Epemag 2000-07

Volume 2 Issue 7
July 2000
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, Febuary 1999 - www.epemag.com - XXX
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Copyright  1999, Wimborne Publishing Ltd
and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc.,
PO Box 857, Madison, Alabama 35758, USA
All rights reserved.
WARNING!
The materials and works contained within EPE Online — which are made available
by Wimborne Publishing Ltd and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc — are
copyrighted. You are permitted to download locally these materials and works and to
make one (1) hard copy of such materials and works for your personal use. International
copyright laws, however, prohibit any further copying or reproduction of such materials
and works, or any republication of any kind.
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc and Wimborne Publishing Ltd have used their
best efforts in preparing these materials and works. However, Maxfield & Montrose
Interactive Inc and Wimborne Publishing Ltd make no warranties of any kind, expressed
or implied, with regard to the documentation or data contained herein, and specifically
disclaim, without limitation, any implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a
particular purpose. Because of possible variances in the quality and condition of
materials and workmanship used by readers, EPE Online, its publishers and agents
disclaim any responsibility for the safe and proper functioning of reader-constructed
projects based on or from information published in these materials and works.
In no event shall Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc or Wimborne Publishing Ltd be
responsible or liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including
but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or any other damages in connection
with or arising out of furnishing, performance, or use of these materials and works.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, July 2000 - www.epemag.com - 499
PROJECTS AND CIRCUITS
CAMERA SHUTTER TIMER - by Robert Penfold 502
Make sure you get the right exposure with this simple design.
g-METER - by Bill Mooney 510

Use a space-age chip to measure g-forces.
PIC-GEN FREQUENCY GENERATOR/COUNTER - by John Becker 518

Versatile PIC-based test equipment.
INGENUITY UNLIMITED - hosted by Alan Winstanley 528

Multi-purpose AC Detector/Switch; Versatile Car Interior Light Delay;
Musical Chip Amplifier; Narrow SCSI Active Terminator
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY DETECTOR - Part 2 - by Keith Garwell 532

Investigate Nature’s power house with this intriguing experimental design.
SERIES AND FEATURES

CIRCUIT SURGERY - by Alan Winstanley and Ian Bell 537
Checking the Chips; Low Voltage Detector.
Practically Speaking - by Robert Penfold 541

Front panel labels for projects.
NET WORK - THE INTERNET PAGE surfed by Alan Winstanley 545

Fried SPAM
PICO DrDAQ REVIEWED - by Robert Penfold 547

Robert puts a data logger from Pico Technology through its paces.
NEW TECHNOLOGY UPDATE - by Ian Poole 552

Aerogel foam capacitors.
TEACH-IN 2000 - Part 9 - Transistors - by John Becker 554

Essential info for the electronics novice, with breadboard experiments
and interactive computer simulations.
REGULARS AND SERVICES

EDITORIAL 580
NEWS - Barry Fox highlights technology’s leading edge. Plus everyday 570
news from the world of electronics.
READOUT - John Becker addresses general points arising. 573

SHOPTALK - with David Barrington The essential guide to component 578
buying for EPE Online projects.
EPE MOODLOOP
Various ways of encouraging the brain to generate specific electrical frequencies exist, one of which is
exposure to a suitable alternating magnetic field. Opinions on how this works vary, but one likely method
seems quite simple. An alternating magnetic field induces electrical currents in conductive material within
range and brain tissue is such a conductor. It seems likely that the production of weak currents of suitable
frequency within the brain will either tend to produce the desired mental state directly, or it may do so by
encouraging the brain to “synchronise” to the frequency. Either way, the effect is one many people find
worthwhile as shown by the interest in the two projects published so far in EPE Online. Both of these pro-
duce tiny localized magnetic fields. This one represents an attempt to increase the effect by delivering a
much larger current into an inductive loop system which may be placed right around a small room (or
around a bed in the case of insomnia!) to permeate a whole area with the desired field. Roughly speaking,
it can saturate an area of up to four meters square with a field of intensity equal to that of one of the previ-
ous designs at a range of about three centimeters. This should be sufficient for the most ardent enthusiast
of the system.
TOP TENNERS
This short collection of projects, some useful, some instructive and some amusing, can be made for
around the ten UK pounds mark. The estimated cost does not include an enclosure, for many of them work
just as well as an open board.
All of the projects are built on stripboard, and have been designed to fit on to boards of standard di-
mensions. All of the projects are battery-powered, so are safe to build.
DOOR PROTECTOR
Our first Top Tenner is a simple Door Protector. Even if you already have a system installed in your
home or workplace, there is likely to be a use for this project. With any security system, or even with none,
it is important that all doors and windows should be protected by bolts, bars, grids, or other physical means.
Unfortunately, there is nearly always one weak point. This is the Exit Door, the door by which you normally
leave the house when you are going out. This unit will provide timed entry and exit whilst protecting this or
any other door or window.
HANDY AMP
This easy to build “bench” amplifier has an in-built loudspeaker, it also has the facility for connecting
personal stereo type headphones or an external loudspeaker. it will accept both high-level and low-level in-
put devices. Magnetic record player cartridges and dynamic microphones provide a low-level output while
the “line output” socket fitted to many pieces of consumer equipment (such as compact disc players and
video recorders) provide a high level.
Many readers will, no doubt, wish to construct the amplifier for experimental and test purposes. How-
ever, it could have a variety of other applications. Examples include a small practice amplifier for electronic
musical instruments and as the basis for an intercom or toys and games. Being battery-operated, it may be
set up outdoors and, with just a microphone (possibly with an extension lead) and a pair of headphones
connected, it could be used to listen to wildlife etc.
ROUGH MEASUREMENTS
–18
Measuring a change in capacitance of 10 F or a movement of 0×2 angstroms – about a
tenth of an atomic diameter – in a hobbyist project seems to be next to impossible and certainly
unthinkable a year or so ago. But with the development of specialist ICs such technology is now
available to all. Why would we want to measure such small valves, well if you use a mass of just
0×1 micrograms to measure g-force then it is necessary to record movements of this nature.
An IC with a two micrometre beam etched into it, along with the necessary detector
electronics, forms the basis of our g-Meter project this month. When you realize that the whole
thing, including the interconnections, is housed in a plastic package measuring just 10mm by
8mm you begin to realize just how far technology has advanced in what was previously an
electromechanical device – we suppose it still is, even though it is now etched into a single
silicon chip.
Devices like this are what keep our hobby interesting. One small chip plus a handful of
passive devices and some form of readout and you have a fascinating, highly sensitive piece of
equipment whose output can also be fed to a data logger or computer for analysis and
recording.
When you realize that what you are using is right at the forefront of technology and you can
buy this for less than 20 UK pounds it seems even more amazing. Gone are the days of weights
on pendulums or inside bolt-on steel housings, now you can stick your accelerometer on with
tape.
BLASÉ
We guess we should not be too surprised since we just accept that a Pentium chip contains
seven million active devices, but it always seems to us that miniaturization of mechanical items
of this nature is somehow a greater achievement. Maybe it’s because we are so used to
electronics getting smaller and smaller that we simply accept it, but find it harder to believe that a
pump, gearbox or mechanical beam can be miniaturized in the same way.
EPE Online, July 2000 - www.epemag.com - 580

