable errors are harder to predict and control.
 REVERSIBLE/IRREVERSIBLE ERROR

Reversible error :-
 The error can be reversed, if the error is detected
well in time and corrective action is taken.
Irreversible error :-
 Certain errors which doesn’t have any corrective
action to be followed after the error is made.
 INTENSION-BASED ERROR

 Unintentional Error :-When an individual sets out

with the intension of carrying out a task correctly but
unconsciously makes an error that results in an
incorrect outcome we can say that the error is
unintentional. Unintentional errors occur as a result of
slips, lapses of memory or genuine mistakes.
 Intentional Error :-On the other hand, if an
individual sets out with the intention of contravening
the rules by taking short cuts, or using an
unauthorized procedure, then the error is intentional.
Intentional errors occur as a result of deliberate
violation of rules.
 INTENSION-BASED ERROR
 Slips:-These are unintentional errors that occur
while carrying out the task (execution stage).
 Lapses :-These are unintentional errors that occur
when a step in a procedure is unintentionally
missed out because it was forgotten. The reason
the step was forgotten could be due to a memory
lapse brought about, for example, by inattention or
distraction. Lapses tend to occur at memory stage
when you retrieve information from memory to
carry out actions.
 Mistakes :-Unintentional error that occur at the
planning stage of a task because the person is
already misinformed before the activity is carried
out.
 INTENSION-BASED ERROR

Violations :-
 These may be loosely described as being errors but
they are in fact deliberate illegal actions and are
therefore intentional. An engineer who has
developed his/her own way of doing a task rather
than following an approved maintenance
procedure is said to be in routine violation. These
actions are carried out by individuals who are fully
aware that they are violating the rules from the
outset.
 BEHAVIOR-BASED ERRORS
 An individual who inadvertently reverts to an old and
well-practised procedure (that is unintentionally
done) because it had become an established pattern of
behavior associated with certain environments or
equipments.
 The behavior of an individual can be divided into three
parts :-
Skill-based behavior
Rule-based behavior
Knowledge-based behavior
 SKILL-BASED BEHAVIOR

 This type of behavior stems from well

established practical routines that have
been learnt through constant practice.
 Stored in the memory as motor
programmes.
 Activities carried out without any
conscious thought.
 RULE-BASED BEHAVIOR

 Based on routines or procedures that have

been learnt for example from a published
sequence of actions such as maintenance
procedures or checklist.
 Rule-based behavior is not specifically
related to motor programmes in that it is
based on a sequence of learnt rules rather
than automatic action.
 KNOWLEDGE-BASED BEHAVIOR
 Not based on any established routine or
procedures.
 The individual draws on stored knowledge
and experience to plan a routine or
procedure to meet a requirement.
 This type of behavior is heavily influenced
by the individuals ability to ‘understanding’
or use knowledge and experience to produce
solutions.
 THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
 Prof. James Reason introduced this error
model by making an analogy between the
defenses against human error that exist
within different levels of an organizations
and the randomly placed holes found in
slices of Swiss cheese.
THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
 TYPES OF ERROR
 Routine servicing Errors
 Schedule maintenance tasks which consists of routine
tasks that are carried out using authorized procedures,
carries chances of behavior-based error. The potential
for slips, lapses and mistakes is high in a hectic hanger
environment.
 Non-routine Servicing Errors
 People engaged in non-routine servicing may
encounter tasks that they are either unfamiliar with or
have not carried out frequently. The risk potential here
lies in the exercise of judgment.
 VIOLATION
 Routine Violation :- When an engineer develops
an unauthorized way of doing a task, possibly to
save time and effort, and does this regularly,
he/she is said to be in ‘routine violation’.

 Situational Violations :- This type of violation

occurs due to conditions that may prevail at the
time that creates problems in doing work
according to plan. These conditions may include
poor facilities, unclear work instructions or time
pressure.
 VIOLATION
 Exceptional Violations :- These violations occur
because there is no other option. The fault could
be described as lying within the system rather than
individual. However well intentioned the engineer
may be there is no alternative except to break the
rule.

 Optimizing Violation :- These are irresponsible

acts where an individual simply breaks the rules
either to show off an audience, fulfill some
misguided goals like beating a personal ‘best’.
 HUMAN ERROR MANAGEMENT
 MAINTENANCE ERROR MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (MEMS)
 MEMS encourages organizations to set up Safety Management
system and offers guidance on how they should operate.
 In the context of error management it is considered that an un-
predetermined or inadvertent lapse should not incur any
punitive action, but a breach of professionalism may do so.

