ABSTRACT

Now a days when compared to the current ac system, dc driven appliances and dc power
distribution can save a lot of energy in residential applications. Most residential ac-
powered appliances will be replaced with more energy-efficient dc-powered equipment in
the future. A 230v 1-phase ac supply is used in residential applications, and the mixer
grinder currently uses a universal motor. This motor's efficiency ranges between 40 to
60%. The prospects of BLDC motors in the application are examined in the wake of
improving efficiency with more reliable and easy control. To suit the performance
requirements of a mixer-grinder application, a BLDC motor with a surface mounted rotor
and inside permanent magnet is designed. This BLDC's finite element analysis the
machine is run, and the results are displayed. This article compares the performance of a
mixer using a conventional and a BLDC motor. The design of a mixer motor with 48v dc
and 300v dc power supplies has also been completed, with the performance of the 300v
dc power supply being assessed. By using zeta converter to step up or step down the
voltage efficiently due to it’s feedback device

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................I
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................II
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................IV
LIT OF TABLES.............................................................................................................VI

CHAPTER 1.......................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................1
1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM.....................................................................................1
1.2 CONVERTERS..........................................................................................................1
1.3 INVERTER................................................................................................................2
1.4 BLDC MOTOR..........................................................................................................2
1.4.1 HOW DOES BRUSH LESS DC MOTOR WORKS...................................3
1.5 SYSTEM OVERVIEW..............................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2.......................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................................5
2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE.........5
2.2 DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM......................................................................................5
2.2.1 DESIGN OF SPV ARRAY..........................................................................6
2.2.2 DESIGN OF MIXER GRINDER................................................................6
2.3 CONTROL OF THE SYSTEM..................................................................................7
2.3.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING................................................7
2.3.2 ELECTRONIC COMMUTATION..............................................................7

CHAPTER 3.......................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR SYSTEM.......................................................................8
3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS..................................................................................8
3.1.1 FUNCTIONING OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS..............................9
3.1.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS......................................10
3.1.3 PV CELL....................................................................................................11
3.1.4 PV MODULE.............................................................................................12
3.1.5 PV ARRAY................................................................................................12
3.2 AN OVERVIEW OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING.........................13
3.3 DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUES.......................................................................13
3.3.1 FRACTIONAL OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE..........................................14
3.3.2 FRACTIONAL SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT........................................15
3.3.3 PERTURB & OBSERVE ALGORITHM..................................................16
3.3.4 LIMITATIONS OF PERTURB & OBSERVE ALGORITHM.................17
3.3.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF MPPT USING A BOOST CONVERTER......18

CHAPTER 4.....................................................................................................................19
4.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................19
ii
 4.2 DESIGN OF BOOST CONVERTER......................................................................21

CHAPTER 5.....................................................................................................................23
ZETA CONVETER AND INVERTER..........................................................................23
5.1 DESIGN OF ZETA CONVERTER.........................................................................23
5.2 OPERATION OF PROPOSED SYSTEM...............................................................23
5.3 INVERTERS............................................................................................................24
5.3.1 BASIC INVERTER OPERATION............................................................25
5.3.2 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS.........................................................25
5.4 SELECTIVE-HARMONIC ELIMINATION (SHE) TECHNIQUE.......................26
5.5 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS..........................................27
5.5.1 HALF-BRIDGE VSI..................................................................................27
5.5.2 FULL-BRIDGE VSI..................................................................................28
5.6 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS............................................29

CHAPTER 6.....................................................................................................................31
BLDC MOTOR................................................................................................................31
6.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................31
6.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS BLDC MOTOR.......................................................33
6.2.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF BLDC MOTOR..............................................33
6.2.2 CONSTRUCTION.....................................................................................36
6.2.3 OPERATION.............................................................................................37
6.3 BRIDGELESS CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL (BL-CSC) CONVERTER....39
6.3.1 CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL CONVERTER FED BLDC MOTOR
DRIVE 40
6.3.2 DESIGN OF CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL CONVERTER AND
CONTROLLER.......................................................................................................41

CHAPTER 7.....................................................................................................................43
MATLAB AND SIMULINK MODEL...........................................................................43
7.1 MATLAB.................................................................................................................43
7.2 SIMULINK...............................................................................................................43
7.3 SIMULINK AND ITS RELATION TO MATLAB.................................................44
7.4 OUTPUTS AND RESULTS....................................................................................45
7.4.1 SOLAR PV SIMULATION OUTPUTS....................................................45
7.4.2 ZETA CONVERTER SIMULATION OUTPUT......................................46
7.4.3 MOTOR SIMULATION OUTPUTS........................................................47
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................48
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................49

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: An working of solar cell...................................................................................1

Figure 1.2: Typical Picture of Project.................................................................................4
Figure 2.1: Configuration of the conventional SPV array fed BLDC motor driven water
pumping system (a) Configuration, (b) Functional sequence of back-EMF
zero-crossing based sensor less technique........................................................5
Figure 3.1: Photovoltaic cells..............................................................................................8
Figure 3.2: Function of the photovoltaic cell....................................................................10
Figure 3.4: Structure of PV cell........................................................................................11
Figure 3.3: Photovoltaic cell.............................................................................................11
Figure 3.5: Photovoltaic system........................................................................................12
Figure 3.6: Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B.......16
Figure 3.7: Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm....................................................17
Figure 3.8: Curve showing wrong tracking of MPP by P&O algorithm under rapidly
varying irradiance...........................................................................................17
Figure 3.9: Requisite implementation for MPPT system..................................................18
Figure 5.1: Requisite implementation for MPPT system..................................................23
Figure 5.2: Requisite implementation for MPPT system..................................................25
Figure 5.3: The electrical power conversion topology......................................................27
Figure 5.4: The electrical power conversion topology......................................................27
Figure 5.5: The actual input (ac mains) and output (load) waveforms.............................28
Figure 5.6: Single-phase half-bridge VSI.........................................................................28
Figure 5.7: Single-phase full-bridge VSI..........................................................................29
Figure 5.8: Single-phase full-bridge VSI..........................................................................30
Figure 6.1: Disassembled view of a brushless dc motor...................................................34
Figure 6.2: Brushless dc motor = Permanent magnet ac motor + Electronic commutator
........................................................................................................................34
Figure 6.3: Two-phase motor having auxiliary salient poles............................................35
Figure 6.4: Two-phase motor having auxiliary salient poles............................................38
Figure 6.6: BLDC motor cross section and phase energizing sequence...........................39
Figure 6.5: Ideal back-EMF’s phase currents, and position sensor signals......................39
Figure 6.7: Simplified BLDC drive scheme.....................................................................40

iv
Figure 6.8: Block diagram of the Canonical Switching Cell converter fed BLDC motor
drive................................................................................................................41
Figure 7.1: Solar PV Simulation outputs..........................................................................46
Figure 7.2: Simulation outputs for Zeta converter............................................................47
Figure 7.3: Simulation output for BLDC motor................................................................48

v
 LIT OF TABLES

Table 3.1 : Characteristics of different MPPT techniques................................................15

Table 4.1: Switching states for electronic commutation of BLDC motor.........................22
Table 5.1 : Switch states for a half-bridge single-phase VSI............................................29
Table 5.2 : Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI.............................................30
Table 6.1 : Comparison of conventional and brushless DC motors..................................35
Table 6.2 : 120° commutation table of the BLDC motor..................................................43

vi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Converting solar energy into electrical energy by PV installations is the most recognized
way to use solar energy. Since solar photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices, they
have a lot in common with processing and production techniques of other semiconductor
devices such as computers and memory chips. As it is well known, the requirements for
purity and quality control of semiconductor devices are quite large. With today's
production, which reached a large scale, the whole industry production of solar cells has
been developed and, due to low production cost, it is mostly located in the Far East.
Photovoltaic cells produced by the majority of today’s most large producers are mainly
made of crystalline silicon as semiconductor material.
The fuel for the photovoltaic cell is free. The sun is the only resource that is
required for the operation of PV systems, and its energy is almost inexhaustible.
Typical photovoltaic cell efficiency is about 15%, which means it can convert 1/6 of
solar energy into electricity. Photovoltaic systems produce no noise, there are no
moving parts and they do not emit pollutants into the environment.

Figure 1.1: An working of solar cell

1.2 CONVERTERS
DC–DC converters. Various DC–DC converters such as buck, boost, buck–boost, Cuk
and single-ended primary inductor converter (SEPIC) have been used for MPPT in
different SPV array-based applications. The aforesaid on-isolated DC–DC converters are
compared to find a best solution suiting an application with MPPT. It has been concluded
that the best selection of DC–DC converter in the PV system is the buck–boost DC–DC
1
converter since it is capable of achieving optimal operation regardless of the atmospheric
condition and load, hence adopted in this project.
On the other hand, when buck or a boost converter is used for MPPT, the MPP
is tracked as if it is restricted to within the operating region. Besides that, due to the
large number of energy storage components, the Cuk converter, SEPIC and other
derived topologies of buck–boost converter contribute to their main drawback. The
other recently proposed converters for MPPT are D converter, two-input buck (TI
Buck) converter, boost–buck converter, combination of buck and buck–boost
converter, push-pull converter, transformer coupled dual-input converter and two
inductor boost converter.