CAMERA SHUTTER TIMER
by ROBERT PENFOLD
Ca
An easy-to-build project that will check your camera
shutter speeds. Four switched ranges up to: 5ms; Ra
50ms; 500ms and 5 seconds. INPUT
OUTPUT
+
Although digital cameras have creeping out of adjustment over
been progressing rapidly in recent a period of time, but things can
years, and most of the obviously go awry with shutters
photographs in this magazine are of either variety. 0V RAIL
now produced without the aid of Fig.1. The basic integrator

film, most people are still using ON TIME circuit.
traditional cameras. It seems
likely that they will continue to do It is not essential to use a However, these longer shutter
so for some years yet. complex digital timer to test times of around 8 seconds to a
camera shutters, and a very minute are easily tested using a
The quality of the finished
basic analogue timer circuit is stopwatch, and do not really
result with traditional photography
capable of providing accurate need a shutter timer.
is dependent on a number of
measurements in this
factors. One of these is the Although this unit is
application. The simple design
accuracy of the shutter, which is primarily designed for testing
featured here has four
particularly important when using shutters, it should be possible to
measuring ranges having full-
certain types of film. There is very modify it for use in some other
scale values of 5ms, 50ms,
little exposure latitude with any automatic timing applications.
500ms, and 5 seconds. It can
form of transparency film, and The light level on a sensor going
therefore be used to measure
also with certain negative films. above a certain threshold level
the full range of speeds covered
Modern SLR cameras mostly by most cameras. activates the timer, but it can
have electronically timed shutters, also be controlled by switch
Some of the more modern contacts.
and in terms of accuracy they are
cameras have manual shutter
generally superior to the purely
speeds of up to around 30
mechanically shutters of older
designs. Electronically timed
seconds or so, which takes the INTEGRATOR
longer shutter speeds beyond
shutters are also less prone to The circuit is based on an
the maximum range of this unit.
operational amplifier (opamp)
connected as an integrator. The
basic integrator circuit is shown
in Fig.1. Like most basic
operational amplifier building
blocks an integrator requires
dual (positive and negative)
supply rails with a central (zero
volt) earth rail. The inputs and
outputs can therefore have
negative as well as positive
voltage levels.
An operational amplifier
amplifies the voltage difference
Constructional Project
at its two inputs, and the output
voltage is positive if the non-
inverting (+) input is at the CAMERA
higher potential. The output
voltage is negative if the
METER
inverting (–) input is at the PHOTODIODE
LIGHT ELECTRONIC
higher voltage. The voltage gain SOURCE SWITCH INTEGRATOR
is extremely high at DC and low

