PRODUCTION OPERATIONS-1

Topic -1
Lectures Delivered
By
Mr. Saurav Sengupta(HOD-Petroleum)
1. WELLHEAD AND CHRISTMASS TREE
Wellhead is the most visible part of
equipment located in the cellar pit of the
well. The American Petroleum Institute
published and maintains ‘API 6A’ for
wellheads and Christmas Tree”. In general
five nominal ratings of wellheads pressure
are : 2, 3, 5, 10 and 15 (x1000) psi working
pressure.

Wellhead consists of
1. Casing Spool
2.Intemediate Casing spool
3.Tubing spool
4.Tubing hanger
1. CASING SPOOL- The starting casing head is attached to the surface casing
/conductor by either welding or threading on to the conductor. The starting
casing hanger has a profile located in the inside diameter (ID) that will
accept a slip-and-seal assembly to land and support the next string of casing.

2.INTERMEDIATE CASING SPOOL- The intermediate casing spool (or spools)

is installed after each additional casing string has been run, cemented, and set.
The top flange will have a pressure rating higher than the bottom flange to
cope with expected higher wellbore pressures as that hole section is drilled
deeper.
3.TUBING SPOOL- The tubing spool differs from the intermediate spool is that
it has a profile for accepting a solid body-tubing hanger with a lockdown
feature located around the top flange. The lockdown feature ensures that the
tubing hanger cannot move because of pressure or temperature.

4.TUBING HANGER-The tubing hanger is a type of mandrel hanger that is a

solid body with a through-bore ID similar to that of the tubing or casing run
below, and it also has penetrations for down-hole safety valve line(s) and
temperature and pressure gauges, if required.
WELLHEAD-CHRISTMASS TREE TYPICAL COMPONENTS
2. TUBING SPECIFICATIONS
The production string (or tubing) is the pipe that carries the effluents from the
reservoir to the surface in producer wells and from the surface to the reservoir
in injection wells. Except in very specific cases, the tubing is utilized in
conjunction with a packer, and this helps protect the casing from the effluent.
The tubing is made of drawn, seamless pipe which is usually fitted with a
coupling.

Parameters defined by API are mainly: nominal diameter, nominal weight, grade
of steel, type of connection and length range.

1. Nominal diameter- This is the outside diameter of the pipe body, or OD,
traditionally expressed in inches and fractions of an inch. The following are
standard outside diameters:
inch 1.315 1.660 1.9 2 3/8 2 7/8 3 1/2 4 4.5

mm 33 42 48 60 73 89 102 114
2.Inside diameter and thickness-The inside diameter, ID, is a result of the
nominal diameter and the thickness of the pipe and is naturally the diameter used
in calculating pressure losses and velocities.

3.Drift Diameter- The drift governs the range of equipment that can be run
through the tubing whether for wireline tools, perforators, logging tools or small
concentric tubings. As a result, the pipe run in the well, as well as the accessories,
must absolutely be checked to be sure they conform to the drift.

4.Maximum Outside diameter- This corresponds to the outside diameter, OD, of

the connection and depends on the nominal diameter and on the type of
connection. It is a critical parameter when there are problems of space in the
casing.

5.Pipe length- Pipe is classified into two length ranges:

range 1: from 20 ft to 24ft (6.10 m to 7.32 m)
range 2: from 28ft to 32ft (8.53 m to 9.75 m).

6.Nominal Weight- In addition to the nominal diameter, pipe is characterized in

practice by its nominal weight, not its thickness. This corresponds to the average
weight of a length of pipe, connections included, and is expressed in pounds per
foot (lb/ft or the symbol #).
2.2Ballooning and
Reverse Ballooning

Radial pressure inside

the tubing tends to
increase tubing diameter
and thereby shorten the
tubing termed as
ballooning whereas
greater pressure outside
the tubing lengthens the
string due to " reverse
ballooning.
FB = 0.6[(Pi ) avg Ai − (Po ) avg Ao ]

(Pi ) avg − R 2 (P0 ) avg

LB = 102L8 [ ]
R −1
2

Temperature Effect
If the tubing string is free to move, its thermal expansion is expressed as

LT = LTavg − − − − − −(i )

Where, LT = Change in length due to temperature effect

 = Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion (in/in/ 0F)

Tavg
= Average Temperature of the string through-out(0F)
4.PACKER DEFINATION AND TYPES
What is packer?
A PACKER IS A SEALING DEVICE THAT
ISOLATES AND CONTAINS PRODUCED
FLUIDS AND FLUIDS WITHIN THE
WELLBORE TO PROTECT THE CASING
AND OTHER FORMATIONS ABOVE AND
BELOW THE WELLBORE.