 CONFIDENTIAL HUMAN FACTORS INCIDENT

REPORTING (CHIRP)
 This provides an alternate reporting mechanism for individuals
who want to report safety concerns and incidents confidentially.
 HUMAN ERROR MANAGEMENT
Avoiding and Managing Errors
 Contain the effects of error.
 Take preventive measures to eradicate the errors.
 HUMAN ERROR MANAGEMENT
 Ways of Preventing Eerrors
 Error Capture
Preventive measures based on detecting error after they have
been made. The objective is to spot or ‘capture’ the error before
flight.
 Error Reduction
These are methods aimed at identifying the causes of error and
taking corrective actions to prevent the errors occurring.
 Error Tolerance
These methods are designed to contain the effects of an error
when it is made and would normally be employed at the aircraft
design and development stages. They include producing vital
systems that are ‘tolerant’ to error by having a dual or even triple
redundancy facility where the failure of a single system will not
threaten the safety of aircraft.
 IMPLICATIONS OF ERRORS
 The effect of errors made by aircraft maintenance
staff differs in one significant respect from those
made by flight crews or air traffic controllers.

 In the second case the effect of error is

instantaneous, and if leads to accident, it is likely
to occur during the flight in question. The error is
detectable by light or audio warning and corrective
action can be taken.
 IMPLICATIONS OF ERRORS
 The most effective alerting system for a vital
system failure on an aircraft is normally an
audio alarm because it does not rely on the
crew looking at it at the time and you do
react quicker to sound.
 The errors are also likely to be recorded on a
cockpit voice recorder or on air traffic
control voice tapes.
 IMPLICATIONS OF ERRORS
 Maintenance errors on the other hand, may
not even be noticed by the person making
them and, if missed on supervisory checks,
may remain undetected for months or even
years before they reveal themselves in
incidents or accidents.
 VISUAL INSPECTION ERRORS
 Errors associated with visual inspection can be divided
into two categories :-
Type I and Type II Error
 Type I Error :- Where an inspector fails an item when
there is nothing wrong with it.
This does not present a safety risk but do incur a
penalty in terms of unnecessary work and expense.
 Type II Error :- When an inspector fails to identify a
fault and passes an item as serviceable when it is not.
These errors are a safety hazard that may potentially
have serious consequences depending on the nature of
the faults overlooked.
 SKILL RELATED ERRORS

 Skill related errors

 These errors are related to the practices and habits of
individuals and are related to the skill based behavior.
 ASSEMBLY ERRORS
 Murphy’s law states that if anything can go wrong ‘it
will’ at some time or other. The important point is the
fact that there is a pre-condition that ‘something can
go wrong’. If there are two possible ways of connecting
a component, when only one is correct, then Murphy’s
law states that someone will eventually choose the
incorrect way.
 The defence against Murphy’s Law is to remove all the
possibilities so that only one remains – the right way.
ASSEMBLY ERRORS
 HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE.
 ACCIDENT IN WORKPLACE:--
 Accidents are not natural phenomena; they are always
related to a cause that is either rooted in an unsafe
human condition or environment.
 Slippery floors, cluttered walkways, blocked exits,
electrical faults, defective tools, split chemicals which
pose significant hazard.
 RECOGNIZING HAZARDS
 We need to be able to have some idea :-
 What dangers can occur ?
 What are the safeguards ?
 How we can prevent accidents ?

 Causes of accidents are rooted in :-

 Unsafe Human condition OR
 Unsafe Environmental condition
 UNSAFE HUMAN CONDITION
 Boredom
 Inattention
 Negligence
 Overconfidence
 Familiarity
 Inexperience
 Drunkenness or drug taking
 UNSAFE HUMAN CONDITION
 Foolishness
 Disinterest
 Tiredness
 Sickness
 Disobedience
 Carelessness
 UNSAFE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION
 Inadequate lighting
 Excessive noise
 Excessive temperature
 Slippery surfaces
 Toxic fumes
 Ventilation
 Overcrowding
 UNSAFE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION
 Blocked exits
 Spilled chemicals
 Uneven floors
 Unguarded machinery
 Badly maintained tools and ground
equipments
 Unsafe electrical circuit
 OTHER SECONDARY FACTORS

Some other secondary factors in the

workplace
Inappropriate -----
 fire fighting equipment
 first-aid equipments
 protective clothing.
 LIGHTING
 Inspection and Maintenance tasks involve
identifying fine details of an object and distinguish
colors of pipelines and electrical wires.