frequencies, with a figure of
around 200,000 being
unexceptional.
Under standby conditions,
the non-inverting (+) input is
biased to the 0V rail, and there Fig.2. Block schematic diagram for the Camera Shutter Timer.
is no charge on capacitor Ca. A
negative feedback action
stabilizes the inverting input at
the 0V bias level fed to the non-
inverting input.
If the output was at a
positive potential, the coupling
through Ca (which has no
charge voltage) would take the
inverting input positive,
unbalancing the input voltages
and taking the output negative.
With the output at a negative
voltage the feedback through Ca
again unbalances the input
levels, and this time sends the
output positive. Any drift in the
output voltage is therefore COMPONENTS
corrected by the feedback.
Resistors Semiconductors
With a real world opamp the R1 1k D1 SFH309/5 phototransistor or other
output will not be stabilized at R2 2k2 small phototransistor/diode (see text)
precisely 0V, since the gain of R3 2k7 TR1 BC559 pnp transistor
R4 27k 0.6W 1% IC1 78L05 +5V 100mA voltage regulator
the amplifier is very high rather
R5 270k metal film IC2 LF351N biFET opamp
than infinite. Also, imperfections R6 2M7
in the opamp’s circuit can R7 22 ohms Miscellaneous
produce small offset voltages at R8 120k S1 4-way 3-pole rotary switch (only
the output, but in practice any All 0.25W 5% carbon film one pole used)
S2 pushbutton switch, push-to make
errors are normally very small. except where noted
release-to-break
Potentiometers S3 d.p.s.t. miniature toggle or
rotary switch
ON CHARGE VR1 220k rotary carbon (linear)
VR2 100k miniature carbon ME1 50uA FSD moving coil panel meter
B1, B2 9V batteries, PP3 size (2 off)
So far we have only preset, horizontal
considered the circuit with the Metal insrument case, size about
Capacitors
input “floating” or at 0V. 200mm
C1, C2, C4 100n disc ceramic (3 off)
Suppose that the input is taken C3 1u polyester, 10mm lead spacingwide; 0.1 inch matrix stripboard having
a few volts positive. Capacitor 33
Ca then charges through See also the holes by 18 strips; 8-pin DIL socket;
SHOP TALK Page! battery connector (2 off); control knob
resistor Ra, and the voltage at (3 off); multistrand connecting wire;
the inverting input starts to rise. screened lead; single-ended solder pins;
This sends the output
Approx. Cost
Guidance Only
solder,
(Excluding meter, case,M2.5 or 6BA fixings, etc.
batts) $19
negative in order to keep the a photodiode or a phototransistor gate and blocks light from
inverting input at 0V. As Ca via an electronic switch. It is reaching the film again. The two
charges, the inverting input essential to use a photocell that curtains are then pulled back to
remains at 0V and the output of has a fast response time since their original positions, and they
the circuit goes steadily more most cameras have a faster move together in such away that
negative. shutter time of one millisecond or light is always blocked from the
The important point to note less. Photo-resistors are too slow, film. The shutter is then ready to
here is that the voltage across but phototransistors and operate again.
resistor Ra remains constant, photodiodes have suitably fast As it takes several
and is equal to the input voltage. response times. milliseconds for each curtain to
The current flow through Ra, In theory there is some traverse the film gate, the only
and therefore the charge current advantage in using a photodiode way of achieving fast shutter
for Ca, is also constant. due to its faster response time. In speeds is to start the second
If a capacitor is simply practice a photodiode seems to shutter curtain before the first
charged from a resistor via a provide little improvement in one has completely moved out
voltage source, the voltage rises accuracy in this application. Also, of the way. This effectively gives
quickly initially, but then a photodiode has the drawback of a slit that travels across the film,
gradually slows down. This is being far less sensitive than a exposing it a bit at a time. The
due to the fact that there is phototransistor. This design faster the shutter speed, the
initially the full voltage across incorporates a simple transistor narrower the slit is made.
the resistor, giving a high charge switching stage to ensure that the Although it may take something
current. As the voltage across integrator receives a proper like 10 milliseconds for the
the capacitor rises, the voltage switching signal whether a photo- shutter to complete an
across the resistor falls, giving diode or a phototransistor is used. exposure, by making the slit
an ever-decreasing charge rate. On the face of it, the size of narrow enough each part of the
the sensor is unimportant, but in film can be exposed for a
The constant current flow millisecond or even less.
into Ca results in the output of this application it is a case of
the circuit going negative at a “small is beautiful”. The design of Here we are measuring the
linear rate. If the output is at –1V mechanical shutters has to take shutter time by having a light
after one second, it will be at – into account the fact that it takes a source in front of the shutter,
2V after two seconds, –3V after certain amount of time for the and the sensor positioned
three seconds, and so on. shutter to open and close. behind it and quite close to the
At the slow speeds this factor film plane, see Fig.2. The unit
An integrator is therefore responds to the pulse of light
ideal as the basis of a simple does not matter because the
opening and closing times are produced when the shutter is
timer. It is just a matter of using fired. If the sensor has a large
a voltmeter circuit at the output very short relative to the shutter
time. At the fastest shutter speeds diameter its size effectively
and adjusting the scaling so that increases the size of the slit
the meter readings are easily the opening and closing times can
actually be longer than the when the shutter is used at fast
converted into times. speeds, giving elongated shutter
nominal shutter speed. This may
SPEED AND SIZE seem to be impossible, but all timings. For this type of
becomes clear when the action of measurement the sensor would
The block diagram of Fig.2
a focal-plane shutter is examined. ideally be only a fraction of a
shows the general scheme of
millimeter in diameter, but it also
things used in the Camera
needs to be reasonably
Shutter Timer project. The
integrator drives a moving coil
CURTAIN CALL sensitive.
panel meter, with the later There are two shutter curtains In practice a diameter of
directly indicating shutter timers that are made from metal or about one millimeter is a good
over the four ranges stated rubberized cloth. One of the compromise. Photodiodes and
previously. Using four input curtains blocks light from the film phototransistors as small as this
resistors, giving four different until the shutter is fired, and then seem to be unobtainable these
charge rates for the capacitor, it slides out of the way to one side days, but a larger device is
provides the four ranges. to expose the film. After the easily masked to produce an
appropriate time, the second effective diameter of about one
The integrator is driven from
curtain moves across the film millimeter.
CIRCUIT OPERATION the low level associated with The shorter links can be
ordinary silicon transistors, but made from the wire trimmed
The full circuit diagram for at high light intensities it rises to from resistors, but some
the Camera Shutter Timer is a milliamp or more. This again 22s.w.g. or 24s.w.g. tinned
shown in Fig.3. Operational gives the required on/off copper wire is needed for the
amplifier IC2 is used in the switching action from TR1. longer links. At this stage only fit
integrator mode, and capacitor single-sided solder pins to the
It is important that the
C3 is the integration capacitor. board at the positions where
integrator is fed with a stable
Resistors R3 to R6 are the input connections to the meter,
input potential since any
Range resistors, and the controls, etc. will eventually be
changes in this voltage will alter
required resistor is selected made.
the charge current of the
using Range switch S1.
integration capacitor and
Meter ME1 is driven from degrade the accuracy of the
the output of IC2 (pin 6) via the
BOXING-UP
unit. A monolithic voltage
series resistance of R8 and regulator (IC1) is therefore used When choosing a case for
calibration preset potentiometer to produce a well-stabilized +5V this project, bear in mind that a
VR2. Operating Reset switch S2 supply for the input circuitry. fair amount of front panel space
discharges capacitor C3 through is required for the meter and
The integrator, IC2, does
current limiter resistor R7 so that four controls. This precludes the
not require a stabilized supply
the meter is zeroed and a new use of small and most medium
and is powered direct from two
reading can be taken. Resistor size cases. A metal instrument
small (PP3 size) 9V batteries.
R7 prevents excessive case about 200mm or so wide is
The current consumption is only
discharge currents that would probably the best choice and
a few milliamps from each
otherwise shorten the operating was used for the prototype, but
supply rail.
life of switch S2. one of the larger plastic boxes
Under dark conditions, would also be suitable.
photodiode D1 operates much CONSTRUCTION The exact component layout
like any other semiconductor Most of the components are used is not important from the
diode. When reverse biased, as assembled on a piece of electrical point of view, since the
it is here, only a minute leakage stripboard that has 33 holes by circuit operates at DC and is not
current flows. Under bright 18 copper strips. The prone to problems with stray
conditions the leakage level component layout, interwiring feedback or noise pick up.
increases, and the leakage and details of the breaks However, try to use a sensible
current is roughly proportional to required in the underside copper layout that makes the unit easy
the received light level. strips are shown in Fig.4. to use.
If the leakage current is high Construction of the board
enough, transistor TR1 is biased follows along normal lines, with PANEL METER
into conduction and it applies a board being trimmed down to
+5V to the input of the Fitting the meter on the front
the correct size using a
integrator. In practice, sensitivity panel is potentially difficult, as it
hacksaw, the two 3mm diameter
or Level control VR1 is adjusted requires a large round mounting
mounting holes then being
so that TR1 is switched off when hole. This is 38mm in diameter
drilled, after which the 12 breaks
the shutter is closed, and turned for most of the smaller meters,
in the copper strips are cut. The
on when the shutter is open. but it is clearly advisable to
breaks can be made using a
Potentiometer VR1 enables the check this before cutting the
handheld twist drill bit of about
unit to function properly under a hole.
5mm diameter or so. The board
wide range of ambient light is now ready for the components The quickest way of making
levels. and link wires to be added. The this cutout is to use a hole-cutter
Operation using a LF351N specified for IC2 is not of the appropriate diameter, or
phototransistor is much the a static-sensitive component, to use one of the adjustable
same, and Fig.3 shows the but it is still a good idea to use a cutters that are available from
correct method of connection for holder for this component. Do most do-it-yourself superstores.
a component of this type. Under not overlook any of the eight link Alternatively, cutting carefully
dark conditions the collector (c) wires. using a coping saw, Abrafile, or
to emitter (e) leakage current is any similar tool will produce the
cutout, albeit rather slowly.
Four 3mm diameter
mounting holes are required for
the threaded rods built into the
meter. These are normally at the
corners of a square having
32mm sides and the same
center as the main mounting
hole. Again, it is advisable to
make some measurements on
the meter itself to check its
mounting arrangements prior to
drilling any holes.
Finished unit showing front panel layout and lettering. Note the
LIGHT SENSOR phototransistor/diode light sensor is attached to the free end of
the screened cable.
Photodiode D1 can be
connected to the main unit via a about 0××5 meters long is used to with various photodiodes and
two-way plug and socket such phototransistors, but as
connect light sensor D1 to the
as a 3××5mm jack type, but it is explained previously, results will
circuit board, and low cost
cheaper and easier to simply screened cable is probably the be more accurate at faster
hard wire it to the circuit board. best choice. Use the outer shutter speeds if a sensor
A hole for the connecting cable braiding to connect the anode having a diameter of 3mm or
must be drilled in the case, and (or emitter) to the 0V rail, and less is used. Results will be
the hole should be fitted with a the inner lead to connect the even better if the sensor is
grommet to protect the cable if cathode (or collector) to resistor masked down to a diameter of
the case is a metal type. R2. about one millimeter, and the
A piece of two-way cable easiest way of doing this is to
The unit worked when tried
R1
1k S3a
OUT IN
IC1
78L05
ON/OFF
TR1 C1
COM
C2
LEVEL BC559 e 100n 100n
VR1 b
220k
c
R3
2k7 3 7 R8
+ 120k VR2
100k
IC2 6 B1
2 LF359 9V
RANGE
R4
27k 5ms 4 S2
50ms
S1
R2 R5
2k2 RESET C3 ME1
270k 500ms A
1µ 50µA
+
5s R7
* SFH
309/5 R6
2M7
22Ω
c k +
*
D1
a
e
* SEE TEXT C4 B2
100n 9V
S3b
ON/OFF
Fig.3. Complete circuit diagram for the Camera Shutter Timer. Note S3 is a “ganged” double-
pole switch.
apply a ring of black paint battery connectors with the Table 1: Equivalent times in
around the front of the diode. correct polarity. If sensor D1 has milliseconds for shutter
a standard light-emitting diode speeds.
(LED) style case, the shorter
FINAL ASSEMBLY leadout wire will be the cathode Marked Equivalent
The circuit board is mounted or the collector. For diodes Speed in ms
on the base panel of the case, having other case styles the 1/4000 0.25
well towards the right-hand side, manufacturer’s or retailer’s 1/2000 0.5
as viewed from the rear, so that literature should be consulted. 1/1000 1
there is sufficient space for the The base terminal is not 1/500 2
batteries to its left, see normally accessible on small 1/250 3
photograph. Mounting bolts are phototransistors, but if there is a 1/125 8
preferable to plastic stand-offs base lead it is simply ignored. 1/60 16.66
when using stripboard, and both 1/30 33.33
The four range resistors (R3 1/15 66.66
6BA and metric M3 bolts are
to R6) should be mounted 1/8 125
suitable. Include spacers at
directly on the rotary Range 1/4 250
least 6mm long to hold the
selector switch S1. It is best to 1/2 500
underside of the board well clear
solder the resistors on the 1 1000
of the case.
switch tags before it is fitted in
All the hard wiring is the case front panel.
included in Fig.4 and is largely resistors do not overheat. It
Try to complete the takes quite a lot of heat to
straightforward. Be careful to
soldering fairly swiftly so that the destroy them, but relatively
connect meter ME1 and the two
small amounts to impair
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33 their accuracy.
A
B
C
VR1 D S3
E
F
G
IN COM
C2
CALIBRATION
C3
AND TESTING
H e VR1
OUT
b
J c R R
K 1 C3 8
L R
2 Start calibration/
R
N RED BLACK
testing with Range switch
7
D1 k (c) O
B2
a (e) Q
C
4
S1 set to the five-second
SCREEN range (R6 switched into
S2
BLACK RED
circuit) and preset VR2
R
5
R
4
3
R B1 adjusted to roughly middle
2 setting. When the unit is
R
3 1
+
6
4 A 12
5 11
S1 ME1
6 10
7 9
8
R
Q
P
O
N
M
L
K
J
I
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
Fig.4. Camera Shutter Timer stripboard component layout, inter-

