Ew KV, es pw = 2-5 Om pw = 2K/Vn : i +) Equation 6 = ‘Equation (7) = 2KyVn Vin Ont 2Kp [en_= 4 KD Phase Sensitivity quency Sensitivity. Here, K, > Fre Fi FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM advantages * 7 Improved noise immunity. Low power requirement. Transmitted power remain: All the transmitted power is useful. interference is avoided due to guard bands. s constant, Adjacent channel pisadvantsages V Very large BW is required. / FMiransmisstion and reception equipments are complex. /Area covered by FM is less compared to AM. Applications Radio Broadcasting. Sound broadeasting in TV. Satellite communication. Police wireless. Point to point communication. ite. neers Ambulances, Y Taxicabs,~ r [2.26] £ Communication oe cory ‘ 242 COMPARISON OF FM & PM. Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation o Frequency ofcarrier is modulated — | Phase oy ellen Me arin signa by Message Signal Modulated by Message Sig 2 | Modulation Index ™y = in| Modulation index K 3 | my Tas fy & vice versa m,Temains same iff, ig a 4 | BW =2f + fy) BW = 2k Vn 0, = ai =i 4] BW =2myo, 5s | m= me Chem =K,-V, p 2.43 GENERATION OF FM SS ‘There are two basic methods in generation of FN Generation of FM (FM Modulators) Direct a Indirect Method Parameter Variation Method Varactor diode Reactance Tube Armstrong Modulator Modulator method of FM ‘Modulator« Angle Modulation & 2.27 T_T -_ 714 DIREGT METHOD - PARAMETER VARIATION METHOD v 2.44. Varactor Diode Modulat Direct m v Cartier frequency is changed according to modulating signal, it generates FM I, es wave. Carrier Signal is generated by the oscillator circuit. Oscillator eireuit consists of parallel resonant circuit [tuned LC) 1 fe * Fle yco (Voltage controll controlled by the message vo Oscillator (f > Controlled by V,) led Oscillator) is an oscillator where frequency is tage WV, is known as Voltage Controlled VCO is used to generate FM. Inthe direct method the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input signal. tor [ VARICAP METHOD] .ethod of FM Generation - Parameter Variation Method. in direct FM generation, the instantaneous frequency deviation is directly proportional tothe amplitude ofthe Message Signal. Fortis, a deviee called Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) i used, Yariable capacitor is used which is a specially fabricated PN junction diode whose capacitor value depends on the biasing. Varcap is used to generated FM signal which is working in reverse bias condition. Capacitance of BIT & FET varies by Miller effect. ‘Then this is called Miller capacitance which is utilized for FM.~ ommunication ‘Ory ‘ Circuit Diagram - Varactor Diode Modulator R Ce 1H | \ VOC 2 | \ a | 3 =o,| FM output V,, (1) Le sige eT, | a Vela { | Y { 1 | —d ‘Tank (or) Tuned Circuit Figure 2.9 Circuit Diagram of Varactor Diode Modulator Y Polatizing Voltage (V,)is to maintain a reverse biase (RB) across the varagiy diode. ¥ — With no V, (0) Gnput signal) applied, the parallel combination of C,, Lend forms the resonant f.. ‘ ¥ — IfV() is applied, V, changes, hence varactor diode capacitance C, “changes, therefore frequency (output)is changed hence FM signal is generated. Analysis v Varactor diode capacitance is inversly propotonal to the voltage. 1 Cao Wo (1) Cy = T Wp)? et Ca = K(Vp)? 0) Vp = Vot Vn) 3) Vp = Vo tVq Sino gt nl)4 Angle Modulation « 229| per, €, > Varactor diode capacitance V, > _ Reverse bias total instantaneous Voltage across the diode K > Proportionality constant. @, — Instantaneous frequency. ‘total capacitance = C, + Cy 0; = 1 LC, + Cy) 1 an 1 ~ InJEo(Cy + Ca) =I 2m ie +K(Vp)? Vf depends on V,, , which in turn depends on V,(0). Y S0,fis depends on V,,() and thus FM is generated. symbol of Varactor Diode: A p A K Figure 2.10 Symbol - Varactor Diode V Diode capacitance (C,) controlled by two factors. i, DCBias ii, Modulating Signal Y Variable capacitance varies in the range of (10 to 15) pF/Volts. That is normal value of capacitance varies from (150 to 200 ) pF/Volts in RB condition, Applications Y Automatic Frequency Control (AFC). ¥ Remote tunning.