1.3 INVERTER
An inverter converts the DC voltage to an AC voltage. In most cases, the input DC
voltage is usually lower while the output AC is equal to the grid supply voltage of either
120 volts, or 240 Volts depending on the country.
The inverter may be built as standalone equipment for applications such as
solar power, or to work as a backup power supply from batteries which are charged
separately.
The other configuration is when it is a part of a bigger circuit such as a power supply unit,
or a UPS. In this case, the inverter input DC is from the rectified mains AC in the PSU,
while from either the rectified AC in the in the UPS when there is power, and from the
batteries whenever there is a power failure.
There are different types of inverters based on the shape of the switching
waveform. These have varying circuit configurations, efficiencies, advantages and
disadvantages An inverter provides an ac voltage from dc power sources and is useful
in powering electronics and electrical equipment rated at the ac mains voltage. In
addition they are widely used in the switched mode power supplies inverting stages.
The circuits are classified according the switching technology and switch type, the
waveform, the frequency and output waveform.

1.4 BLDC MOTOR

A brushless DC motor (also known as a BLDC motor or BL motor) is an electronically
commuted DC motor which does not have brushes. The controller provides pulses of

2
current to the motor windings which control the speed and torque of the synchronous
motor.
These types of motors are highly efficient in producing a large amount of torque over a
vast speed range. In brushless motors, permanent magnets rotate around a fixed armature
and overcome the problem of connecting current to the armature. Commutation with
electronics has a large scope of capabilities and flexibility. They are known for smooth
operation and holding torque when stationary.
1.4.1 HOW DOES BRUSH LESS DC MOTOR WORKS
Before explaining the working of a brushless DC motor, it is better to understand the
function of a brushed motor. In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the
outside and a spinning armature which contains electromagnet is inside. These
electromagnets create a magnetic field in the armature when the power is switched on and
help to rotate the armature.
The brushes change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation on of the
armature. The basic working principle for the brushed DC motor and for brushless DC
motor is same i.e. internal shaft position feedback.
Brushless DC motor has only two basic parts: rotor and the stator. The rotor is
the rotating part and has rotor magnets whereas stator is the stationary part and
contains stator windings. In BLDC permanent magnets are attached in the rotor and
move the electromagnets to the stator. The high power transistors are used to activate
electromagnets for the shaft turns. The controller performs power distribution by
using a solid-state circuit.

1.5 SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The SPV array generates the electrical power demanded by the motor-pump. This
electrical power is fed to the motor pump via a zeta converter and a VSI. The SPV array
appears as a power source for the zeta converter as shown in Fig.3.3. Ideally, the same
amount of power is transferred at the output of zeta converter which appears as an input
source for the VSI. In practice, due to the various losses associated with a dc–dc
converter, slightly less amount of power is transferred to feed the VSI. The pulse
generator generates, through INCMPPT algorithm, switching pulses for insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch of the zeta converter. The INC-MPPT algorithm uses
voltage and current as feedback from SPV array and generates an optimum value of duty
cycle. Further, it generates actual switching pulse by comparing the duty cycle with a
3
high-frequency carrier wave. In this way, the maximum power extraction and hence the
efficiency optimization of the SPV array is accomplished. The VSI, converting dc output
from a zeta converter into ac, feeds the BLDC motor to drive a mixer grinder coupled to
its shaft. The VSI is operated in fundamental frequency switching through an electronic
commutation of BLDC motor assisted by its built-in encoder. The high frequency
switching losses are thereby eliminated, contributing in an increased efficiency of

proposed mixer grinder

Figure 1.2 : Typical Picture of Project

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Fig.2.1 shows the configuration of the proposed SPV-based buck–boost converter fed
BLDC motor drive for mixer grinder. From left to right, the proposed system consists of
an SPV array, a buck–boost DC–DC converter, a VSI, a BLDC motor and a mixer
grinder. As shown in Fig.3.1b, the SPV array generates the electrical energy and feeds the
DC–DC buck–boost converter. The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch of the
buck–boost converter is operated through an incremental conductance (INC) MPPT
algorithm such that the operation of the SPV array is optimized and the BLDC motor has
the soft starting. The buck–boost converter is operated in CCM to reduce the stress on the
components and semiconductor devices. Furthermore, the buck–boost converter feeds
power to the VSI, supplying the BLDC motor coupled to a mixer grinder. Switching
sequence for the VSI is provided by the electronic commutation of BLDC motor. An
electronic commutation is a process of decoding the Hall Effect signals generated by the
inbuilt encoder of the motor according to position of the rotor.

5
Figure 2.3 : Configuration of the conventional SPV array fed BLDC motor driven water
pumping system (a) Configuration, (b) Functional sequence of back-EMF zero-crossing
based sensor less technique

2.2 DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM

The various operating stages of the configuration shown in Fig.2.1 such as the SPV array,
the buck–boost converter and the water pump are designed such that a satisfactory
operation is always accomplished under any kind of change in solar isolation level. A
BLDC motor of 1.3 kW rated power is selected and each stage of the proposed system are
designed accordingly, as follows.
2.2.1 DESIGN OF SPV ARRAY
An SPV array of 1.5 kW peak power capacity, somewhat more than required by the
motor, is selected so that the performance of the system is not affected by the losses
associated with the converters and the motor. The parameters of the SPV array are
estimated at the standard solar isolation level of 1000 W/m 2. A PV moduleAP-100,
manufactured by Astro power Inc. with peak power of 100 W, maximum voltage of 16.1
V and maximum current of6.2 A is considered to design an SPV array of required
capacity. First of all, the voltage of the SPV array at MPP is selected inview of the DC
voltage rating of the BLDC motor same as DC-link voltage of the VSI. Selecting this
voltage as Vmpp=Vpv=241.5 V, the other parameters are estimated as:
The current at MPP
P pv 1500
I Mpp=i pv = = =6.2 A … … … … . Eqn 2.1
V pv 241.5
Where Ppv=Pmpp= 1500 W is the peak power capacity.
Numbers of modules connected in series are as

6
 V mpp 241.5
Ns= = =15 … … … … .. Eqn 2.2
Vm 16.1
Numbers of modules connected in parallel are as
I mpp 6.2
N p= = … … … … Eqn 2.3
I m 6.2
Where Vm and Im are voltage and current of a module at MPPT
As per the estimation in (2.3), to ensure the satisfactory performance of the BLDC,
somewhat a higher value of C= 1500μFis selected.
2.2.2 DESIGN OF MIXER GRINDER
A mixer grinder is selected and is designed using its torque–speed characteristics as
TL 3.2
−5
10 Nm
K p= = =3.24 × … … … … … Eqn 2.4
( ) rad
2 2
ω 3000
2×π× 2
60 s
Where Kp is a constant for selected mixer grinder;
TL is the load torque offered by grinder; and ω is rotational speed in rad/s.

2.3 CONTROL OF THE SYSTEM

The controls of the proposed system: namely, MPPT and electronic commutation of
BLDC motor are elaborated in the following sections.
2.3.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
The MPPT technique is mostly used to optimize the utilization of SPV array. An INC
type of MPPT technique is used here because of its high precision of tracking even under
rapid changes in the atmospheric conditions. The perturbation size is wisely selected such
that the oscillation around the peak power point is avoided and the soft starting of the
BLDC motor is ensured under all the possible variations in the solar isolation level. A low
perturbation size is selected (0.001) to control the tracking speed.
To achieve the soft starting of motor, the output voltage of buck–boost converter is
controlled at starting by initializing the duty ratio as zero. Therefore, as the operating
power point of SPV array moves toward MPP, the DC-link voltage of VSI increases with
a controlled rate. This results in a reduced rate of rise of stator current, ensuring a soft
starting
2.3.2 ELECTRONIC COMMUTATION
The switching signals for the VSI are generated through the electronic commutation of
the BLDC motor. According to the angular position of the rotor, the encoder provides

7
three Hall Effect signals. These Hall Effect signals are logically converted into six
switching pulses used to operate the six IGBT switches of the VSI, as shown in Table 3.1.
Various parameters and ratings of the BLDC motor, selected for the proposed system are
indicated in the Appendix.

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR SYSTEM

3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Converting solar energy into electrical energy by PV installations is the most recognized
way to use solar energy. Since solar photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices, they
have a lot in common with processing and production techniques of other semiconductor
devices such as computers and memory chips. As it is well known, the requirements for
purity and quality control of semiconductor devices are quite large. With today's
production, which reached a large scale, the whole industry production of solar cells has
been developed and, due to low production cost, it is mostly located in the Far East.
Photovoltaic cells produced by the majority of today’s most large producers are mainly
made of crystalline silicon as semiconductor material.
Solar photovoltaic modules, which are a result of combination of photovoltaic
cells to increase their power, are highly reliable, durable and low noise devices to
produce electricity. The fuel for the photovoltaic cell is free. The sun is the only
resource that is required for the operation of PV systems, and its energy is almost
inexhaustible. Typical photovoltaic cell efficiency is about 15%, which means it can
convert 1/6 of solar energy into electricity. Photovoltaic systems produce no noise,
there are no moving parts and they do not emit pollutants into the environment.

8
 Taking into account the energy consumed in the production of photovoltaic cells, they
produce several tens of times less carbon dioxide per unit in relation to the energy
produced from fossil fuel technologies.
Photovoltaic cell has a lifetime of more than thirty years and is one of the most
reliable semiconductor products. Most solar cells are produced from silicon, which is
non‐toxic and is found in abundance in the earth's crust.

