ERGONOMICS:

Environmental
Issues
 Environmental Factors:
Worksite Considerations
The assessment of the working
environment needs to include:

The immediate workplace

The physical relationship between the

work situation and the operator

Impact of temperature, humidity,

altitude, noise, illumination and vibration
 Some Points to Consider

 What effect, if any, do sub-optimal

environmental conditions have on the
standard of performance of the worker?

 Is an individual’s selective attention and

concentration disturbed?

 Is the operator at risk for injury?

 Do environmental disturbances affect the

emotional state of the worker
What seems to be the problem(s)?

 NOISE
 VIBRATION
 LIGHTING
 AMBIENT
CONDITIONS
 What are some of the key
environmental considerations
What factors are likely to
affect the performance
of the operator
How would you go
about improving
the work site
 Operator’s PERCEPTION is an
important consideration…

 Active process of looking for meaning in

the environment in which we live.

 Involves receiving and interpreting

sensory information and is unique to each
individual.

 Depends on cultural background, user

experience, personal disposition and
interest in the particular task.
 There are 4 main
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS:

 NOISE

 VIBRATION

 LIGHTING

 AMBIENT CONDITIONS
NOISE
The Structure of the Ear – A review!

External ear: auricle which collects sound

waves and transmits them via the external
acoustic meatus (auditory canal) to the
tympanic membrane (eardrum).
 The Structure of the Ear – A review!

Middle ear: made up of the tympanic cavity in

the temporal bone and contains three auditory
ossicles (bones): the malleus (hammer), the
incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup).
 The Structure of the Ear – A review!

Inner ear: this is made up of the bony

labyrinth which consists of the: Cochlea (the
main organ of hearing), Vestibular Apparatus
and the Membranous Labyrinth.
 Creating Sounds – The Basics

 An initial disturbance from a vibrating object

will force surrounding air molecules to move.
 Molecules are squeezed closer together then
pulled apart resulting in compression and
refraction.
 Sound is propagated through an elastic
medium such as air or fluid.
 Rapid oscillations in air pressure within the
ear.
 Sound is thus propagated by a pressure
wave moving outward from a vibrating
body.
 Sound defined

“a complex scramble of many

frequencies that is highly
likely to have a disturbing
effect on the listener”
Loebs (1986) identified 3 distinct but
related meanings of noise:

1. Sound which varies randomly in

intensity and frequency.

2. Sound which interferes with the

reception of another sound (masking).

3. Sound which the individual does not

want to hear.
 Noise leads to two key changes…

Distraction:
makes it difficult to maintain concentration
when there is more than one source of
auditory information

Arousal:
loud noise is arousing, but whether it has
an affect on performance is debatable
 Negative Affects of Noise:
 Damage to hearing

 Disturbance of sleep

 Poor performance of required task due to

increases in muscular tension, accelerated
heart rate

 Impaired alertness

 Increased fatigue, tiredness and irritability

 Hypertension, Heart Rate

 Damage to hearing

 Intensive noise causes a portion of the organ of

Corti to be separated from the basilar membrane.
 Metabolic theory suggests the depletion of key
enzymes and metabolites in the hair cells
Sound Intensity:

Is perceived as loudness which is

generally measured in decibels (dB)

Frequency:

Pitch of the sound measured in Hertz

(Hz)
“Normal” response
of the human ear

Note that this is a

logarithmic scale
 Protection against Noise:

 Design it out before it becomes a factor.

 Reduce it at source.

 Insulate sound.

 Personal ear protection should be worn

where exposure exceeds 85 db.
Two “Noise”
Rating Scales
 Actual Sound
(Noise Perception Rating Scale)

1. Quiet
2. Conscious Awareness
3. Loud
4. Excessively Load
5. Unbearable
Personal Response
(Annoyance Scale)

1. Relaxing
2. Not Disturbing
3. Disturbing
4. Annoying
5. Highly Irritating
Hearing Sensitive Jobs
http://www2.worksafebc.com/Publications/Multimedia/Videos.asp?reportid=34284
VIBRATION
 Vibration

Defined simply as a movement

which a body makes about a

fixed point (Oborne, 1995).