- ¢ Communication Theory , ——_———>v 0 Figure 2.11 Transfer characteristics of varactor Diode 2.14.2 Reactance Tube Modulator / Parameter Variation Method Y Reactance Tube modulator is one of the eireuit used to generate FM singa, Y Ituses a transistor amplifier (or) Tube amplifier to act like either a vatahe capacitor (C) (or) Inductor (L). Y — Ithas Vaccum tubes to change the reactance. “Vaccum tubes has the characteristics of change in the reactance (ie both ‘| and*C’) due to the change in modulating signal and applied voltage, - ‘Vaccum tubes are like Triode (3), Tetrode (4), Pentode (5). Circuit Diagaram - Reactance Tube Modulator Plate Terminal Ie fo Toprovide —Stability& Biasing “bypassing purpose Figure 4.12 Circuit Diagram fie)¢ Modulation & s to Vaccum Tube. (Plate Voltage), 2V__ to provide bi Vaccum tube circuit exhibits inductive (or) capacitive reactance as its output terminate tt). \accum Tube circuit reactance is proportional to the f(t) applied at the one of the grid terminal, yhis reactance shunts the fank circuit of the oscillator. rhe oscillating frequency is controlled by the f(t) and PM signal is generated. ube amplifier circuit connected across tuned circuit. ‘The L & C of the tube amplifier circuit changes according to modulating signal ‘& frequency changes hence produces FM signal. gquvalent Cireuit ~ Reaetance Modulator @ AW ion Figure 2.13 Equivalent Circuit g, > Transconductance of the tube E, > Grid Voltage r, — Plate Resistance> re (ms Communication Th, 2.32. e Cory | Analysis : i like ; Y —(r,) Plate resistance is very high (large) that t behaves like an PEN ety Hence ignored. Plate current [= g,,Ey + (I) ube Z+2y +) 2 2 Bey Zhe e ~G) ‘Substitute equation (3) in equation (2) Mp iy ge Z+Z, °™ Zy+Zy y, 1 = ~*~ (+8, Z; Z+Z, 0*8" 2) (4) : i Admittance Yiu. = y (5) Val=>V=IR = eee 2) | Mer = 2 compes Ve Ht tea | 7H (Impedance) yet. Ota) © = ¥ (Admitance) Vp Zy+Z, O Here the impedance Z,, Z, are designed such that Z, >> Z, & |g, So, admittance becomes, zy = G+8n 2) ©. MS aaeazs Sm Za Yu = Ma 24 Angle Modulation 2.33 g, is controlled by grid voltage. Let a signal propotional to f() be applied plied at the grid. 8m = 80 + YO ® substitute equation (8) in equation (7) y,. = [emt #O] 22 kd Zi (9) Here, 4, > Transconductance when grid voltage is zero. b > Constant. controlled by f()- So, the admittance is 2, & Z, the reactance tube becomes either By properly selecting the values of yor. Capacitive Reactance Tube: Z, > Capacitance > Z 10) Z— Resistance > — =e (11) substitute equations (10) and (11) in equation (9) +ofO1R gy = ay 2B Yuip = JOC R80 + FO) Ynip = JOC R Bina + FOROS 6) = 4 R&qoi B= RO (12) Yup = Jey + JOBS) Yary = Jeo +B. iy = Foleo + BLO] ees c= a+ BS 0+ BSO ty on(15) Yup = joc2.34 4 Communication thy, y Ory This capacitance = c, + Bf() shunts the tank capacitance C, of theo 1 sc tank circuit then generates FM signal. ‘ill The frequency is given by, fimo LIC, +C, + BSW) “(1g Inductive Reactance Tube: Z, > Resistance -» Z,=R (17) joc, (18) Um + 0 ) [Smo + OfONZ2 _ Joc, Yay = as = fe 4 (19) Vg = not fO1 jooR ~Q20) CupagRio ges f12 - Ten + FO Z = joL (21) aR 8mo + FO ~@) The frequency is given by, fi on, e(t (28) The effective inductance ‘L’ offered by the reactance tube is controll! ft).» Angle Modulation & _ ions (or) Drawbacks (or) Demerits (or) Disadvantages