wiring and details of breaks required in the underside copper
strips. (Right) Mounting the Range resistors directly on the switch
tags before it is fitted in the case will help with the final wiring.
measurements with cameras
that have fixed lenses. A large
light source such as a window
is then preferable. This
minimizes any dark areas
where there will be insufficient
light to activate the sensor.
Results are best with the
sensor positioned quite close
to the shutter curtains, but
great care must be taken to
avoid getting the sensor in
contact with any part of the
shutter. These days the cost
of having damaged shutters
repaired is so high that the
sums involved are higher than
the value of the repaired
cameras. Therefore, it is
better to err on the side of
caution and have a gap of
several millimeters between
the shutter and the sensor.
Layout of components inside the prototype metal case. The circuit The best way of
board is bolted to one side of the case to make space for the batter- calibrating the unit is to use a
recently manufactured or
ies. The board should be bolted on 6mm spacers to keep the cop-
serviced camera as the
per underside well clear of the metal case. calibration source. Set the
timer to the 500-millisecond
first switched on the meter ME1 malfunctioning in any way, range and the camera for a
may read other than zero, but switch off immediately and shutter speed of 0××5 seconds
briefly pressing pushswitch S2 recheck the entire wiring, etc.
(500 milliseconds).
should zero the meter. It might be possible to check
Press Reset switch S2 to
With the sensor (D1) aimed automatic exposure times with
zero the meter, take a reading,
towards a light source, which some cameras, but the unit was
and then adjust preset VR2 for
can simply be bright daylight only designed to check manual
precisely full-scale reading on
coming through a window or speeds. Obviously the timer is
the meter. In the absence of a
light from a table lamp, the only usable with cameras that
suitably reliable camera,
meter reading should slowly have removable or hinged
calibrate the unit on the five-
advance. However, it may backs, which means the vast
second range using the camera
require some adjustment to majority of 35mm models.
set to “bulb” or “B”, and a
Level control VR1 before this The main exceptions are stopwatch to help generate a
happens. Clockwise adjustment some of the older Leica models five second shutter time.
of VR1 reduces the light level and copies of these such as the
needed to activate the unit. If the The 0 to 50 scaling of the
early Fed and Zorki cameras.
sensor is a photodiode a specified meter produces
The timer was not designed to
reasonably strong light source readings that are easily
test “”leaf” shutters, but it
will be required. converted into shutter times,
seemed to work quite well when
and it is not worthwhile doing
With a little trial and error it used with shutters for large
any recalibration. Cameras use
should be possible to find a format lenses and when tried
shutter times expressed as
setting that results in the meter with some “golden oldies”, such
fractions of a second rather than
reading advancing when the as an Agfa Rangefinder model.
in milliseconds, which slightly
sensor is aimed towards the Testing is easier if the lens complicates matters. However,
light source, and stopping when is removed from the camera, but Table 1 shows the equivalent
it is not. If the unit seems to be it is possible to make accurate
times in milliseconds for the the faster shutter speeds. An be surprised if checking the
standard shutter speeds. error of something like +50 same shutter setting produces a
IN USE percent is clearly not good, but it fairly wide range of times.
does not indicate a faulty Unless the variations are very
It is only fair to point out that shutter, just one having wide this does not indicate that
the generally accepted camera mediocre accuracy. the shutter is faulty, but it does
standards allow for quite large suggest that it is long overdue
With older cameras do not
margins of error, especially on for cleaning and recalibration.
POCKET g-METER by BILL MOONEY
Uses a space-age chip to tell you how much g-force