Functions of packer

1. Isolates multiple zones.

2. Hold Work-over and completion fluids
3. Prevents casing from corossion
4. Prevent downhole movement
5. Supports some of the weight of the
tubing.
PACKER TYPES

1. Weight on packer-
Weight-set packers employ a slip and cone
arrangement with the slips attached to a
friction device . A " J" slot device permits
vertical movement of the tubing and causes
the cone to move behind the slips and anchor
the packer in the casing. Tubing weight is
then applied to expand the packing element.
Q NO 10- A weight set packer has been set
in a well at depth 7000ft. The packer is
installed between a casing of ID = 4.892
in. and a tubing of (2.375 in x 1.987in)
dimensions. Gradient of fluid in casing-
tubing and tubing is 0.45psi/ft and
0.36psi/ft. The tubing weight is 7000lbs
and TP=1000psi. Calculate the imbalance
of force.
2. Tension-set Packer (Retrievable)

Tension packers are essentially weight-set

packers run upside down and set by slight
rotation of the packer. After a tension packer
is set, a differential pressure from below
increases the setting force on the packer and
holds it in place automatically. This feature
renders the tension packer particularly
suitable for shallow formations.

Conditional Criteria
Pann  Ptub
 3. Compression –set Packer
Compressional Packers are provided with
mechanical interlock. Setting is initiated by
rotation of the work-string. Continues slack-
off force energizes the packing element. An
internal lock system mechanically traps the
pack-off force . This type of packer does not
rely on constant tubing forces to maintain its
packoff, so it is much more versatile in use. A
by-pass valve is added which helps in
equalizing of the differential pressure.
4. HYDRAULIC SET PACKER-(WIRELINE)
Hydraulic-set packers utilize fluid pressure acting on a piston-cylinder
arrangement to drive the cone behind the slips. The packer remains set by a
pressure actuated mechanical lock.
Advantages
1. This packer can be run in even after the Christmas tree is installed.
2. No tubing manipulation is required.
3. Very suitably used in multiple completions or commingled completions.

Q NO 15- The tubing 7’’ OD (6.33’’ID) is latched to a packer with thru-bore ID

of 6’’. The whole assembly is set in 9 5/8 ‘’ OD(8.625’’ ID) casing. The
bottomhole pressure at packer is 4475psi. The upward and downward force
are 134861lbs and 138069lbs respectively.
Assume which packer is best selective for this condition

a) Hydraulic set packer

b) Tension set packer
c) Compressional set packer
d) Weight set packer
 5. EXPANSION DEVICES
Expansion joints are used to compensate for tubing movement that occurs
due to changes in temperature, pressure, or both during normal well
operations after the permanent packer has been set. The devices maintain the
pressure integrity of the tubing while allowing the string to safely expand and
contract.
6. CIRCULATING DEVICES
Used for communication between the well bore and the annulus.

Types
1) Sliding sleeve door-

It is a downhole flow control

devices mounted in the
production tubing. It effectively
controls flow between the tubing
and casing annulus by means of
an interval sleeve that is opened
or closed by means of a wireline
shifting tool.
2. Side pocket Mandrel

SPM are box threaded at both ends with oval cross-

section (in general). On one side of the mandrel, an
inner sleeve or pocket is located. This side pockets
has ports in the outer wall of the mandrel thru
which communication between the annulus and
tubing can be accomplished.
Uses-
1. For installing a dummy valves.
8.SAFETY VALVES
Safety valves are used in flowing well to
control in case of emergency

Two types of safety valves based on

location

1. Sub-surface controlled subsurface

safety valves(SSCSSV)
2. Surface controlled subsurface safety
valve(SCSSV)
SURFACE CONTROLLED SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES(SCSSV)
Hydraulic consideration of Safety valves

Q NO 1- Calculate the fail close setting depth of a subsurface safety valve with
hydraulic control line fluid (0.875s.g.), 1.3 s.g. packer fluid, a recorded valve
closure pressure of 1500 psia and a recommended safety margin of 150psi.

Q NO 2- A hydraulic line of a subsurface safety valve has a fluid of specific

gravity 1.2 to operate the valve. The valve closing pressure is 1,200 psia and
the recommended safety margin is 200 psia.
The maximum depth at which the valve can be positioned is_________ ft.
(GATE-2016)

Q NO 3- Calculate the surface pressure to open the valve if the opening pressure
is 1800 psia, the opening margin 500 psi, the setting depth 2000 ft and the
shut-in tubing pressure at this depth is 4700 psia.
 10.BOTTOM HOLE CHOKES AND REGULATORS

Positive flow/ Bean choke

Q NO 4- Match the following: (GATE-18)

1. Froude Number 1. Ratio of inertial force to viscous force

2. Reynolds number 2. Ratio of inertial force to gravitational
force

Needle type choke

 Sub-Sonic and Super-Sonic Flow

Sub-Sonic flow- If the velocity of flow passing thru any duct is lesser than
the speed of sound.