of Direct Limit Method of FM Generation. Merits (or) Advantages of direct methods Y Simplicity v¥ Low cost Demerits Y Carrier Signal generation is directly affected by the modulating signal. Y Stability is not provided. [ crystal oscillator provides stability but fixed (MHz). ¥ Due to stability problem, direct methods cannot be used for broadcast and communication purpose. ¥ To obtain a higher order stability of carrier frequency is difficult. ¥ The Non-Linearity produces a frequency variation due to harmonics of modulating signal and hence FM Signal is distorted. ¥ — To overcome these drawbacks indirect method of FM generated is used. 2.45 INDIRECT FM GENERATION [ARMSTRONG METHOD] PM TO FM Y — In this method, first the modulating signal f(t) is integrated and then phase modulated with the carrier signal, as a result of which some form of FM signal is obtained. ¥ Later frequency multipliers are used to get the desired WBFM. ¥ — Crystal oscillator is used in this method.Communication Theory E Hopns2uU2y Wt fo poyrsyy Suosssuey wives YOY PLT PAN BT 1euss, oSessay ¥ aszyyenba, aug orpny. ig jt -| aseua .06 SHONION, WW Jo le 22ung aaqidininy Jo Janos puosog soynidury |z9mod 9 S501) Suyurquioy dnoip asta [Sone soar | { soyeinpour 1 eseug | wan euusuy Sunmmsuer, spunof be+ Angle Modulation : [237] 37 Crystal oscillator [MHz] ¥ Stable cil © crystal oscillator is used to generate 1 MHz high frequency. is obtainted. Vv Here st stable crystal oscillator generates PM, from which NBF! v The i ‘ en Suitable frequency multiplying circuits are used to obtain the desired Ww Phi: . ‘BFM. This method is called the Armstrong method of FM wave generation. V Cartier is not directly involved in producting the FM signal, but itis injected. Y It produces good frequency stability. v iti aa am No additional frequency corrective cireuit is necessary. Buffer [ Time delay] V Buffer is provided for impedance matching. Y — Output of the crystal oscillator is given to the buffer. V Output of the buffer is given to the 90° phase shift network and also to the combining network. Balanced Modulator Y Input signals to the balanced modulator is from audio frequency equivalizer and 90° phase shifted network. Y Output of the balanced medulator is DSB - SC - AM Signal. That is only sidebands are the outputs. Combining Network (f, # 8) Y Input Signals to the combining network are from buffer and balanced modulator. Y — Output of the network is FM wave. (NBFM) The block diagrams after the combining network are used to show how WBFM will be obtained. I+ Communication Theory 4 fe Frequency Muliplier (2/, + 26) ¥ The FM Signal produced at the output of the phase modulator has a low carrie, frequency and lower modulation index, ¥ They are increased to an high value with the help of frequency multipliers ang mixers. § —> Frequeney deviation. Mixer ¥ Inputs to the mixer. > Frequency Multiplier output (2f, + 28) andLoca oscillator output (/,) “ Output ofthe mixer + 2(, 4 §)3f piven to the second group of multipliers, Class C power Amplifier “The power level is raised to the desired level by the amplifier. “Class C provides better efficiency, 2.46 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNAL Types of Demodulator (or) Detector (or) Discriminator Types of Demodulator Foamy Tana Slope Detector Phase Discriminator Single Tuned Stagger Tuned Discriminator Fostor Seely Ratio Detector Discriminator (or Discriminator (cr) Balanced Slope Detector (or) (or) Simple Slope Frequency Discriminator Inverter (or) Detector (or) (or) Centre Tuned Single-ended Round ~ Travis Detector Discriminator Slope Detector (or) (or) Two single-ended Slope Double Tuned Detector Discriminator« Angle Modulation 4 a