you are experiencing.
DISPLACMENT DUE
TO ACCELERATION
This portable accelerometer
will tell you the g-force you
experience when you break hard
MASS
in your car, when you ride in a lift,
or at the fairground. It is based on REST POSITION
a tiny polysilicon micromachined +250mV 0mV –250mV

sensor etched onto an integrated SUPPORT
SPRINGS CAPACITOR
circuit. The earth’s gravity is used DETECTS
as a reference standard. a) MOVEMENT b)
As described, this is an Fig.1. (a) Operating principle of the internal “beam” movement
experimental project designed as
sensor and (b) influence of Earth’s gravity.
a simple introduction to the world
of acceleration. The g-Meter the surface mount package stationary, the beam returns to
output is in the form of a 10- contains all the driver circuitry to its rest position.
segment bargraph type display, make a very effective
but for more accurate A small differential capacitor
accelerometer. attached to the side of the beam
measurement or signal
processing an output socket is The sensor is a tiny, two is unbalanced by its
provided. micrometer, beam etched onto displacement. This unbalance
an integrated circuit along with results in an on-board 200kHz
the detector electronics. The clock signal reaching the
ACCELEROMETERS sensor is, in fact, a
+2.7V TO +5V
beam of polysilicon
There are many ways of
held at four points by
measuring acceleration involving 220n
supports of the same
various piezoelectric, resistive, or
material, see Fig.1a.
inductive devices, but the new
The supports can
micromachined silicon sensors 14 13
flex and so act as V dd Vdd
represents a considerable
springs.
advance. The ADXL105 from 1 TEMPERATURE UNCOMMITTED
Analog Devices is of this Inertia resulting SENSOR AMPLIFIER
type and from the mass of the +

beam is the basis of
the detection system.
If the supporting 6
X SENSOR
VIN
integrated circuit is
moved this mass COM COM VMID
7 4 8 9 10 11 12
tries to stay where it
is. Any acceleration R1 R2
therefore causes the OUTPUT
mass to move in
Fig.2. internal functional circuit of the
proportion. On
reaching constant ADXL105. Gain is set by values of
velocity or if external resistors R1 and R2.
demodulator which produces an
output voltage representing COMPONENTS
acceleration. Resistors Semiconductors
R1 100k D1 to D9 3mm green LED (9 off)
R2 220k D10 3mm red LED
SENSITIVITY R3, R4 56k (2 off) IC1 ADXL105JQC (or AQC) micro-
R5 2k2 machined sensor (SMD)
Originally developed IC2 LM3914N linear bargraph LED
All surface mount devices
specially for space research (SMD), case size 1206 driver
projects, micromachined Miscellaneous
accelerometers are very tough Potentiometer S1, S2 s.p.d.t. miniature slide switches
15mm fixing center (2 off)
and will withstand the huge VR1 10k ceramic "knob pot" (linear)
SK1 phono socket, chassis mounting
acceleration experienced by Capacitors B1 3V battery pack (2 x AA cells with
rockets. The sensing beam has C1 200n ceramic chip, case size 1206 holder)
a mass of 0××1 microgram and its C2 82n ceramic chip, case size 1206
movement can be detected C3 100u tantalum, 4V PCB available from the EPE Online
Store
down to 0××2 angstroms or about See also the at www.epemag.com (code 7000269);
a tenth of an atomic diameter. SHOP TALK Page! plastic box, size 75mm x 51mm x
The beam displacement- 28mm;
sensing capacitor is a minute Approx. Cost
multistrand connecting wire (see text);
0××1pF and a change of 1aF (1
-18
ato farad is 10 F) can be
Guidance Only
(Excludingnuts,
batts) $56
bolts, and washers; solder, etc.
detected; real space-age stuff!