 Whole Body Vibration (WBV)

 most commonly associated with motor

vehicle drivers
 can occur in a number of different
environments
 Vibration

 The effects of vibration are often only

considered in one axis (Z).

 Need to consider the speed and intensity

of the vibration.

 UNIT: Hertz (Hz) – cycles.s-1

 Physiological outcomes from
vibration frequencies:
(Hz)
Tactile sensation 0.1 – 105
Giddiness and instability 0.1 – 103
Motion sickness 0.2 – 1
Vibrating hand tool diseases 75 - 100
Major body resonances 3, 4-7.5, 11
Respiration difficulties 4-8
Abdominal pain 4 - 14
Muscle tone 10 - 20
Lumbosacral pain 7.5 - 20
Head sensations 9 - 20
Disturbances of vision 1 - 95
Speech difficulties 7.5 – 20
Urge to defecate & urinate 10 – 20
 Vibration

 Resonance occurs when the vibrational

frequency of an external force matches an
organs natural frequency

 Pope et al., (1996) state that spinal

resonance occurs at 4 - 5 Hz

 Coerman (1968) reported that vibrations

between 2.5 – 5 Hz generate strong
resonance in the vertebrae of the neck
and lumbar regions
 Vibration Terms
Daily vibration exposure
The 8-hour energy equivalent vibration total value for a
worker in meters per second squared (m/s²), including all
hand-arm vibration exposures during the day.

Partial vibration exposure

The contribution of operation i to the daily vibration
exposure in m/s². The partial vibration exposure relates to
the daily exposure from an individual tool or process, i
(where a worker is only exposed to vibration form one tool
or process then the daily vibration exposure is equal to the
partial vibration exposure).

Exposure limit value

A value for a workers daily vibration exposure of 5m/s²,
above which workers should not be exposed.

Exposure time.
The duration per day that a worker is exposure to a vibration
source.
 Hand Arm Vibration (HAV)

 Measurement of vibration is related to

acceleration (m.s2) of the surface in contact
with the hand.

 Depends on the tools used by the operator.

 Many tools do not provide the operator with

an indication of the dosage of vibration
received.

 Need exists for detailed analyses of the

impacts of continuous/repetitive hand arm
vibration.
 The American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists
Threshold Limit Values
Total Daily Exposure Maximum Value of
Duration (Hours) Frequency Weighted
Acceleration (m.s2) in
any Direction*
4 to less than 8 hours 4
2 to less than 4 hours 6
1 to less than 2 hours 8
Less than 1 hour 12

* Directions of Axes in a 3-D System

The effects of vibration on
performance:

 Decreased hand steadiness

(important for motor control).

 Problems related to sight (for

example, blurring and fixation
difficulties).
 A vibration standard:

International Standardization
Organizations Guideline (ISO)
2631: “Guide for Evaluation
of Human Exposure to
Whole Body Vibration”
 Vibration-related Disorders

 Vascular disorders
• dead or white finger,
• Raynaud's phenomenon of occupational origin,
• vibration-induced white finger.

 Neurological disorders
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
 Musculoskeletal disorders
Jobs and Hearing
LIGHTING
Vision and the Role of Lighting

 Problems associated with poor lighting can

often be solved by low cost interventions
and careful design consideration.
 Arrangement of working surfaces, such as
placement of machines.
 Placement of work benches for natural
lighting.
 Improved overhead lighting.
 Changing the paint colour of walls.
Why is vision so important in
the working environment?

70 – 80% of information
entering the brain from the
sensory system is visual
 Some Lighting Terminology
 Luminous Flux (lumen): quantity of energy
of the light emitted per second in all
directions.

 Luminous Intensity: ability of a source or

illuminated surface to emit light.

 Luminance: the amount of light emitted by a

surface.

 Illuminance (lux) : amount of light falling on

a surface.
 Visual Acuity

 a measure of the resolving qualities of the

eye (ability to see fine detail).

 Affected by physiological factors such as

receptive ability of the visual receptors.