FM Det {eetor (or) Discriminator - Definition The process : : “* Process of extracting modulating signal [V,(] from a frequency modulated signal [V... () is tect (or) _ m (@)] is known as fi si n (or) detection disctmiantas frequency demodulatio The circuit which perfoms such a demodulation process i called as demodultor (0r) detector (or) discriminator, 2 Steps involved in Detector Step 1: It converts FM to corresponding AM Signal by 4s! Step 2: The original message signal is recover ing frequency put voltage depends on dependent circuits. [That is circuits whose out] ee discriminators. input frequency] such circuits are called as Frequency ed from this AM Signal by using a linear diode Envelope detector. 2.16.1 Slope Detector (Single Tuned Circuit) - FM Demodulation vy v - ingl Slope detector (o1) single slope circuit (or) simple slope detector (01) single tuned circuit (or) single-ended slope detector. pe of frequency response characteristics Principle of operation depends on slo} of a frequency selective network. Using tank circuit (or) tuned circuit, FM is converted in to AM. Circuit Diagram - Slope Detector Frequency Modulated Signal V0} Detected Output - Message Signal V0 Figure 2.15 Simple Slope Detector¢ Communication Th Steps involved in discrimination Step 1: Converting FM in to AM Signal. Step 2: AM into original Message Signal. LC Tunning —> Large Sensitivity RC Tunning — Small Sensitivity Y Output signal voltage depends on input signal frequency, Voltage # Output voltage of Tank cireuit Amplitute Variation at the output Gea Frequency t | | t The Tank Circuit is tuned to a { higher frequency than, Sf, 1 1 | t { Frequency Deviation at the input Figure 2.16 Characteristics of a Slope Detector+ Angle Modulation « all Low Frequency Deviation (Af ) provides small amplitude variation. High Frequency Deviation (Af ) provides large amplitude variation, The output of frequency discriminator is AM. Then the AM is given to the envelope detector. SANA ‘The Output of envelope detector is modulating signal V, (1). wf Frequency f Off Tuned Figure 2.17 Simple Slope Detector characteristics Operation: ¥ By tuning the circuit, the carrier amplitude V, which is varied with frequency. ¥-_Inthis case, the circuit is tuned so that its f, is lower than f.. J, -» Resonant frequency ff, > Carrier frequency When the signal frequency increases above /,, amplitude of the carrier voltage V, drops. When the signal frequency decreases below f,, the carrier voltage (V, ) rises Y The change of voltage results in an effective conversion of frequency modulation into amplitude modulation. “The message signal is recovered from the AM using envelope detector.bal] + Communication Theory #8 NO ONY Advantages: Y Construction is easy (simple) and cheap (Inexpensive). Disadvantages Y tis inefficient. ¥ Non-Linear characteristics causes harmonic distortion. ¥ _Itis linear only over a limited frequency range. 2.16.2 Balanced Slope Detector (or) Frequency Discriminator (or) Roung . Travis Detector ¥ Balanced slope detector is also called as stagger tuned discriminator which ig a type of FM detector. FM demodulation ~ Definition ¥ The process of recovering original message signal from the FM signal is called demodulation. Steps involved in Discrimination Step 1: FM Signal to AM Step 2: AM Signal to Message Signal Circuit Diagram - Balanced Slope Detector for Af Frequency Modualted Zz signal L, VimO ie | Figure 2,18 Balanced Slope Detector - Circuit DiagramAngle Modulation 6 Operation v Balanced slope detector is used to overcome the limitations of slope detector. It consists of Two slope detector circuits. ‘The input transformer has a center tapped secondary. So the input voltages to the