The ADXL105 accelerometers, Multi-axis devices can be used signal level adjustment and
as used in this project, can to offset the effect of tilt, which filtering. The gain is set by the
detect “g” down to a couple of appears as an acceleration to selection of resistor R1 and R2
milli-g at frequencies from DC to the sensor. values and a variety of filtering
above 20kHz. A particular The ADXL105 single axis options are possible by the
advantage for the g-Meter is the device was chosen for this addition of capacitors to the
ease of calibration. Simply turn simple project. The effect of the opamp feedback circuitry.
the chip on either end to detect Earth’s gravity on the output at
+1g or –1g as it senses the pin 8 is shown in Fig.1b. The
earth’s gravity. This is a very CIRCUIT DETAILS
internal functional circuit for the
stable reference with a value of IC is shown in Fig.2. The g-Meter is a simple
–2
9××80600 m.sec at 45° latitude. experimental circuit intended to
The signal from the detector
Devices like the ADXL105 give an insight into the scope of
has a magnitude of 250mV/g
can be used for tilt and acceleration measurement. It
and is centered on the mid-rail
inclination measurement as well consists of an ADXL105 sensor
voltage. An uncommitted on-
as shock and vibration studies. directly coupled to a simple 10-
board amplifier is provided for
segment light-emitting diode
+3V
R1
C2 RANGE R3 +1g D1 TO D9 GREEN 0g –1g
100k 56k
82n S1
VR1
10k ON/OFF
R4 D10 S2
OFFSET R2 56k a a a a a a a a a a RED
C1 220k D1
200n
k k k k k k k k k k
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
C3 B1
100µ 3V
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
IC2 4V (2xAA)
LM3914
TANT
IC1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ADXL105 N.C.
7 4
SK1
R5
'g' OUTPUT 2k2
(0V)
Fig.3. Complete circuit diagram for the Pocket g-Meter.