Photovoltaic systems Figure 3.4 : Photovoltaic cells (cell, module, and

network) require minimal maintenance. At the end of the life cycle, photovoltaic modules
can almost be completely recycled. Photovoltaic modules bring electricity to rural areas
where there is no electric power grid, and thus increase the life value of these areas.
Photovoltaic systems will continue the future development in a direction to become a key
factor in the production of electricity for households and buildings in general. The
systems are installed on existing roofs and/or are integrated into the facade. These
systems contribute to reducing energy consumption in buildings. A series of legislative
acts of the European Union in the field of renewable energy and energy efficiency have
been developed, particularly promoting photovoltaic technology for achieving the
objectives of energy savings and CO2 reduction in public, private and commercial
buildings. Also, photovoltaic technology, as a renewable energy source, contributes to
power systems through diversification of energy sources and security of electricity
supply.
By the introduction of
incentives for the energy produced by
renewable sources in all developed
countries, photovoltaic
systems have become very
affordable, and timely return of investment in photovoltaic systems has become short

9
 and constantly decreasing. In recent years, this industry is growing at a rate of 40%
per year and the photovoltaic technology creates thousands of jobs at the local level.
3.1.1 FUNCTIONING OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
The word, photovoltaic consists of two words: photo, a Greek word for light, and voltaic,
which defines the measurement value by which the activity of the electric field is
expressed, i.e. the difference of potentials. Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert
sunlight into electricity. Converting solar energy into electricity in a photovoltaic
installation is the most known way of using solar energy.
The light has a dual character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle and it is a
wave. The particles of light are called photons. Photons are mass less particles, moving at
light speed. The energy of the photon depends on its wavelength and the frequency, and
we can calculate it by the Einstein's law, which is:
E=hv … … … … ….. Eqn 3.1
Where:
E ‐ photon energy
h ‐ Planck's constant h = 6.626×10 − 34Js
v - Photon frequency
In metals and in the matter generally, electrons can exist as valence or as free. Valence
electrons are associated with the atom, while the free electrons can move freely. In order
for the valence electron to become free, he must get the energy that is greater than or
equal to the energy of binding. Binding energy is the energy by which an electron is
bound to an atom in one of the atomic bonds. In the case of photoelectric effect, the
electron acquires the required energy by the collision with a photon. Part of the photon
energy is consumed for the electron getting free from the influence of the atom which it is
attached to, and the remaining energy is converted into kinetic energy of a now free
electron. Free electrons obtained by the photoelectric effect are also called photoelectrons.

10
 Figure 3.5 : Function of the photovoltaic cell

3.1.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

Electricity is produced in solar cells which, as noted, consist of more layers of semi
conductive material. When the sun's rays shine down upon the solar cells, the
electromotive force between these layers is being created, which causes the flow of
electricity. The higher the solar radiation intensity, the greater the flow of electricity. The
most common material for the production of solar cells is silicon. Silicon is obtained from
sand and is one of the most common elements in the earth's crust, so there is no limit to
the availability of raw materials.

Figure 3.6 : Photovoltaic cell

Solar cell manufacturing technologies are

11
• Monocrystalline,
• Polycrystalline,
• Bar‐crystalline silicon,
• Thin‐film technology.
Cells made from crystal silicon (Si), are made of a thinly sliced piece (wafer), a crystal of
silicon (mono crystalline) or a whole block of silicon crystals (multicrystalline); their
efficiency ranges between 12% and 19%.
3.1.3 PV CELL
Photovoltaic cell is the building block of the PV system and semiconductor material such
as silicon and germanium are the building block of PV cell. Silicon is used for
photovoltaic cell due to its advantages over germanium. When photons hit the surface of
solar cell, the electrons and holes are generated by breaking the covalent bond inside the
atom of semiconductor material and in response electric field is generated by creating
positive and negative terminals as shown in figure 3.4 When these terminals are
connected by a conductor an electric current will start flowing. This electricity is used to
power a load.

Figure 3.7 : Structure of PV cell

3.1.4 PV MODULE
A single cell generates very low voltage (around 0.4), so more than one PV cells can be
connected either in serial or in parallel or as a grid (both serial and parallel) to form a PV
module. When we need higher voltage, we connect PV cell in series and if load demand is
high current then we connect PV cell in parallel. Usually there are 36 or 76 cells in
general PV modules. Module we are using having 54 cells. The front side of the module
is transparent usually buildup of low-iron and transparent glass material, and the PV cell
is encapsulated. The efficiency of a module is not as good as PV cell, because the glass
cover and frame reflects some amount of the incoming radiation.

12
3.1.5 PV ARRAY
A photovoltaic array is simply an interconnection of several PV modules in serial and/or
parallel. The power generated by individual modules may not be sufficient to meet the
requirement of trading applications, so the modules are secured in a grid form or as an
array to gratify the load demand. In an array, the modules are connected like as that of
cells connected in a module. While making a PV array, generally the modules are initially
connected in serial manner to obtain the desired voltage, and then strings so obtained are
connected in parallel in order to produce more current based on the requirement. The PV
system structure shown in figure.1.5.

Figure 3.8 : Photovoltaic system

In PV panels solar cells are the basic components and it is made of silicon. A solar cell is
generally a p-n junction which is made of silicon. It is made up of two different layers
when a smaller quantity of impurity atoms added to it. A PV system convert’s sunlight in
to electricity and the PV cell is basic device of the photovoltaic system. No of Cells are
combined and grouped to form PV panels or modules. No of PV Panels can be grouped to
form large photovoltaic arrays. The solar arrays are the combination of number of cells
connected in series or in parallel or the combination of a group of panels.

3.2 AN OVERVIEW OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into
electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to improve the
efficiency of the solar panel. According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power
output of a circuit is maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source
impedance) matches with the load impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the

13
maximum power point reduces to an impedance matching problem. In the source side we
are using a boost convertor connected to a solar panel in order to enhance the output
voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor load. By changing the
duty cycle of the boost converter appropriately we can match the source impedance with
that of the load impedance.

3.3 DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUES

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the most
popular techniques are:
i. Incremental Conductance method
ii. Fractional short circuit current
iii. Fractional open circuit voltage
iv. Neural networks
v. Fuzzy logic
The choice of the algorithm depends on the time complexity the algorithm takes to track
the MPP, implementation cost and the ease of implementation. Perturb & Observe
Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one sensor, that is
the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less
and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on
reaching very close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on
both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP
and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function which ends up
increasing the time complexity of the algorithm. However the method does not take
account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to which MPPT changes) and
considers it as a change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up calculating
the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we can use incremental conductance method.
Incremental Conductance Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current
sensors to sense the output voltage and current of the PV array. At MPP the slope of the
PV curve is 0.

( dVdP ) MPP
=
d (VI )
dV
… … … … … Eqn 3 .2

0=I+V ( dVdI ) MPP

… … … … … . Eqn3 .3

14
 ( )
dI
dV MPP
=
−I
V
… … … … … . . Eqn 3 .4

The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this
instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached. Here
we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to
change in irradiance is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of
implementation increase. As we go down the list of algorithms the complexity and the
cost of implementation goes on increasing which may be suitable for a highly
complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb and Observe and Incremental
Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms. Owing to its simplicity of
implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe algorithm for our study among
the two.

3.3.1 FRACTIONAL OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under varying
irradiance and temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.
V MPP=k 1 V OC … … … … … Eqn3 .5
Where k1 is a constant of proportionality
Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV array being used, it usually has to
be computed beforehand by empirically determining VMPP and VOC for the specific PV
array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has been reported to be
between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is known, VMPP can be computed with VOC measured
periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurs
some disadvantages, including temporary loss of power.

3.3.2 FRACTIONAL SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

Fractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, IMPP is
approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.
I MPP =k 1 I SC … … … … … Eqn3 .6
Where k2 is proportionality constant.
Just like in the fractional V OC technique, K2 has to be determined according to the PV
array in use. The constant K2 is generally found to be between 0.78 and 0.92. Measuring
ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has to be added to the
power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured using a
current sensor Fuzzy Logic Control Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control

15
popular for MPPT over last decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of
working with imprecise inputs, not needing an accurate mathematical model, and
handling non linearity.
Neural Network Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also
well adapted for microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly
have three layers: input, hidden, and output layers. The number nodes in each layer
vary and are user-dependent. The input variables can be PV array parameters like
VOC and ISC, atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any combination
of these. The output is usually one or several reference signals like a duty cycle signal
used to drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPPT.

Table 3.1 : Characteristics of different MPPT techniques

Convergence Implementatio Periodic Sensed

MPPT technique
speed n complexity tuning parameters
Perturb & Observe Varies Low No Voltage
Voltage,
Incremental conductive Varies Medium No
Current
Fractional VOC Medium Low Yes Voltage
Fractional ISC Medium Medium Yes Current
Fuzzy Logic control Fast High Yes Varies
Neural Network Fast High Yes Varies

3.3.3 PERTURB & OBSERVE ALGORITHM

The Perturb & Observe algorithm states that when the operating voltage of the PV panel
is perturbed by a small increment, if the resulting change in power ∆P is positive, then we
are going in the direction of MPP and we keep on perturbing in the same direction. If ∆P
is negative, we are going away from the direction of MPP and the sign of perturbation
supplied has to be changed.