 Cones in the retina of the eye require good lighting

in order to resolve fine details and distinguish
colors.
 LIGHT INTENSITY
 Luminosity is measured in either candles or foot
candles.

 The Area lighting in a hanger should be at least 100 to

150 foot-candles to be considered adequate.

 Working under an aircraft and in confined spaces require

special task lighting normally 200 to 250 foot candles.
 WORKING IN NIGHT
 Time pressure sometimes discourages
people from using standard portable task
lighting.
 People rely on hand-held torches or stray
light from adjacent building or airfield pylon
lights.
 Problem of ‘Dark-adaptation’- The eye takes
time to adjust itself when moved from dark
area to well-lit area.
 LIGHT INTENSITY
 Excessive Light Intensity can create glare and
consequent stress.
 Strobe lighting in particular can cause disorientation
and temporary blindness.
 Glare from welding equipment can cause ‘arc-eye’
which is a form of temporary blindness.

Note :- High Intensity Strobe lights used on aircraft should

not be used or viewed on the ground.
 NOISE LEVELS
 Human ear can detect sounds between 20
HZ to 20 KHZ.
 Intensity of sound is measured in Decibels
(dB).
 Exposure to noise in excess of 110 dB is
limited to 12 minutes in an 8 hr period.
 Exposure to noise in excess of 115 dB for any
length of time without ear defenders is not
recommended, even for a short period.
 NOISE LEVEL
 General noise experienced in Line can exceed 85dB-
90dB.
 Prolonged exposure to this level causes hearing
damage and hearing protection should always be
worn.

 1st Action Level :- Places where possibility of exposure

to sound is 85 dB/normal conversational voice is not
heard clearly from a distance of 2m or 6 ft.------
Employees are to be provided with personal ear
protectors and briefed about their use.
 NOISE LEVEL
 2nd Action Level :- Places where sound level is
90db/normal conversation voice cannot be heard
clearly at a distance of 1m or 3 ft.---------

Employers must do all effort to reduce exposure to the

noise. The zone where noise reaches the 2nd action
level have to be marked with recognized warning signs
that restricts entry.
Note :- A noise level of 140 dB will cause pain.
 DEALING WITH EMERGENCIES
 When you are faced with an emergency you have to
rely on what you know at that time.
 Emergency gives you very little notice that it is about
to occur or what form it will take.
 It may be an immediate injury to you or your colleague
or potential injury in the shape of a fire or a chemical
spill.
 Injuries may be – Electrocution, burns, fractures,
lacerations, asphyxiation, poisoning etc. and may
occur to more than one person.
 Organisation should provide training, guidance, and
equipment for dealing with emergency.
 DEALING WITH EMERGENCIES
 There are three commonsense steps that include very
basic actions that you could take depending on the
nature and magnitude of the emergency.

 1. Assess the situation

 2. Make the area safe
 3. Summon Assistance
 DEALING WITH EMERGENCIES
 1. Assess the situation :-
• Remain calm (vital)
• Identify what has happened (quickly and
accurately )
• Assess the danger to you and others