 Integrity of the nerve pathways to the

brain.
 CHERNCK (1983) considers the
following visual skills important:
a) Visual acuity
b) Near point of convergence (i.e. the closest point to the
person along the median line at which he can continue to
fixate the target with both eyes).
c) Stereopsis (i.e. the perception of three-dimensional visual
space as a result of binocular cues).
d) Fusion (i.e. the integration of two similar ocular images into
a single precept).
e) Colour Vision
f) Accommodative facility (i.e. the ability to change focus
efficiently from near to far and back again).
g) Eye movement ability (i.e. the ability to follow a moving
target smoothly, keeping both eyes on the target).
h) Visual motor integration (i.e. co-ordination between the eyes
and the extra-ocular muscles).
Other Factors Influencing Performance:
Depth Perception
Contrast Sensitivity
Peripheral Awareness
Motion Detection
Eye Movement
Dynamic Visual Acuity
Visuo-motor Integration
Vestibulo-occular Reflex
Reaction Time
 Good visual acuity depends on
appropriate lighting conditions based on:

 Good illumination

 Sufficient contrast

 Adaptation in the central and

peripheral visual field
 For visual comfort and good optical
performance, the following criteria apply:

1. Balanced arrangements of lights.

2. Suitable level of illumination (lux levels).

3. Avoidance of glare and reflection.

 Some Lighting Recommendations:
1. No source of light should appear in the visual field of
any worker during operation.

2. The line from eye to light source should be at an

angle of more than 30°.

3. Lights should be provided with shades.

4. Rather use more lamps of lower power than fewer

high powered lamps.

5. Reflective colours and materials should be avoided.

6. There should be a contrast in colour between working

surface and working materials.
 Natural Lighting:

1. High windows are more effective than broad ones

since the light penetrates further into the room.

2. Use clear glass as it has a transparency of 90%.

3. Positioning of work benches to avoid looking directly

into the sun.

4. When working at a VDU windows should be at the

side of the monitor and lighting should be to the left
or right and not directly overhead, or behind.
 Signs of Visual Fatigue:

 Painful irritation and reddening of the

eyelids

 Double vision

 Headaches

 Reduction in the power of

accommodation and convergence
 Flickering Lighting

 Flickering light may influence basic

brainwave patterns – induce nausea,
epileptic seizures.

 Stroboscopic effect makes rotating or

oscillating machine parts to appear
stationary or moving more slowly.
 RECOMMENDED ILLUMINATIONS:
Table 10.3 Examples of recommended naturally occurring illuminances
Area/activity Illuminance on a horizontal
surface (lux)
Clear sky in summer 150 000
Overcast sky in summer 16 000
Performance of extremely low contrast 10 000
tasks (certain surgical operations)
Textile inspection 15 000
Office work (writing, reading poor quality documents) 1 000
Precise assembly work 1 000
Office work (without VDUs) 500
Office work (data entry) 500
Heavy engineering 300
Rough assembly work 200
Min. illuminance for MMH tasks (NIOSH) 150
Rarely visited places where little perception of detail is required 50
Good street lighting 10
Emergency lighting 2
Moonlight 0.5
Jobs and Vision
Climate/Thermal
Environment
 Temperatures

Ventilation Humidity

Poor
respiratory
Dehydration
function

Reduced work
capacity!!
Assessing Thermal Conditions
Six Factors to assess human
response to thermal conditions:

1. Air temperature
2. Radiant temperature
3. Air velocity
4. Humidity
5. Activity of the person
6. Clothing worn by the person
 Cramps
Exhaustion
Stroke
Syncope (fainting)
Work Rash
Miliaria Profunda – inability to sweat

Work Pace Criteria:

Heat Heat Health
Climate Stress Strain Comfort
Performance
Operator
Clothing

Individual Factors:
Age/Sex
Work Capacity
Health Status
Acclimatization
 Heat Balance (homeostasis)

Optimal human internal (core) temperature is around 37°C

 Body under heat stress:

Two main mechanisms:

 Vasodilation
• Where the peripheral blood vessels dilate and
transfer blood (heat) to the surface of the
body where it can be lost to the surrounding
environment.

 Sweating
• Heat lost by evaporation
 Maximum Core Temperature
 A maximum core temperature of
38°C is often used as a limit for
working environments.

 Death will occur in the region of

42°C core temperature.
 Body under cold stress:

Two main mechanisms:

 Vasoconstriction
• Peripheral blood vessels constrict to
reduce the flow of blood to the body
surface that reduces heat loss.