16
 Figure 3.9 : Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B

Figure3.6 shows the plot of module output power versus module voltage for a solar panel
at a given irradiation. The point marked as MPP is the Maximum Power Point, the
theoretical maximum output obtainable from the PV panel. Consider A and B as two
operating points. As shown in the figure above, the point A is on the left hand side of the
MPP. Therefore, we can move towards the MPP by providing a positive perturbation to
the voltage. On the other hand, point B is on the right hand side of the MPP. When we
give a positive perturbation, the value of ∆P becomes negative, thus it is imperative to
change the direction of perturbation to achieve MPP. The flowchart for the P&O
algorithm is shown in Figure 1.7.

3.3.4 Figure 3.10 : Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm

LIMITATIONS OF
PERTURB &
OBSERVE
ALGORITHM
In a situation where the
irradiance changes rapidly, the
MPP also moves on the right
hand side of the curve. The
algorithm takes it as a change due

17
to perturbation and in the next iteration it changes the direction of perturbation and hence
goes away from the MPP as shown in the figure.

Figure 3.11 : Curve showing wrong tracking of MPP by

However, in this algorithm
P&O algorithm under rapidly varying irradiance
we use only one sensor,
that is the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation
is less and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less
but on reaching very close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing
in both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the
MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function which ends up
increasing the time complexity of the algorithm.
3.3.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF MPPT USING A BOOST CONVERTER
The system uses a boost converter to obtain more practical uses out of the solar panel.
The initially low voltage output is stepped up to a higher level using the boost converter,
though these of the converter do tend to introduce switching losses. The block diagram
shown in Figure3.9 gives an overview of the required implementation.

18
 Figure 3.12 : Requisite implementation for MPPT system

CHAPTER 4

DC-DC CONVERTERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The solar photovoltaic (SPV) power generation being noise-free, clean and abundant in
nature, is indeed becoming prominent among various renewable energies [1–3]. A
continuous reduction in the cost of PV panels and the power electronics devices has
encouraged researchers and industries to utilize the SPV array generated power for
different applications. The mixer grinder has gained a broad attention as a crucial and
cost-effective application of the SPV array generated power. A maximum efficiency of
the SPV array is mostly achieved through a maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

19
algorithm using the DC–DC converters. Various DC–DC converters such as buck, boost,
buck–boost, Cuk and single-ended primary inductor converter (SEPIC) have been used
for MPPT in different SPV array-based applications. The aforesaid on-isolated DC–DC
converters are compared to find a best solution suiting an application with MPPT. It has
been concluded that the best selection of DC–DC converter in the PV system is the buck–
boost DC–DC converter since it is capable of achieving optimal operation regardless of
the atmospheric condition and load, hence adopted in this project.
On the other hand, when buck or a boost converter is used for MPPT, the MPP
is tracked as if it is restricted to within the operating region. Besides that, due to the
large number of energy storage components, the Cuk converter, SEPIC and other
derived topologies of buck–boost converter contribute to their main drawback. The
other recently proposed converters for MPPT are D converter,two-input buck (TI
Buck) converter, boost–buck converter, combination of buck and buck–boost
converter, push-pull converter, transformer coupled dual-input converter and two
inductor boost converter. These converters have excessive number of reactive
components and sophisticated control. An induction motor is extensively used in fluid
pumps because of its robustness, low cost, availability in local markets, low
maintenance cost and potential to operate even in the hazardous and contaminated
areas. Some of the limitations of the induction motor are not favorable for SPV array-
based mixer grinder such as prone to overheating if the voltage is too low and
requirement of complicated control. It deviates the researchers toward an efficient and
reliable motor with less complexity and capable to operate under low voltage. The
brushless DC (BLDC) motors have the merits of high efficiency, high reliability, high
ruggedness, low electromagnetic interference, simple control, no maintenance,
capability to operate at low voltage, high torque/weight ratio, easy-to-drive features
and excellent performance over a wide range of speed.
It can undoubtedly compete with the induction motor especially in SPV array-
based pumping applications, where cost, efficiency, simplicity, compactness and easy-
to-drive features are the primary and essential factors for consideration. Moreover,
this motor and pump technology, and integrated design result in both increased
component utilization and reliability.SPV array fed BLDC motors have already
superseded partially AC motor drives in the various conventional energy-based
applications including mixer grinder. The BLDC motor is receiving popularity for

20
mixer grinder application day-by-day owing to its aforementioned advantages,
constituting desirable features for this application. The existing literature exploring
SPV array-based BLDC motor driven mixer grinder is based on the configuration
shown in Fig.3.1a.ADC–DC converter is used for MPPT of SPV array as usual.
At least two phase currents are sensed along with the Hall signals feedback for
control of BLDC motor, resulting in the increased cost. The additional control
scheme, increasing cost and complexity, is required to control the speed of BLDC
motor. Moreover, the voltage-source inverter (VSI) is operated with high-frequency
pulse-width modulation (PWM) pulses, resulting in the increased switching loss and
hence the reduced efficiency. However, a Z-source inverter (ZSI) replaces DC–DC
converter in[47], other schematic of Fig. 3.1aremaining unchanged, promising high
efficiency and low cost. Contrary to it, ZSI also necessitates phase currents and DC-
link voltage sensing resulting in the complex control and increased cost.
To overcome these problems and drawbacks, a simple, cost-effective and
efficient mixer grinder based on SPV array fed BLDC motor is proposed, as shown in
Fig. 3.1b by modifying the existing topology (Fig.1a). A DC–DC buck–boost
converter is utilized to extract the maximum power available from the SPV array. The
additional functions of buck–boost converter are soft starting and speed control of the
BLDC motor coupled toa mixer grinder, by applying the MPPT algorithm
appropriately. Owing to the single switch and least number of reactive components,
this converter possesses very good conversion efficiency and offers boundless region
for MPPT. This converter is operated in continuous conduction mode (CCM)
resulting in reduced stress on its power devices and components. Furthermore, the
switching loss of VSI is reduced by adopting fundamental frequency switching
resulting in an additional power saving and hence the enhanced efficiency. The phase
currents as well as the DC-link voltage sensors are completely eliminated, offering
simple and economical system without sacrificing its performance.
The speed of BLDC motor is controlled, without any additional control,
through the variable DC-link voltage of VSI. Moreover, the soft starting of BLDC
motor is achieved by proper initialization of MPPT algorithm of SPV array. These
features offer an increased simplicity of the proposed system. Such work is reported
however, the operation of buck–boost converter is constrained to the buck mode only.
Its utilization is therefore not properly justified. Moreover, the contribution of the

21
 work is distinctly neither highlighted nor represented. Besides this, an experimental
validation is nowhere presented and the reported work is limited to the
MATLAB/Simulink-based simulation. The advantages and desirable features of both
the buck–boost converter and BLDC motor drive contribute to develop a simple,
efficient, cost-effective and reliable mixer grinder based on the green energy. In this
paper, the ratings of the SPV array and the BLDC motor are selected such that the
proposed system operates successfully under all the variations in the atmospheric
conditions and the utilization of buck–boost converter is properly justified. The
various performance indices are analyzed through simulated results using
MATLAB/Simulink environment.

4.2 DESIGN OF BOOST CONVERTER

The SPV array voltage at MPP, Vpv=Vmpp= 241.5 V appears as the input voltage
source, whereas DC-link voltage of VSI, Vdc appears as the output voltage of the buck–
boost converter. The duty ratio, Do buck–boost converter is estimated, using the input–
output relationship as
V dc 310
D= = =0.56 … … … … … Eqn 4.1
V dc +V pv 310+214.5
Where Vdc= 310 V is rated DC-link voltage of VSI.
On the other hand, neglecting the buck–boost converter losses, an average current flowing
through DC link, Idcis as
Pmpp 1500
I dc = = =4.8 A … … … … … Eqn 4.2
V dc 310
An addition of the two currents, ipv and Idc flow through the inductor L The inductor, L is
estimated as
D ×V pv 0.56 × 241.5
L= = =3 mH … … … … … Eqn 4.3
f sw ∆ I l 10000 ×11 ×0.4
Where the switching frequency of the buck–boost converter and ΔIL is an amount of
ripple permitted in the inductor current. The highest and lowest frequencies of the VSI
output voltage are considered to estimate the DC-link capacitor, C. The highest value of
VSI output voltage frequency, ωh (in rad/s) is calculated corresponding to the rated speed
of the motor (Nrated= 3000 rpm)while the lowest value of VSI output voltage frequency,
ωl(in rad/s) is calculated corresponding to the minimum speed of a motor required to
pump the water (N= 1100 rpm) as

22
 N rated × P 3000 × 4 rad
ω h=2 πf =2 π =2 π =628.3 … … … … … Eqn 4.4
120 120 sec
NP 1100 × 4 rad
ω h=2 πf =2 π =2 π =230.37 … … … … . Eqn 4.5
120 120 sec
Where f is the frequency of VSI output voltage in hertz, Nrate is rated speed of the BLDC
motor and P is the numbers of poles. Since sixth harmonic component of VSI output
voltage appears on DC link of VSI, limiting the voltage ripple, ΔV dc in Vdc to 1%, the DC-
link capacitor, C is estimated corresponding to ωh and ωl as
C¿
4.8
¿ =410.7 μ F
6 ×628.3 ×310 ×0.01
C¿
4.8
=1120 μ F
6 ×230.38 ×310 ×0.01

Table 4.2: Switching states for electronic commutation of BLDC motor

Hall Signals Switching Signals

θ∈degrees
H3 H2 H1 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0-60 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
60-120 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
120-180 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
180-240 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
240-300 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
300-360 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
NA 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
CHAPTER 5

ZETA CONVETER AND INVERTER

5.1 DESIGN OF ZETA CONVERTER

The proposed converter is based on DC-DC converter to maintain the constant output
voltage. The sixth DC-DC converter that we will study now was developed at the end of
the 1980s, separately by Kazimierczuk, under the name of Dual SEPIC, and Barbi, under
the name of Zeta converter (from the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet, to correspond to
the “sixth” converter). Zeta is a fourth order DC-DC converter. Zeta converter will vary
above or below the input voltage without change in output polarity. A Zeta is similar to a
BUCK – BOOST converter but has advantages of having non-inverted output (the output

23
voltage is of the same polarity as the input voltage). The inductors and the capacitors can
also have large effects on the converter efficiency and ripple voltage. This converter
transfers the energy between the inductance and the capacitance in order to change from
the voltage to another. The transferred energy is controlled by switching device S
(MOSFET).