Sonic Flow- If the velocity of flow passing thru any duct is equal to the
speed of sound.

Mathematically it is expressed as

Mach Number(M) =

If M < 0.8-------- Sub-sonic

If 0.8 < M <1 ---Transonic
Inertiaforce
If M =1 -----------Sonic
Mach Number(M) = Elasticforce
If M > 1---------Super-Sonic
If M >5 --------Hyper-Sonic
 Completion
What is well completion?
Well completion means transformation of well from drilling efforts to
the production unit.

1. Borehole wall stability

2. If suppose the borehole penetrates several reservoir in such case to avoid
commingling of different fluids, multiple strings or packers is used to
isolate different formations.
3. Selection of proper diameter tubing reduces the pressure loss within the
bore.
4. Installation of tubing allows different equipments to attach downhole
which increase well safety.

The ultimate aim of Well completions is to design the casing tubing

arrangement in such a way for Subduing.
 Basic operations
i. Drilling through the producing zones, coring, logging of zone etc.
ii. Placing the proper production casing and cementing.
iii. Installing tubing, packer and well head assembly.
iv. Perforating(Overbalanced or Underbalanced)
v. Well activation and stimulation if required
2.TYPES OF COMPLETION
 3.OPEN HOLE COMPLETIONS
Types
1. Bare foot completions
2. Pre‐drilled and pre‐slotted liners.
3. Open hole sand control techniques such as standalone
screens.
4. Open hole gravel packs

1. BARE FOOT COMPLETIONS

Advantages-
1.Entire payzone is exposed to production.
2.Log interpretation is easy.
3.Minimum formation damage.
Dis-advantages-
1.Plugging may occur very frequently.
2.Cannot control gas or water production.
Uses-
1.For consolidated formations.
2.Used in prolific reservoir where the formation has huge PI.
2. PRE-SLOTTED LINER

Advantages-
1.An alternative to production casing
due to less time and less money.
2.Less sand control.
3.In medium consolidated
formations.
Disadvantages.
1.Due to excessive sand production
liner hanger may corrode.
Uses-
1. In formations producing with
uniform sand.
3. STAND ALONE SCREENS

To overcome the problems of liner hanger corrode, we use stand-alone screens.

Screens are basically of two types-
1. Wire-wrapped screens
2. Pre-packed screens.
4. CASED HOLE COMPLETIONS
Advantages
1. Sand production is minimum.
2. Provide safer operation.
3. Provide selective stimulation.
4. Facilitate multi-zone completion.
5. Control gas and water production
by selectively perforating and
isolating among different zones.

Disadvantages
1. Restricts the fluid flow of
produced fluid & it may be
disadvantages for low producing
wells.
2. Completion is more expensive.
3. Log interpretation is somewhat
complex.
5. CONVENTIONAL COMPLETIONS
1. Single-zone completions with just a tubing and no production packer
Uses-
1.In case of gas-condensate reservoir.
2. To produce sweet gas from offshore wells.

Advantages
1.Less capital investment is required.

Dis-advantages.
1. Well stimulation cannot be done
2.Used only in single zone completions.
2. Single-zone completions with a tubing
and a production packer

Advantages
1. Well stimulation can be safely done by
deploying compression set packer.
2.Can produce corrosive fluid.
 6. MULTIPLE ZONE CONVENTIONAL
COMPLETIONS
1. Single string-Single Packer
Tubing-annulus completion with one single tubing
and one packer, which is located between the two
levels that are to be produced, with one level
produced through the tubing and the other through
the tubing-casing annulus.

Limitations
1. Upper zone cannot be produced thru tubing
unless lower zone is blanked off.
2. Casing subject to pressure and corrosion.
3. Upper zone sand production may stick tubing.
4. Workover of upper zone requires killing lower
zone.
5. Only lower zone can be artificially lifted.
2. Double string-Dual packer

Can produce two

formations with
production control.

Dis-advantages

1.For work-over of
upper zone we need
to kill both the zones.
 8.Technology advanced Multi-Lateral
Well(TAML)
Multi-lateral wells are drilled with a mother bore having many laterals.

TAML are divided into 6 levels based on amount and type of support and
functionality provided at the junction in the wellbore.