 Shivering
 Psychological Responses to Poor
Ambient Conditions:

Less Severe:
• Decreased Concentration
• Decreased Response Time

More Severe:
• Mental confusion
• Unconsciousness
• Death due to Ventricular
Fibrillation (heart failure)
Permissible Heat Exposure Threshold
Limit Values in Degrees C, WBGT

Workload

Work/Rest Light Moderate Heavy

(per hour)

Continuous 30.0 26.7 25.0

75% / 25% 30.6 28.0 25.9
50% / 50% 31.4 29.4 27.9
25% / 75% 32.2 31.1 30.0
 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT):
Temperature associated with moisture content of
the air. WBT is taken by surrounding the
thermometer with a wet wick and measuring the
reading as the water evaporates. WBT readings
are typically lower than dry-bulb temperatures.

• With high relative humidity, little evaporative cooling

occurs, and the reading is similar to that of a dry-bulb
thermometer.

• On a dry day, significant evaporation occurs from the

wetted bulb, which maximized the differences
between the two thermometer readings (air velocity is
obviously a factor).
 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT):

Temperature we measure with a standard

thermometer that has no water surface on
it. When people refer to temperature of the
air they are usually referring to this.
 Relative Humidity (RH):

How saturated the air is with water vapor. The

amount of moisture air can hold increases a the
dry bulb temperature increases. When referring to
the relative humidity it is important to define the dry
bulb temperature of the air as well.
 Methods of Heat Loss:
 Convection
 Air flows along the skin
 Heat transferred from skin to air

 Conduction
 Heat transferred by touch
 i.e. working in water, handling cold products, etc.

 Evaporation
 i.e. sweating.

 Respiration
 Both convective and evaporative heat loss
 Occurs from the lungs by respiration as inspired air
 Heat Production/Loss

D
A

B F

C
 Heat Production/Loss

Evaporation
(sweat)
Respiration

Directed
Radiation

Convection
Reflected
Radiation

Conduction
Heat Disorders
 Prevention

 Slow Moving Fans – increase air circulation

 Cooling Jackets

 Increased Hydration

 Amount and Composition of Clothing

 Education about signs and symptoms

Cold Disorders
 Cold-related Disorders

 Frost-nip versus Frostbite

• With frost nip, there is freezing of the superficial tissues
commonly diagnosed by a blanching of fingers, noses,
ears, etc. Frost bite is significantly more serious. There
we find freezing of the deep tissues resulting in the
formation of ice crystals.
 Hypothermia
 Trench Foot and Immersion Foot
• conditions that present much like frost bite; however,
they occur at temperatures above freezing when the
foot is continuously immersed in water
 Prevention
 Apply skin moisturizer to the face, hands, and any other body part that may
be exposed to the cold.

 Dress warmly, wear dry clothing, and stay out of the wind. Wear a face mask
for extra protection. Wear heavy mittens instead of gloves in freezing cold
weather.

 Be extremely careful when pumping gas into your car if the temperature is
below freezing. Gasoline on exposed skin evaporates very quickly, lowers
the temperature of the skin, and makes it more susceptible to frostbite.

 When you exercise in below-freezing temperatures, wear layers of clothing.

The innermost garment must be nonabsorbent and loosely woven.

 Go inside, if possible, when you feel too cold. Remember that fatigue, lack of
oxygen in high elevations, and consumption of alcohol may cause you to
disregard discomfort and cold.

 Avoid smoking or drinking before venturing out into extreme cold. Tobacco
decreases circulation by constricting blood vessels, and alcohol interferes
with the body's ability to regulate temperature.
Thermal Sensitive Jobs
 Other Environmental
Factors that Affect Work
 Air Quality

Indoor environment - inadequate temperature,

humidity, lighting, excessive noise
Indoor air contaminants - chemicals, dusts, moulds
or fungi, bacteria, gases, vapours, odours
Symptoms – Indoor Air Quality
 dryness and irritation of the eyes, nose,
throat, and skin,
 headache,
 fatigue,
 shortness of breath,
 hypersensitivity and allergies,
 sinus congestion,
 coughing and sneezing,
 dizziness, and/or
 nausea
 Motion

•Motion-sickness
•Fatigue
•Motion-induced Interruptions