Figure 5.13 : Requisite implementation for MPPT system

5.2 OPERATION OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

24
The SPV array generates the electrical power demanded by the motor-pump. This
electrical power is fed to the motor pump via a zeta converter and a VSI. The SPV array
appears as a power source for the zeta converter as shown in Figure.5.2. Ideally, the same
amount of power is transferred at the output of zeta converter which appears as an input
source for the VSI. In practice, due to the various losses associated with a dc–dc
converter, slightly less amount of power is transferred to feed the VSI. The pulse
generator generates, through INCMPPT algorithm, switching pulses for insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch of the zeta converter. The INC-MPPT algorithm uses
voltage and current as feedback from SPV array and generates an optimum value of duty
cycle. Further, it generates actual switching pulse by comparing the duty cycle with a
high-
frequency
carrier
wave. In
this way, the
maximum
power
extraction
and hence the
efficiency optimization of the SPV array is accomplished. The VSI, converting dc output
from a zeta converter into ac, feeds the BLDC motor to drive a mixer grinder coupled to
its shaft. The VSI is operated in fundamental frequency switching through an electronic
commutation of BLDC motor assisted by its built-in encoder. The high frequency
switching losses are thereby eliminated, contributing in an increased efficiency of
proposed mixer grinder

Figure 5.14 : Requisite25

implementation for MPPT system
5.3 INVERTERS
An inverter converts the DC voltage to an AC voltage. In most cases, the input DC
voltage is usually lower while the output AC is equal to the grid supply voltage of either
120 volts, or 240 Volts depending on the country.
The inverter may be built as standalone equipment for applications such as
solar power, or to work as a backup power supply from batteries which are charged
separately.
The other configuration is when it is a part of a bigger circuit such as a power supply unit,
or a UPS. In this case, the inverter input DC is from the rectified mains AC in the PSU,
while from either the rectified AC in the in the UPS when there is power, and from the
batteries whenever there is a power failure.
There are different types of inverters based on the shape of the switching
waveform.These have varying circuit configurations, efficiencies, advantages and
disadvantages An inverter provides an ac voltage from dc power sources and is useful
in powering electronics and electrical equipment rated at the ac mains voltage. In
addition they are widely used in the switched mode power supplies inverting stages.
The circuits are classified according the switching technology and switch type, the
waveform, the frequency and output waveform.
5.3.1 BASIC INVERTER OPERATION
The basic circuits include an oscillator, control circuit, drive circuit for the power devices,
switching devices, and a transformer.
The conversion of dc to alternating voltage is achieved by converting energy
stored in the dc source such as the battery, or from a rectifier output, into an
alternating voltage. This is done using switching devices which are continuously
turned on and off, and then stepping up using the transformer. Although there are
some configurations which do not use a transformer, these are not widely used.
The DC input voltage is switched on and off by the power devices such as
MOSFETs or power transistors and the pulses fed to the primary side of the
transformer. The varying voltage in the primary induces an alternating voltage at
secondary winding. The transformer also works as an amplifier where it increases the
output voltage at a ratio determined by the turn’s ratio. In most cases the output
voltage is raised from the standard 12 volts supplied by the batteries to either 120
Volts or 240 volts AC.

26
 The three commonly used Inverter output stages are, a push-pull with centre
tap transformer, push-pull half-bridge, or push-pull full bridge. The push pull with
centre tap is most popular due to its simplicity and, guaranteed results; however, it
uses a heavier transformer and has a lower efficiency.
5.3.2 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS
The main objective of static power converters is to produce an ac output waveform from a
dc power supply. These are the types of waveforms required in adjustable speed drives
(ASDs), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), static VAR compensators, active filters,
flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS), and voltage compensators, which are only a
few applications. For sinusoidal ac outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and phase should
be controllable. According to the type of ac output waveform, these topologies can be
considered as voltage source inverters (VSIs), where the independently controlled ac
output is a voltage waveform. These structures are the most widely used because they
naturally behave as voltage sources as required by many industrial applications, such as
adjustable speed drives (ASDs), which are the most popular application of inverters.
Similarly, these topologies can be found as current source inverters (CSIs), where the
independently controlled ac output is a current waveform. These structures are still
widely used in medium-voltage industrial applications, where high-quality voltage
waveforms are required. Static power converters, specifically inverters, are constructed
from power switches and the ac output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete
values. This leads to the generation of waveforms that feature fast transitions rather than
smooth ones. For instance, the ac output voltage produced by the VSI of a standard ASD
is a three level waveform (Fig. 1.18c). Although this waveform is not sinusoidal as
expected (Fig. 1.19b), its fundamental component behaves as such. This behavior should
be ensured by a modulating technique that controls the amount of time and the sequence
used to switch the power valves on and off. The modulating techniques most used are the
carrier-based technique (e.g., sinusoidal pulse width modulation, SPWM), the space-
vector (SV) technique.

5.4 SELECTIVE-HARMONIC ELIMINATION (SHE) TECHNIQUE

VSI-based controller is to introduce a semiconductor controlled device which is capable
of emulating the characteristics of the excitation capacitors and injecting adequate
reactive power into the induction generator and the load. The secondary objective is the
regulation of the real power. The proposed controller employs a DC side resistor such that
27
the unwanted real power will be consumed in this resistor. As a consequence, the
induction generator will always observe a constant real power demand. This VSI-based
controller can replace the earlier reported impedance controller and eliminates the need
for excitation capacitor. Due to the nature of the VSI-based controller, a wider control
range that cm accommodate various control operations of the overall system is
achievable. The controller is capable of delivering or receiving real and reactive power.

Figure 5.15 : The electrical power conversion topology

Figure 5.16 : The electrical power conversion topology

Figure 5.17 : The actual input (ac mains) and output (load) waveforms

28
5.5 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS
Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge
topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in
power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static
power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell configurations.
5.5.1 HALF-BRIDGE VSI
Figure 5.6 shows the power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are
required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant
voltage (Vi)/2. Because the current harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are
low-order harmonics, a set of large capacitors (C+ and C-) is required. It is clear that both
switches S+ and S- cannot be ON simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc
link voltage source Vi would be produced. There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one
undefined (state 3) switch state as shown in Table.5.1 In order to avoid the short circuit
across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique
should always ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter
leg is on.

Figure 5.18 : Single-phase half-bridge VSI.

Table 5.3 : Switch states for a half-bridge single-phase VSI

Components
State State V
conducting
+ if >0
+ is ON and – is Off 1 v/2
+ if <0
- if >0
-is on and + is off 2 -v/2
- if >0
-v/2 - if >0
+ and – are all off 3
v/2 + if <0

29
5.5.2 FULL-BRIDGE VSI
Figure 5.7 shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the
half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As
expected, both switches S1+ and S1- (or S2+ and S2-) cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced. There are
four defined (states 1, 2, 3, and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states as shown in
Table 5.1 The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of
defining the ac output voltage. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take
values up to the dc link value Vi, which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI
topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full
bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

Figure 5.19 : Single-phase full-bridge VSI.

5.6 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS

Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover the
medium to high-power applications. The main purpose of these topologies is to provide a
three-phase voltage source, where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages
should always be controllable. Although most of the applications require sinusoidal
voltage waveforms (e.g., ASDs, UPSs, FACTS, VAR compensators), arbitrary voltages
are also required in some emerging applications (e.g., active filters, voltage
compensators). The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown in Figure 5.8 and the
eight valid switch states are given in Table 3. As in single-phase VSIs, the switches of
any leg of the inverter (S1 and S4, S3 and S6, or S5 and S2) cannot be switched on
simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc link voltage
supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus undefined ac
output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off
simultaneously as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the respective line
current polarity. Of the eight valid states, two of them (7 and 8 in Table 1.6) produce zero

30
ac line voltages. In this case, the ac line currents freewheel through either the upper or
lower components. The remaining states (1 to 6 in Table 5.2) produce non-zero ac output
voltages. In order to generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one
state to another. Thus the resulting ac output line voltages consist of discrete values of
voltages that are Vi, 0, and -Vi for the topology shown in Figure 5.8 . The selection of the
states in order to generate the given waveform is done by the modulating technique that
should ensure the use of only the valid states

Figure 5.20 : Single-phase full-bridge VSI.