coupled directly to the
uncommitted amplifier which is
wired for a gain of 4x or 8x
corresponding to a 2g or 1g
range, which is selectable by
switch S1. A very rudimentary
filter consisting of capacitor C2
limits the device to a frequency
response of a few Hertz (Hz) to
suit this application.
The LM3914 linear LED
driver, IC2, is operated in dot
mode for lowest current drain. It
requires an input of 0V to 1××3V
for full scale operation.
Therefore, the mid-rail based
output from the sensor must be
offset as required.
Potentiometer VR1 allows
the zero-g position to be
conveniently placed at LED D1,
Larger-than-life view showing the tiny surface- D10 or D5 with the sensor chip
in any orientation. This is a most
mount components mounted on the PCB.
useful feature of the design and
(LED) bargraph type display. therefore be run from two AA makes the g-Meter a very
cells. versatile instrument. The
Both the LM3914 LED driver
amplified and filtered output is
and the ADXL105 sensor will The full circuit diagram of the
made available through phono
work down to 2××7V (unlike the Pocket g-Meter is shown in Fig.3.
socket SK1.
now obsolete ADXL05 which The signal from the detector of
needs 5V). The circuit can IC1 appears at pin 8. This is In the prototype, all LEDs
D1 TO D9
B1 GREEN
S2 +V k a D1
+1g
k a
ON/OFF +
C k a
B1 3
g OUTPUT –V(0V) k a
k a D5
SK1 0g
k a
OFFSET C R5
VR1 B R1 C2 k a
R4 R2 k a
A
A BC
k a D9
R
3 –1g
k a D10
S1
RED
C
1g/0.5g 1
RANGE
Fig.4. Printed circuit board component layout, interwiring and (approximately) full-size underside
copper foil master. Note that IC2 is also soldered to the topside tracks of this surface-mount hy-
brid board.
www.epemag.com. If you are
producing your own PCB,
remember that track and
components are on the same
side so there is no need for the
usual mask inversions.
The layout of the whole
instrument is designed to cater
for the “sense” of movement. So
that a forward movement of the
g-Meter, as you look at it, results
in successive LEDs lighting up
in the direction of movement,
see photographs. Because of
the inversion of the signal by the
uncommitted amplifier in IC1,
this means that LED D10 lights
first, reaching D1 at maximum even more awkward in
acceleration in this direction. “positioning” these components.
Finished circuit board bolted Similarly, the Offset Placing the chip
to the rear of the case kid. potentiometer VR1 is wired so components is just a matter of
that a clockwise rotation soldering one end first whilst
are green except D10, which is “pushes” the lit LED towards D1. holding it in place with tweezers.
red. This allows D5 to be set as Thus the whole instrument is The free end can then be
zero g with four equal steps intuitive in operation. soldered with ease.
above and below this point. This
The LED driver IC1 should Aim to use minimal solder.
LED also behaves differently in
be soldered in last because its This is not just to make the
that higher voltage inputs leave
pins protrude through the PCB project look neat but results in a
it on so it acts as a useful
and the board will not rest flat on more flexible connection and
indicator. Resistor R5 controls
the work surface. This would get less stress is transferred to the
the LED brightness and can be
in the way of the surface mount chip. This is particularly
changed at the expense of
soldering process making it important for the higher value
battery life.
ceramic chip capacitors like C1
and C2, which are a little more
CONSTRUCTION delicate.
This project is a hybrid
circuit in that the LM3914 LED CASE
driver, IC2, is a “standard” dual-
in-line (DIL) format device. This
PREPARATION
is soldered on the upper copper Before mounting the LEDs
track side of the printed circuit on the PCB and bolting the
board (PCB) just like the surface board to the lid of the case, the
mount devices. About half of the two halves of the project box
components fit on a single-sided should be prepared. Taking the
printed circuit board (PCB). bottom half, one side panel of
The component layout on the case should be carefully
the surface mount circuit board marked and drilled to take the
(copper pads topside), together phono socket SK1, the two
with the interwiring and slider switches and the
(approximately) full size copper miniature potentiometer VR1.
foil master, is shown in Fig.4. The two slide switches will
This PCB is available from the Completed g-Meter showing need careful attention and the
EPE Online Store (code the side-mounted compo- rectangular cutouts should be
7000269) at nents. made first. The best way to do
this is to mark the cutout for the Fig.4. between case lid and PCB.
lower switch, on the outside of All the off-board controls For extended frequency
the case, with a pencil or Biro and output socket SK1 are wired application and if the ADXL105
and drill holes in the four up using fine futaba wire as were to be pushed to its full
corners, fractionally inside the used for model control/servo potential the mounting method
marks. work. It has a very flexible would need further
Next, drill a series of holes multistrand core and comes as consideration. But the method
along the guide marks to join up a 3-way ribbon. You can, of shown is perfectly satisfactory
with the corner ones. The edges course, use standard for this low frequency
of the resulting cutout should be multistrand wire if you wish. application.
smoothed down with a fine file. The cathode (k) lead of Finally, the LM3914 is
Now offer up the switch to each LED (D1 to D10) is bent added and its pins are soldered
the cutout so that the slider knob over to reach the appropriate on the topside of the board
protrudes into the case from the copper pad on the PCB and along with the SM chips. This is
outside. Mark the two fixing hole soldered in place. This method perfectly in order for the DIL
positions, remove the switch is less critical than mounting the package which is frequently
and drill the holes. LEDs directly on the PCB. used on double-sided circuits. It
There is little room for is worthwhile removing the
Repeat the procedure for
misalignment of the surface protruding leads from the
the other switch and mount
mount ADXL105 sensor IC as reverse side of the board with a
them in the case together with
the pads are quite small, but the side cutter.
the other off-board components.
You can, if you wish, solder axis should be lined up as Returning now to the bottom
leads on these components at accurately as possible with the half of the box, the off-board
this stage for later wiring to the long axis of the PCB. The circuit components should now be
PCB. If you do, make the leads board is held in place with two wired to the lid-mounted PCB.
sufficiently long enough to allow 2mm countersunk bolts, with Give the board and wiring a final
the lid of the case to be fully extra nuts to form spacers check and screw the two halves
opened for battery changing.
Having completed this
operation, the lower half of the
box can be put to one side for
later. Now for the case lid and
final assembly.
FINAL ASSEMBLY
In the prototype, the 3mm
LEDs protrude through 3mm
holes in the lid of the project
box. A sharp drill and a little skill
should produce a push fit and
no glue will be needed. Take
care to drill the LED holes
evenly spaced (6mm between
centers) and in as straight a line
as possible for best visual effect.
All the anode (a) leads are
connected to the positive
voltage line by a short length of
Interwiring to the off-board components. Note the “common”
stripped solid-core connecting
wire. This is connected to the connection to the LED anodes and the careful positioning of
last copper pad in the line of the battery holder.
LED connections, as indicated in
of the box together. All that Setting the range switch to is by travelling in lifts but here
remains is to produce a paper/ the ±0××5g will drive the indicator again there can be arresting
card “scale” similar to the one off-scale with the meter on dangers. Fairgrounds also
shown in the photographs and either end. This range can be generate a wide range of
the unit is ready for use. checked by setting the indicator acceleration experiences.
to –1g, LED D10 in the
horizontal orientation. Then by WHAT IS “g’’
CALIBRATION turning the meter end-on the
Before all this is understood,
The g-Meter does not indicator should travel full scale
it is necessary to explain speed
require calibration and setting it to D1 covering a range of 0g to
and velocity. Speed is simply the
up is just a matter of checking 1g.
average velocity over a journey
the current consumption and By such manipulation a and is not very useful in physics.
adjusting the Off-set control VR1 variety of operating modes can Velocity describes the rate at
to get the active LED on scale. be set to suit a particular type of which distance is covered with
The drain current should be measurement. time and is measured in meters
about 5mA with no LEDs alight per second.
A few simple experiments
and about 10mA with a LED on.
can now be performed. Set the Velocity is always in a
A few initial checks using range to 0 to 2g and hold the straight line. Any change in
gravity as a reference will be box tightly in the vertical velocity is achieved by applying
worthwhile to show correct orientation whilst jumping on the a force to the body when it will
operation and demonstrate how spot. A small jump will generate slow down or speed up, i.e. will
the scale can be used. +0××75 to 2g. A big jump may decelerate or accelerate. So
drive the meter off scale. acceleration is the rate of
FEEL THE FORCE But an indication of the g- change in velocity, and as the
force can still be gleaned from units of velocity are meters per
First set the range to ±1g. second, then acceleration is
this versatile device. Simply hold
Then hold the g-Meter flat or it at about 60 degrees to the meters per second per second