Level 1- The mother bore and lateral both uncased and uncemented (a type of
open-hole completions)
Level 2- Here the main bore is cased and cemented and lateral is open.
Level 3- Main bore is cased and cemented while the lateral is cased but not
cemented.
Level 4-Both main bore and lateral cased and cemented.
Level 5- Scoophead is used for diverting lateral string whereas main bore is
sealed. Hence the pressure integrity is achieved by completion.
Level 6- In a large diameter casing we provide a splitter along with the casing
to maintain integrity.Here pressure integrity is achieved by casing.
 10. PERFORATIONS
What is perforation?

The process of creating holes in the casing that pass thru the
cement sheath and extend some inches into the formations.
The primary perforation factors
1. Depth of penetration.
2. Charge phasing Dis-advantages
3. Shot density
4. Perforation diameter. 1. Bullets provide
shattering of casing and
cement sheath.
2. Cannot be used in high
temperature as pistol
powder get self ignited.

1. BULLET PERFORATIONS
Here pre-sized bullets are used based on the
perforation diameter desired.
Perforating gun is lowered by wireline methods.
Types of bullet used-

Deep Penetration

Smaller Penetration is
achieved

Cement Fracturing

To widen up the
already created
fractures

Window cutting in
tubing
2. JET PERFORATIONS

This type of perforation is done by a

combination of primary and secondary
explosives in a shape charged liner.
ELEMENTS OF JET PERFORATING GUN :
1. Detonator- is attached to every shape
charges. It is initiated or activated by heat
or shock.
2. Case- it sustains the detonating force of
the secondary explosives long enough to
form the jet . It also restricts interference
with adjacent charges.
3. Secondary Explosives- are used in
detonating cord and shape charge. This
are less sensitive but once initiated they
release tremondous amount of energy.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGE PERFORMANCE

___________________ is a mode of flame propagation in a pre-mixed gas, and drives a

leading shock front into the quiescent, unbrunt gas at supersonic velocity,
immediately followed by a combustion zone
(GATE-2017)

(A) Deflagaration (B) Fire (C) Detonation (D) Ignition

 PERFORATION TECHNIQUES
1. Overbalanced condition thru casing gun-
In this condition when the hydrostatic head of the fluid column is more as
compared to reservoir pressure, in such case we do perforation with a casing
gun run on a wireline.

2. Underbalanced perforation thru tubing wireline-

In this condition the wellbore pressure is slightly lower than the reservoir
pressure. Here the tubing gun is decentralized to create the perforation which
results in non-uniform penetration depth around the wellbore. Decentralization
is achieved by either mechanically or magnetically.

3. Underbalanced perforation thru tubing conveyed perforation-

Another method of perforating underbalanced condition is by using a tubing
conveyed perforation(TCP). This assembly is run with the tubing and the
completion fluid is stored within the tubing. Here the ported nipple is attached
in the tubing string for back-flashing of completion fluid. After firing the TCG
can be thrown down into the sump by using a drop bar to open up the sheer
pin.
 Well Livening/Activation Techniques
The process of initiating flow and establishing communication between the
perforation is Well activation.

Well activation can be done by one of the following method –

1. By displacement with lighter Liquid.
2. Displacing by compressor application
3. Displacing by nitrogen by pumping liquid nitrogen with coil tubing
4. Swabbing with wireline
5. Activation with gas lift system
 Well Livening/Activation Techniques
1. By use of lighter fluids- Normally the well is perforated overbalanced,
(higher pressure in the wellbore than in the formation) with completion fluid
in the hole (normally same weight as that of the mud with which the
formation was drilled). The flow initiation and cleanup program will
comprise of displacing the completion fluid with lighter fluid. This will result
in a lower pressure so as to allow the reservoir fluids to flow into the
wellbore.
2. Displacing by compressor This procedure is generally adopted for the
onshore well. Compressor is connected to the tubing annulus and completion
fluid is displaced by the compressed air. This reduces the head on the
reservoir when the pressure is bled off which initiates the flow from
reservoir into the wellbore. Normal compressors available for such
application can go upto 120 kg/Cm2.
3. Displacing by nitrogen by pumping liquid nitrogen with coil tubing- This
procedure will be chosen for deeper wells either onshore or offshore. The
activation time will much less as compared to other procedures. The coil
tubing will be rigged up on the well and coil tubing run to the bottom. Then
nitrogen can be pumped through the coiltubing and displacing the whole well
4. Swabbing with Wireline- To unload the heavy liquids from the production
tubing to initiate flow from the reservoir A swabbing tool string incorporates a
weighted bar and swab cup assembly that are run in the wellbore on
heavy wireline. When the hydrostatic head of the fluid column is reduced
sufficiently, reservoir fluids may flow into the wellbore and towards the surface.