Table 5.4 : Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI

Components
State State Va Vb V
conducting
1+and 2- are ON 1+ and 2- if >0
1 v/2 -v/2 v
1–and 2+ are Off 1+ and 2- if <0
1-and 2+ are ON 1- and 2+ if >0
2 -v/2 v/2 -v
1+and 2- are Off 1- and 2+ if <0
1+and 2+ are ON 1+ and 2+ if >0
3 v/2 v/2 0
1- and 2- are Off 1+ and 2+ if <0
1-and 2- are ON 1- and 2- if >0
4 -v/2 - v/2 0
1+and 2+ are Off 1- and 2- if <0
1-and 2- and -v/2 v/2 -v 1- and 2+ if >0
1+and 2+ are all 5
v/2 -v/2 v 1+ and 2- if <0
Off

31
 CHAPTER 6

BLDC MOTOR

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Brushless DC motor has the characteristic of simple structure, large torque, don't need to
change phase based on the brush, and has long use time, good speed regulation. For the
advantages mentioned above now electric vehicles and micro electric motor cars in the
market mostly adopt BLDCM. The traditional BLDC controlling system requires hall
sensor signals to drive the motor. When disturbance on the hall sensor exists, the wrong
actions on the main circuit prompts the BLDCM action unsteady, the reliability of the
whole controlling system is greatly reduced, also the cost of controller is increased. In
recent years, some of these developments like Proportional-Integral (PI) controllers have
been implemented for the speed control of B LDC motors. Different advanced control
theories like the optimal and adaptive strategies have been used. Neural network control
has also been used to control BLDC motors but its performance under load disturbance
and parameter uncertainty due to the non linearity is not satisfactory. Sliding control is a
technique that originated in Soviet literature, in the early 1950's initiated by S. V.
Emel'yanov, with advantages like order reduction, disturbance rejection and invariance to
parametric variations has now become very popular for designing of robust system
performance. Speed and current control of different motor drives is amongst many of its
other areas of application. In this paper existing design method for inner current control
loop and outer speed loop are discussed. An improved exponential reaching-law based on
the sigmoid function is proposed and by applying the proposed technique, stability of the
entire loop and the smoothness of the converging process of the system are better than
those obtained by using the classical PI controller. The sliding surface can be reached

32
quickly and the system chattering can be reduced at the same time, facilitating the design
of variable-structure control.
Brushless dc motors have only decades of history. They have been gaining
attention from various industrial and household appliance manufacturers because of
its high efficiency, high power density and low maintenance cost, silent operation,
compact form, and reliability. Recently, permanent magnet brushless dc motors are
widely used in many applications such as motors, sensors, actuators, etc. Permanent
magnet motors with trapezoidal back EMF and sinusoidal back EMF have several
advantages over other motor types. Most notably,(compared to dc motors) they are
lower maintenance due to the elimination of the mechanical commutator and they
have a high-power density which makes them ideal for high torque- to weight ratio
applications. Compared to induction machines, they have lower inertia allowing for
faster dynamic response to reference commands. Also, they are more efficient due to
the permanent magnets which results in virtually zero rotor losses. Permanent magnet
brushless dc (PMBLDC) motors could become serious competitors to the induction
motor for servo applications.
The PMBLDC motor is becoming popular in various applications because of
its high efficiency, high power factor, high torque, simple control and lower
maintenance. The major disadvantage with permanent magnet motors is their higher
cost and relatively higher complexity introduced by the power electronic converter
used to drive them. The added complexity is evident in the development of a
torque/speed regulator.
High efficiency, high power density and wide range speed controllability of
BLDC motors make them suitable in various drive applications. In particular the spindle
motors used in computer hard disk drives are to possess high speed characteristics for fast
data access.
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly
gaining popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as Appliances,
Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial Automation equipment and
Instrumentation. As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for
commutation; instead, they are electronically com- mutated. BLDC motors have many
advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors. A few of these are:
i. Better speed versus torque characteristics

33
 ii. High dynamic response
iii. High efficiency
iv. Long operating life
v. Noiseless operation
vi. Higher speed ranges
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it
useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors. In this application note,
we will discuss in detail the construction, working principle, characteristics and typical
applications of BLDC motors.

6.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS BLDC MOTOR

Brushless DC motors consist of two coaxial magnetic armatures separated by an air gap.
In certain types of motor,
i. The external armature, the stator, is fixed.
ii. The internal armature, the rotor, is mobile (the rotor can also be external in certain
cases).
iii. The stator is the induced part of the machine.
iv. The rotor is the inductor of the machine.
v. In brushless DC motors, the internal armature, the rotor, is a permanent magnet.
This armature is supplied by a constant current (DC).
vi. The external armature (stator) is poly phased (3 phases in our case) and is covered
by poly- phased currents.
vii. In a Brushless DC motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet, this type of motor has
almost the same properties and physical laws as a DC current machine.
viii. An electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. Two main
characteristics of a brushless DC motor are:
ix. It has an electromotive force proportional to its speed
x. The stator flux is synchronized with the permanent magnet rotor flux.
6.2.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF BLDC MOTOR
The construction of modern brushless motors is very similar to the ac motor, known as
the permanent magnet synchronous motor. Fig.1.10 illustrates the structure of a typical
three-phase brushless dc motor. The stator windings are similar to those in a polyphase ac

34
motor, and the rotor is composed of one or more permanent magnets. Brushless dc motors
are different from ac synchronous motors in that the former incorporates some means to
detect the rotor position (or magnetic poles) to produce signals to control the electronic
switches as shown in Figure 6.1. The most common position/pole sensor is the Hall
element, but some motors use optical sensors.

Figure 6.21 : Disassembled view of a brushless dc motor

Figure 6.22 : Brushless dc motor = Permanent magnet ac motor + Electronic

commutator
Although the most orthodox and efficient motors are three-phase, two-phase brushless dc
motors are also very commonly used for the simple construction and drive circuits. Figure
6.3 shows the cross section of a two-phase motor having auxiliary salient poles.

Figure 6.23: Two-phase motor having auxiliary salient poles

Comparison of conventional and brushless dc motors:

35
Although it is said that brushless dc motors and conventional dc motors are similar in
their static characteristics, they actually have remarkable differences in some aspects.
When we compare both motors in terms of present-day technology, a discussion of their
differences rather than their similarities can be more helpful in understanding their proper
applications. Table 6.1 compares the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of
motors.
When we discuss the functions of electrical motors, we should not forget the
significance of windings and commutation. Commutation refers to the process which
converts the input direct current to alternating current and properly distributes it to
each winding in the armature. In a conventional dc motor, commutation is undertaken
by brushes and commutator in contrast, in a brushless dc motor it is done by using
semiconductor devices such as MOSFETs & IGBT”S etc.

Table 6.5 : Comparison of conventional and brushless DC motors.

Parameter Conventional motors Brushless motors

Field magnets on the stator
Mechanical
Field magnets on stator similar to Ac Synchronous
structure
motor
Quick response and Long lasting
Distinctive features
excellent controllability Easy maintenance
The highest grade: 3-phase
Winding connection
Ring connection (∆ ¿
connections The simple : Two phase
connection
Mechanical contact
Commutation Electronic switching using
between brushes and
methods transistors
commutator
Detecting methods Automatically detected by
Hall element, Optical encoder
of rotor position brushes
By a reverse of terminal
Reversing method Rearranging logic sequencer
voltage

This report presents a method to drive a hard disk drive (HDD) spindle motor at high
speed with large starting torque by utilizing a bipolar-starting and unipolar running
algorithm. It proposes a novel inverter circuit to switch from bipolar to unipolar drive, or
vice versa. It also develops a digital signal processor (DSP)-based brushless dc (BLDC)
motor controller not only to drive the BLDC motor with the bipolar or unipolar method,
but also to switch from one method to the other at any speed. Torque–speed–current
curves of a BLDC motor driven by bipolar or unipolar method are investigated

36
experimentally, and the effectiveness of the proposed method is also verified by using the
developed controller experimentally. This research shows that the proposed method starts
the BLDC motor with large starting torque that can be obtained by a bipolar drive, and it
runs the BLDC motor at high speed that can be driven by unipolar drive.
A hard disk drive (HDD) spindle motor is a brushless dc (BLDC) motor which
has been used in various high-speed applications of electromechanical systems
because of its high efficiency and good controllability over a wide range of speeds.
Nowadays, the operating speed of a HDD spindle motor has been increased up to 15
000 r/min to reduce the access time of the data written on the surface of a rotating
disk, and it may acquire higher speed in the near future. In order to run the motor at
high speed, back electromotive force (EMF) constant is designed to be small to reduce
the voltage drop due to back EMF. But, it results in small starting torque and
consequently a long transient period, because back EMF constant is identical to the
torque constant. It is one of the drawbacks of a BLDC motor in high-speed
applications, especially in a computer hard disk drive which requires a short transient
period to reduce the access time of the data. Some researchers have proposed a high-
speed BLDC motor in the viewpoint of electromagnetic design.
Their concern was the performance improvement in the steady state, and they
did not discuss the possibility of small starting torque in the startup period. A few
researchers have addressed a winding method and a driving method to run the motor
at high speed with large starting torque. Chen and Jabbar explained the necessity of
high starting torque of a spindle motor with fluid bearing in a computer hard disk
drive, because friction torque of fluid bearing is much bigger than that of a
conventional ball bearing. They discussed several possible winding patterns of a
BLDC motor to increase the starting torque, and they proposed a series-winding start
and parallel-winning run. But it requires additional switching devices and more
complex control logic, and they did not present any experimental work.
A variable winding BLDC motor, i.e., two sets of windings for a BLDC
motor. It has the series and parallel windings together. The former is used at low
speed operation for high torque and it gives smooth acceleration from standstill, and
the latter is used for high-speed operation. But the cost of a variable winding BLDC
motor is expensive due to two sets of windings for a BLDC motor. Some researchers
proposed the possibility of combining the merits of the bipolar and unipolar drives.