• Activate warning (shout warning and activate

appropriate alarms)
• Do not put yourself at risk
 DEALING WITH EMERGENCIES
 2. Make the area safe:
 Protect yourself and others from further danger
(evacuate if required)
 Identify and protect casualties (Remove from danger)
 Remove the danger if possible (i.e. put out fire and
switch off sources)
 Know your limitations (i.e do not fight impossible
fires)
 If evacuation has taken place, ensure no one is missing
 DEALING WITH EMERGENCIES
 Summon Assistance:-
 Engage help of others if this does not place them at
risk and they are competent
 Call the emergency services
 Call for local first aid equipment if appropriate
 Meet, brief and handover to emergency services
 Offer assistance within your limitations
 ACTION ON EMERGENCY
 Main objectives of First-Aid are:-
To preserve life
To prevent casualty’s condition worsening
 To promote recovery
 ACTION ON EMERGENCY
• Be calm and controlled and take over the control of the
situation, if confident and competent to deal with
first-aid.
• Assess the situation whether the casualty is facing any
life-threatening danger.
• If the casualty is electrocuted ----- Break the source
• If he/she is suffering from exposure to toxic fumes
or gas ------ Cut off the source and then ventilate the
area.
• If the casualty is in a building that is on fire or is in
danger of collapsing ------- Move the casualty to a safe
area.
 ACTION ON EMERGENCY
 If the casualty is conscious ------- Ask the problem
 If the casualty is unconscious ------ Adopt the ABC
priority ;- Airway, Breathing, circulation
 SUMMONING ASSISTANCE
 WHEN CALLING THE EMERGENCY SERVICES ;-
 Keep calm and pass following information :-
 Location – Give exact location and Landmark
 Telephone no.
 Type and gravity of the incident
 Sex and appropriate age of casualty
 No. of casualties (if more than one casualty)
 Medical consideration
 Environmental considerations
 MULTIPLE CASUALTIES
 If, you want to evacuate the casualties ----- Move the
walking casualties first and then the dead person.
 Treat the casualty first whose injury is more serious
and life-threatening.
 FIRE
 To initiate and sustain Fire, ingredients required :-

 Oxygen

 Heat

 Fuel
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
 Class A :-

 Fire that involve solid materials such as paper, wood and

cloth.

 Can be extinguished with water-based extinguishers.

 Cases where there is a live electrical source which cannot

be switched off ---- BCF or CO2 fire extinguisher is used.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
 Class B :-

 Fire that involve Flammable liquids such as petrol,

aviation turbine fuel, solvents, lubricating and hydraulic
oils.

 Typical extinguishers are CO2, Halon 1211(BCF) –

CBrClF2, foam.

 Water must never be used because it will instantly

spread it.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
 Class C :-

 Fire that involve Flammable gases.

 Do not fight these fires.

 Turn off the supply and call for professional help.

 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
 Class D :-

 Fire that involve metals such as titanium or magnesium.

 Difficult to extinguish and require powder extinguishers

to cut off the oxygen.

 If the source of fire is electrical ---- switch off the source

 FIRE DRILL
 Raise the alarm.
 Call the fire service.
 Try to extinguish the fire with correct fire extinguisher.
 Shut down the source of fire.
 Evacuate personnel.
 Close internal doors, if possible.
 Leave the building and report to a supervisor
 Do not attempt to re-enter the building
 FIRE EMERGENCY
 To protect yourself from fire, you must :-
Learn the Organizations fire drill
Know the location of Fire extinguishers, their
type and their operation
Know where the nearest fire alarms are
Memorise the escape route
Memorise the fire emergency telephone no.
Observe the fire precautions.
 ELECTRIC SHOCK
 Human body is an electrical conductor.
 Electric shock can affect central nervous
system and the muscles, the respiratory
system and the heart.
 Victim will suffer burns at the entry and exit
points of the electric current.
 DO’S AND DONT’S
 Don’t touch the casualty’s skin with your bare hands
under any circumstances.
 Cut off the electric supply, if possible.
 (If possible) Move the casualty clear of contact with
the supply using a dry insulator.
 Stand on a dry insulator while doing this (i.e thick
news paper or wooden box).
 If the casualty is not breathing commence revival
process right away.
 Call for medical assistance and continue revival
process until relieved.
 DO’S AND DONT’S
 NOTE : If the casualty has been electrocuted by high-
voltage electricity and is either still in contact with the
conductor OR

 Lying within 20 yards of it, you must not approach

until the power has been cut off.
 SEVERE BURNS – DO’S AND DON’T’S
 Ensure that the casualty is clear of live
electrical conductors.
 Lay the casualty down.
 Pour cold water over the affected area.
 Continue this until the pain subsides.
 SEVERE BURNS – DO’S AND DON’T’S
 Remove rings, watches (if any) before
the affected part swells.
 Remove clothing that soaked in the
fluid that caused the burn.
 Don’t remove clothing that is stuck to
the burn.
 Don’t puncture any blisters that form.
 SEVERE BURNS – DO’S AND DON’T’S

 If the burn is the result of a chemical, make

sure you don’t come in contact with it.
 Cover the area with a sterile, non-fluffy
dressing like a clean linen sheet.
 A clean plastic bag is ideal for a foot or a
hand
 If you cover facial burns , ensure there is a
provision for the casualty to breath.
 THE END

ALL THE BEST