two slope detectors are 180° out of phase. Circuit consists of two LC Circuits. + Circuit 1 : Tunned to (f, + Af) . Circuit II : Tuned to (f,— Af) ‘The output taken across the two RC loads, when added up gives the total output. Input frequency /., the voltage across upper half of the sencondary coil ‘will be less than maximum value. Voltage across lower half of secondary coil will be irdentical to that of upper half. ‘The output of diode D, > (#Ve) and D, > (~ Ve ) . Hence detector output is zero. Sin Sot AF Input frequency (f, + Af) Circuit I will be at resonance. Circuit II far away from resonance. Detector output is (+Ve) Positive & maximum. Fg? fe- AF Input frequency f,, =/.- Af Circuit II will be at resonance. Detector Output is negative (-Ve) & minimum.2.44 + Communication Theory , Cased: Between (f,— Af) & (f+ Af) > Linear Y Output lie between the above 2 extremes, Y itis +Ve (or) Ve depends on which side of the input lies. Case Si Beyond (f,- Af) & (f, + Af) > Non Linear Y The tuned cirucit response make the output fall. ry Thus the output and input frequency characteristics of the detector wi follow ‘S’ shaped curve. Frequency Response Curve Output voltage 1 ! Useful Range (Linear Range) Figure 2.19 S - Curve Advantages ¥ — More efficient than simple slope detector, ¥ Ithas better linearity than simple slope detector, Mw+ Angle Modulation 6 2.45 Disadvantages V Amplitude limiting is not provided. V Linearity is not sufficient when compared with slope detector. VY Tuned circuit is not purely band limited. Low pass RC filter of envelope detector introduces distortion, 2.16.3 Phase Discriminator [Centre Tuned Discriminator] Seely Discriminator [FM - Detector] (or) Phase difference detector Foster — [Double Tuned Diseriminator] V_ Phase discriminator is called as centre tuned discriminator (or) Foster ~ Seely discriminator, V_—Itisa type of FM detector. ¥ — Widely used in receiver side. ¥ __ Itis invented by Foster seely. FM Detector — Definition V Recovering original signal from FM frequency modulated signal is called as FM detector. ‘Two steps involved in FM Detector Step 1: FM is converted into AM Step 2 : AM is converted into Message Signal. Working ¥ The primary and secondary windings both are tuned to the same center ‘frequency (f.) of the incoming signal. Y The fis the resonance (or) tuned frequency of the transformer.+ Communication Theory , 2.46 Cire In suit Diagram - Phase Discrimination Se Set df A mm 7g T So- AS Figure 2.20 Circuit Diagram of a Faster - Seely Discrimination Analysis v v The ircuit consists of double tuned inductively coupled circuit, both prima and secondary are tuned to same frequency. L, > Primary Inductance L, — Secondary Inductance C, —> Primary capacitance C, + Secondary Capacitance C, + Coupling Capacitor Coupling Capacitor C, couples input signal to secondary and blocks de, __ The entre voltage aross‘L,’ by properly selecting the values of ‘L&C, V, & V, are equal in magnitude & opposite in phase. vj=-¥, a (1) V,, & V2 are Input to diodes D, & D,. Mant Mp tN ~Q Va= Var ¥, « @) The centre of the secondary is connected to the top of the primary through coupling capacitor C_,gle Modulation 0 Ang 2.47, V__ This C, performs the following, (i) _Itblocks de from primary to secondary. (i) It couples the signal frequency from primary to centre tapping of secondary. The primary voltage V; thus appears across L. V V,,&V,qare applied to diodes D, & D, . Frequeney Response VP S< 5 FRAT Oh Frequency Figure 2.21 Frequency Response YThe Voltages V,, & V,, depends on phasor relationship between V, , V, & V,- Y Inthe phasor diagrams V, & V, are always equal and opposite inphase. Phasor Diagrams: Less than 99° Figure 2.22 Less than 90°