37
 But they failed to notice the freewheeling current of no energized phase due to the
back EMF, which generates the negative torque. And they did not present any
experimental work. This paper presents a method to drive a BLDC motor at high
speed with large starting torque by utilizing a bipolar-starting and unipolar-running
algorithm. It develops a novel inverter circuit to switch from bipolar to unipolar drive,
or vice versa. It also develops a digital signal processor (DSP)-based BLDC motor
controller not only to drive the BLDC motor with bipolar or unipolar method, but also
to switch from one method to the other at any speed.
6.2.2 CONSTRUCTION
A BLDC motor is a permanent magnet synchronous that uses position detectors and an
inverter to control the armature currents. The BLDC motor is sometimes referred to as an
inside out dc motor because its armature is in the stator and the magnets are on the rotor
and its operating characteristics resemble those of a dc motor. Instead of using a
mechanical commutator as in the conventional dc motor, the BLDC motor employs
electronic commutation which makes it a virtually maintenance free motor.
There are two main types of BLDC motors: trapezoidal type and sinusoidal type. In the
trapezoidal motor the back-EMF induced in the stator windings has a trapezoidal shape
and its phases must be supplied with quasi-square currents for ripple free operation. The
sinusoidal motor on the other hand has a sinusoidally shaped back – EMF and requires
sinusoidal phase currents for ripple free torque operation. The shape of the back – EMF is
determined by the shape of rotor magnets and the stator winding distribution.
The sinusoidal motor needs high resolution position sensors because the rotor
position must be known at every time instant for optimal operation. It also requires more
complex software and hardware. The trapezoidal motor is a more attractive alternative for
most applications due to simplicity, lower price and higher efficiency.
BLDC motors exist in many different configurations but the three phase motor is
most common type due to efficiency and low torque ripple. This type of motor also offers
a good compromise between precise control and number of power electronic devices
needed to control stator currents. Figure 6.4 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor.
Position detection is usually implemented using three Hall - an effect sensor that detects
the presence of small magnets that are attached to the motor shaft.

38
 Figure 6.24 : Two-phase motor having auxiliary salient poles

6.2.3 OPERATION
Typically, a Brushless dc motor is driven by a three-phase inverter with, what is called,
o
six-step commutation. The conducting interval for each phase is 120 by electrical angle.
The commutation phase sequence is like AB-AC-BC-BA-CA-CB. Each conducting stage
is called one step. Therefore, only two phases conduct current at any time, leaving the
third phase floating .In order to produce maximum torque, the inverter should be
o
commutated every 60 so that current is in phase with the back EMF. The commutation
timing is determined by the rotor position, which can be detected by Hall sensors as
shown in the figure 1.14 (H1, H2, H3). The figure also shows ideal currents and back
EMF waveforms.

Figure 6.25 : Ideal back-EMF’s phase currents, and position sensor signals.

39
Figure 6.6 shows a cross section of a three phase star connected motor along with its
phase energizing sequence. Each interval starts with the rotor and stator field lines 120 0
apart and ends when they are 600 apart. Maximum torque is reached when the field lines
are perpendicular. Current commutation is done by inverter as shown in a simplified from
in figure. The switches are shown as bipolar junction transistors but MOSFET switches
are more common, the current direction and the position sensor signals.

Figure 6.26 : BLDC motor cross section and phase energizing sequence

Figure 6.27 : Simplified BLDC drive scheme

6.3 BRIDGELESS CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL (BL-CSC) CONVERTER

In recent years the BLDC motor is widely used in many low and medium power
applications, because of its high energy density, high torque /inertia ratio, high efficiency
and low maintenance due to the absence of the commutator and brush assembly. The
BLDC motors are used in household appliances like washing machine, mixer grinder and
air conditioning etc. and also in industries like robotics and industrial tools and motion
control equipment. In the BLDC motor the commutation is done by using the electronic

40
commutation; it involves hall-effect sensors to sense the rotor position and energizes the
corresponding phase windings in the proper sequence by using the voltage source inverter
(VSI). In the conventional scheme the BLDC motor drive system is fed by a diode bridge
rectifier (DBR) which draws a current from ac mains with higher harmonic levels, also
the power factor has been affected and it is not satisfies the PQ standard IEC 61000-3-2,
so the power factor correction (PFC) is required for attaining good PQ parameter.
The boost converter is widely used in the BLDC motor drives, in which the
DC link voltage is maintained constant and the speed is controlled by controlling the
PWM pulses of the VSI. This system has a drawback for the higher amount of the
switching losses in the VSI switches due to higher level of the switching frequency at
the inverter
switches and the higher current levels. In the SEPIC and CUK converter fed BLDC
motor drive the speed of the motor is controlled by controlling the DC link voltage,
hence the switching losses associated with the VSI switches are reduced, but it has a
problem of using two sensors, which increases the system cost. The CSC converter
based system presents a single voltage sensor based BLDC motor drive system, which
is a cost effective solution of the low power applications.

6.3.1 CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL CONVERTER FED BLDC MOTOR

DRIVE
Figure 6.8 shows the CSC converter fed BLDC motor drive consists of the front end CSC
converter. It is operated at low switching frequency, so that the near unity power factor is
achieved at ac mains. The speed of the BLDC motor is controlled by controlling the DC
link voltage of the CSC converter. Moreover low frequency operation of VSI reduces the
switching losses. The system shown in Fig. 1.17 gives a near unity power factor at ac
mains for a wide range of the speed and the supply voltage.

41
Figure 6.28 : Block diagram of the Canonical Switching Cell converter fed BLDC motor
drive

The CSC converter is operated in discontinuous inductor current mode (DICM).The

discontinuous inductor current. The converter is operated in three different modes in
every switching period, these as follows: Mode I: In this mode the CSC converter switch
is ON, the inductor charges the input current and the capacitor C1 discharges the energy to
the DC link capacitor, the DC link capacitor is charging as well as supplies a energy to
the BLDC motor drive, so the DC link capacitor is fixes to the higher value for supplying
a continuous energy to the motor drive. Mode II: In this mode the CSC converter switch
is going into OFF state, then the inductor Li discharges the stored energy to the DC link
capacitor through diode D. In that time the capacitor C 1 charges the DC voltage comes
from the diode bridge rectifier (DBR). Mode III: This mode starts when the inductor
current is going to be zero, automatically a diode D goes into the reverse biased
condition, the capacitor C1 is continues to charging, then the DC link capacitor discharges
the energy to the VSI fed BLDC motor drive.

6.3.2 DESIGN OF CANONICAL SWITCHING CELL CONVERTER AND

CONTROLLER
The designing of the CSC converter depends on the rating of the motor to be interfaced
with it, the 950 W of the CSC converter is designed for the 850 W BLDC motor
considering the losses in the system. The design equations are given through (1.7) –
(1.12). The voltage at the output of the DBR is as follows,

42
 2 √2 V s
V i= … … … … … … . Eqn 6.1
π
Where Vs is the input supply voltage .A duty ratio of the converter is as follows,
V dcn
d n= … … … … … … . Eqn 6.2
V dcn +V i
Where Vdcn is the DC link voltage. The critical value of the inductance is
V ¿ dn
Li = … … … … … ….. Eqn 6.3
2i ¿ f s
The inductor value of the CSC converter is taken as follows for support a DCIM mode is
Li
L< … … … … … … … . Eqn6.4
10
The value of the capacitor C1 is chosen as follows,
V dc d n
C 1= … … … … … … .. Eqn 6.5
f s Rload ∆ V C 1
The design of the DC link capacitor as follows,
Id
C d= … … … … … … .. Eqn6.6
2 ω L ∆ V dc
Where fs is the switching frequency, Rload is the resistance of the motor and ΔV dc is the
ripple in the DC link voltage. The determined values of the CSC converter parameters for
850 W motor are L=40 μH, C1=379 μF and Cd=2100.58 μF. These values are designed
for the supply voltage (Vs) of 230 V, range of the DC link voltage of 30-90 V and the
switching frequency (fs) is 4 kHz.
The CSC converter is controlled by using the PWM signals to the converter
switch, which maintains the desired voltage level across the DC link capacitor. The
DC link voltage is measured using single voltage sensor (V dc) and the reference DC
link voltage is generated as follows,
¿ ¿
V dc =k b ω … … … … … . Eqn6.7
Where kb is the motor voltage constant and ω* is the reference speed of the motor.
The reference DC link voltage is compared with the measured DC link voltage and gives
a error signal Ve (t) to the proportional integral (PI) controller as,
¿
V e (t )=V dc ( t ) −V dc ( t ) … … … … Eqn 6.8
The PI controller generates a controlled signal Vc(t) as,
V C ( t ) =k P V E ( t )+∫ K i V dc (t) … … … … … . Eqn 6.9

43
Where K p and Ki are the gain values of PI controller, the initial values of the controller
are obtained using Ziegler Nichols tuning method and then fine-tuned. The obtained
values are Kp = 0.9 and KI = 27.9792 respectively. This controlled signal is given to the
PWM modulator to produce proper gating signals to the converter. The proper operation
of the BLDC motor is attained only when the electronic commutation works properly.
The electronic commutation is to switch the DC voltage to proper phase
winding of the motor, based on the rotor position signal. The rotor position signals
are obtained using Hall Effect sensors, based on this position signals the
corresponding phase windings to be energized which is shown in Table 6.2 The
equivalent circuit of the BLDC motor comprises of resistance (Rn), inductance (Ln),
back emf (En) in each phase and its design is discussed.

Table 6.6 : 120° commutation table of the BLDC motor

Hall Signals Motor Phases

Ha Hb Hc Phase A Phase B Phase C
1 0 1 +Vdc GND NC
0 0 1 +Vdc NC GND
0 1 1 NC +Vdc GND
0 1 0 GND +Vdc NC
1 1 0 GND NC +Vdc
1 0 0 NC GND +Vdc

CHAPTER 7

MATLAB AND SIMULINK MODEL

7.1 MATLAB
Initially developed by a lecturer in 1970’s to help students learn linear algebra. It was
later marketed and further developed under Math Works Inc. (founded in 1984)
www.mathworks.com. MATLAB is a software package which can be used to perform
analysis and solve mathematical and engineering problems. It has excellent programming

44
features and graphics capability – easy to learn and flexible. Available in many operating
systems – Windows, Macintosh, UNIX, DOS It has several tool boxes to solve specific
problems.
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment and
fourth-generation programming language. A proprietary programming language
developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions
and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with
programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, Fortran and Python.
Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional toolbox
uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to symbolic computing abilities. An
additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and model-based
design for dynamic and embedded systems.

7.2 SIMULINK
Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a graphical programming environment for
modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems. Its primary interface
is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers
tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can either drive
MATLAB or be scripted from it. Simulink is widely used in automatic control and digital
signal processing for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design.
Used to model, analyze and simulate dynamic systems using block diagrams. Fully
integrated with MATLAB, easy and fast to learn and flexible.It has comprehensive block
library which can be used to simulate linear, non–linear or discrete systems – excellent
research tools.C codes can be generated from Simulink models for embedded applications
and rapid prototyping of control systems.

7.3 SIMULINK AND ITS RELATION TO MATLAB

The MATLAB and Simulink environments are integrated into one entity, and thus we can
analyze, simulate, and revise our models in either environment at any point. We invoke
Simulink from within MATLAB.
MATLAB is an interactive programming language that can be used in many
ways, including data analysis and visualization, simulation and engineering problem
solving. It may be used as an interactive tool or as a high level programming

45
language. It provides an effective environment for both the beginner and for the
professional engineer and scientist. SIMULINKTM is an extension to MATLAB that
provides an iconographic programming environment for the solution of differential
equations and other dynamic systems.
The package is widely used in academia and industry. It is particularly well
known in the following industries: aerospace and defense; automotive; biotech,
pharmaceutical; medical; and communications. Specialist toolboxes are available for a
diverse range of other applications, including statistical analysis, financial modeling,
image processing and so on. Furthermore, real time toolboxes allow for on-line
interaction with engineering systems, ideal for data logging and control.
Building on MATLAB (the language of technical computing), Simulink
provides a platform for engineers to plan, model, design, simulate, test and implement
complex electromechanical, dynamic control, signal processing and communication
systems. Simulink-Matlab combination is very useful for developing algorithms, GUI
assisted creation of block diagrams and realization of interactive simulation based
designs. The eleven chapters of the book demonstrate the power and capabilities of
Simulink to solve engineering problems with varied degree of complexity in the
virtual environment.

46
7.4 OUTPUTS AND RESULTS
7.4.1 SOLAR PV SIMULATION OUTPUTS

Figure 7.29 : Solar PV Simulation outputs

47
7.4.2 ZETA CONVERTER SIMULATION OUTPUT

7.4.3 MOTOR SIMULATION OUTPUTS

Figure 7.30 : Simulation outputs for Zeta converter

48
 Figure 7.31 : Simulation output for BLDC motor

CONCLUSION

A solar photovoltaic array fed Zeta converter based BLDC motor has been proposed to
drive water-pumping system. The proposed system has been designed, modeled and
simulated using MATLAB along with its Simulink and simpower system toolboxes.
Simulated results have demonstrated the suitability of proposed mixer grinder. SPV array
has been properly sized such that system performance is not influenced by the variation in
atmospheric conditions and the associated losses and maximum switch utilization of Zeta
converter is achieved. Zeta converter has been operated in CCM in order to reduce the
stress on power devices. Operating the VSI in conduction mode with fundamental
frequency switching eliminates the losses caused by high frequency switching operation.
Stable operations of motor-pump system and safe starting of BLDC motor are other
important features of the proposed system.

49
 REFERENCES

[1]Banaei, M.R., Ardi, H., Alizadeh, R., et al.: ‘Non-isolated multi-input–single-output

DC/DC converter for photovoltaic power generation systems’, IET Power Electron.,
2014, 7, (11), pp. 2806–2816
[2] Singh, B., Shahani, D.T., Verma, A.K.:‘Neural network controlled grid interfacedsolar
photovoltaic power generation’, IET Power Electron., 2014, 7, (3),pp. 614–626
[3] Kim, K.-T., Kwon, J.-M., Kwon, B.-H.:‘Parallel operation of photovoltaic power
conditioning system modules for large-scale photovoltaic power generation’, IETPower
Electron., 2014, 7, (2), pp. 406–417
[4]Bendib, B., Belmili, H., Krim, F.:‘A survey of the most used MPPT
methods:conventional and advanced algorithms applied for photovoltaic systems’,
Renew.Sustain. Energy Rev., 2015, 45, pp. 637–648
[5]Subudhi, B., Pradhan, R.:‘A comparative study on maximum power point
trackingtechniques for photovoltaic power systems’,IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, 2013,4,
(1), pp. 89–98

50
[6] de Brito, M.A.G., Galotto, L., Sampaio, L.P.,et al.:‘Evaluation of the main
MPPTtechniques for photovoltaic applications’, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 2013, 60,(3),
pp. 1156–1167
[7]Bastidas-Rodriguez, J.D., Franco, E., Petrone, G.,et al.: ‘Maximum power
pointtracking architectures for photovoltaic systems in mismatching conditions: areview’,
IET Power Electron., 2014, 7, (6), pp. 1396–1413.
[8]Tey, K.S., Mekhilef, S.: ‘Modified incremental conductance algorithm forphotovoltaic
system under partial shading conditions and load variation’, IEEETrans. Ind. Electron.,
2014, 61, (10), pp. 5384–5392
[9]Killi, M., Samanta, S.:‘Modified perturb and observe MPPT algorithm for
driftavoidance in photovoltaic systems’, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 2015, 62, (9),pp.
5549–5559
[10] Espinoza-Trejo, D.R., Barcenas-Barcenas, E., Campos-Delgado, D.U., et
al.:‘Voltage-oriented input–output linearization controller as maximum power
pointtracking technique for photovoltaic systems’, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 2015,62,
(6), pp. 3499–3507
[11]Faraji, R., Rouholamini, A., Naji, H.R.,et al.: ‘FPGA-based real time
incrementalconductance maximum power point tracking controller for photovoltaic
systems’,IET Power Electron., 2014, 7, (5), pp. 1294–1304
[12]Renaudineau, H., Donatantonio, F., Fontchastagner, J.,etal.:‘A PSO-based
globalMPPT technique for distributed PV power generation’,IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron.,2015,62, (2), pp. 1047–1058
[13]Sitbon, M., Schacham, S., Kuperman, A.:‘Disturbance observer-based
voltageregulation of current-mode-boost-converter-interfaced photovoltaic
generator’,IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 2015, 62, (9), pp. 5776–5785
[14]DharmaianRetnam, B.B.J., NanjappaGounder, A.G., AmmasaiGounden, V.:‘Hybrid
power electronic controller for combined operation of constant powerand maximum
power point tracking for single-phase grid-tied photovoltaicsystems’, IET Power
Electron., 2014, 7, (12), pp. 3007–3016
[15]Aashoor, F.A.O., Robinson, F.V.P.: ‘Maximum power point tracking ofphotovoltaic
mixer grinder using fuzzy logic controller’. 48th Int.Universities’Power Engineering
Conf., 2–5 September 2013, pp. 1–5

51
[16] Jiang, Y., Abu Qahouq, J.A.:‘Single-sensor multi-channel maximum power
pointtracking controller for photovoltaic solar systems’, IET Power Electron., 2012, 5,(8),
pp. 1581–1592
[17]Ouada, M., Meridjet, M.S., Talbi, N.:‘Optimization photovoltaic pumping
systembased BLDC using fuzzy logic MPPT control’. Int. Renewable and
SustainableEnergy Conf. (IRSEC), 7–9 March 2013, pp. 27–31
[18] Noman, A.M., Addoweesh, K.E., Mashaly, H.M.: ‘Simulation and dSPACEhardware
implementation of the MPPT techniques using buck boost converter’.AFRICON, 9–12
September 2013, pp. 1–9
[19]Algazar, M.M., AL-monier, H., Abd EL-halim, H.,et al.: ‘Maximum power
pointtracking using fuzzy logic control’,Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst., 2012,39,
(1),pp. 21–28
[20] El Khateb, A.H., Abd Rahim, N., Selvaraj, J.,et al.:‘DC-to-DC converter with
lowinput current ripple for maximum photovoltaic power extraction’,IEEE Trans.
Ind.Electron., 2015, 62, (4), pp. 2246–2256

52