–2
rest it on a horizontal surface vertical and after resetting the or m. sec
and, using the Offset control, off-set to the position marked – To understand “g” we need
adjust the position of the “on” 1g (LED10) you now have at a to invoke Newton who
l.e.d. to the mid position. If D5 is range of about 0 to 4g. Can you discovered that any two masses,
used as the 0g position this drive your body skyward at 4g? like you and the earth for
gives four steps to +1g and four
Whilst sitting on a swivel example, experience a force of
steps to –1g.
chair swing around in an arc attraction called gravity. At the
Now turn the g-Meter to the with the meter held horizontal earth’s surface this force is the
vertical position with the arrow and pointing along the radius of same as you would feel if you
pointing upwards. The internal movement. Which way does the were accelerated at 9××81metres
ADXL105 IC1 is now on end g-force register and why?
–2
sec and is therefore given its
with pin 1 uppermost. The special title of 1g.
indicator LED should travel up Monitoring the accelerations
experienced during driving is Although acceleration is
the scale to the +1g position
revealing. A slight easing of the measured and mostly quoted in
stopping with LED D1 active. –2
foot from the accelerator pedal meters per sec in many cases
This is now registering the force
results in surprisingly rapid it is more meaningful to quote it
of gravity. Standing the device
deceleration due to engine in g. Acceleration (a), force (F)
on the other end, reversing the
breaking. Hard breaking, rapid and mass (m) are all tied
arrow direction should result in a
take-off from traffic lights and together in Newton’s apparently
–1g indication.
excursions over hump-back simple relationship:
If the offset is adjusted to bridges also produce interesting
indicate –1g with the g-Meter g-forces. F = ma
horizontal it will now cover the
range of 0g to +2g. As a check, Too much of this in-car work With this we can calculate
stand it on end and the active can result in unwanted large the acceleration which will be
LED should reach mid-scale, deceleration so be careful or get produced by the application of a
which now means +1g. a chauffeur. A safer way to particular force. A good example
experience smooth acceleration
is a falling apple. It weighs about To sum up, it is acceleration be very informative. Wooden
100g (its mass, m) and whilst it coupled with mass that is floors are not as solid as they
drops from the tree it will meaningful to us as this feel, but lets hope you don’t get
accelerate at 1g or 9××81m. sec
–2
describes the force we feel. A a chance to register an
(a) so that the force (F) on the jumping flea can generate huge earthquake.
apple is obtained by multiplying acceleration without problems The g-Meter, used for tilt
its mass by its acceleration. whereas the same acceleration detection will quickly show just
would be very uncomfortable for how effective even a low cost
To get the units correct the a human.
mass is measured in kilograms, spirit level can be. It is surprising
in this case 0××1kg. So that the The ADXL105 is used for what can be done with this
force is 0××1 x 9××81 which gives F earthquake detection, in single axis detector and it shows
–2
as 9××81kg.m. sec and this particular for automatic gas cut- how useful a multi-axis device
off. It will register vibrations very might be.
happens to be about 1 Newton
effectively and looking at the
of force.
output on an oscilloscope can
PIC-GEN FREQUENCY GENERATOR/
COUNTER by JOHN BECKER
Add even more versatility to your workshop facilities. Prior to the introduction of
the MAX038, arguably the main
contender for the most widely
Combining the sophisticated The PIC is also used as a used function generator was the
features of a Maxim MAX038 frequency counter, switch 8038, manufactured by various
waveform generator and a selectable to monitor the companies under different prefix
PIC16F877 microcontroller has frequency generated by the codings, such as ICL8038 and
resulted in a highly versatile and MAX038, or from an external XR8038, for instance.
inexpensive workshop tool whose source in conjunction with a pre- The 8038 is still widely used
facilities have hitherto been conditioning waveform shaper but it has limitations in the
unattainable without considerable and frequency divider. Two maximum frequency that can be
design complexity. external signal inputs are generated. The range is typically
provided: one for 0V to 5V logic 0××001Hz to 100kHz.
The MAX038 is a high- level waveforms, the other for
frequency precision function AC waveforms having a peak- The MAX038, however, is
generator whose output is to-peak swing of between about stated to have an upper
selectable to produce triangle, 2V to 5V. The prototype can frequency limit of at least
sine and square waveforms, monitor frequencies in excess of 20MHz, and possibly around
within a wide operating frequency 40MHz. 40MHz. It has to be said,
span of 0××1Hz to over 10MHz, split though, that attaining such high
in the PIC-Gen as eight frequencies requires printed
overlapping frequency ranges. MAX038 FUNCTION circuit board design and
Range and waveform selection GENERATOR construction techniques
are performed by the PIC16F877 normally found only in
in response to pushbutton switch In EPE September ’96, commercial manufacturing
controls. Frequency is fully Andy Flind first introduced establishments.
variable within the selected range readers to the merits of the then
newly introduced MAX038 The upper frequency limit of
by means of a front panel control the device is dependent not only
potentiometer. waveform generator, in a special
feature article of the same on very accurate control of the
An alphanumeric liquid crystal current flowing into its frequency
name. He followed it up with a
module displays the frequency setting inputs, but also on the
full constructional article, the
and range information. capacitance associated with
10MHz Function Generator, in
Four frequency outputs are them. Maxim state in their data
October ’96.
provided: sheet, for instance, that the
o) Direct output at ±1V peak-
to-peak
o) AC coupled output, fully
variable between zero and
4V peak-to-peak
o) Pulse output, 0V to 5V
logic level
o) 3××2768MHz fixed
frequency, 0V to 5V logic
level
specified upper frequency limit Sept/Oct ’96 articles. 10pF will be seen by the MAX038
is achieved when the timing In the PIC-Gen design, the as a value higher than this due to
capacitance is less than or controls used are those that set the (unpredictable) capacitance of
equal to 15pF and the control frequency and waveform shape. the circuit in proximity to the C
current is 500uA. The eight frequency ranges are OSC pin. Capacitor C11 could be
set according to the capacitance omitted if you want to try
Unfortunately, on a PCB
value connected to the device’s increasing the maximum
designed for successful
C OSC pin. Fine tuning of the frequency attainable.
assembly by the average
hobbyist, the capacitance frequency is performed by Pushbutton switches S1 and
between the MAX038, other varying the current provided by S2 cause the PIC to step the
components and the tracks is potentiometer VR1 to the I IN frequency range down or up
likely to prevent the maximum pin. (respectively) on a continuous 8-
frequency from being reached. Resistor R2 limits the step loop.
The prototype PIC-Gen maximum current that can flow, Nominally, the capacitor
described here achieves a while R1 sets the minimum values have been chosen to
maximum of just over 10MHz. current. provide a factor of ten difference
between each step. Normal
manufacturing tolerances apply to
PIC-GEN CONCEPT FREQUENCY these values, especially with the
Considering how the SELECTION electrolytic capacitors.
MAX038 might be put under Potentiometer VR1 provides a
semi-automatic control as part Eight capacitors are used to
set the frequency ranges, C11 to frequency control range of about 1
of a frequency generator and to 50. For example, if the
counter system, the author C18. These are commonly
connected at one end to the C minimum current flow through
recognized that a PIC16F877 VR1 and R2 causes a frequency
microcontroller might provide OSC pin (5). Capacitors C12 to
C18 have their other ends of 1kHz, then maximum current
the key. This device has five flow will cause 50kHz to be
input-output ports which, it connected individually to port
pins of the PIC microcontroller, generated. The range may be
seemed, could possibly provide shortened by increasing the value
automated switching of the IC5. For PCB layout
convenience these pins were of R1, although this will raise the
frequency range capacitors, lowest frequency that can be
selection of the waveform chosen to be RB1 to RB5, RD6
and RD7. Capacitor C11 is attained.
shape, offer frequency counting
and provide an output to a liquid permanently connected to the
0V line.
crystal display. WAVEFORM
Normally, the above seven
Doing a basic mock-up on
pins are set as inputs to the PIC. SELECTION
stripboard coupled to a PIC
roughly programmed to perform In this condition, they are PIC-Gen provides selection of
the bare essentials proved the effectively held in an open-circuit three waveform shapes, Sine,
viability of the idea. The concept state, the PIC inputs having a Triangle and Square.
was then given full flesh and very high impedance. As such, Selection is made according
bones to become the design the MAX038 ignores those to the binary code placed on the
whose circuit diagram is given in capacitors. MAX038’s A0 and A1 inputs. The
Fig.1. To bring one of the seven code is controlled by the PIC, via
The MAX038 function port controlled capacitors into its RB6 and RB7 pins, as follows:
generator is shown as IC2. It will circuit, the PIC has the
appropriate pin set as an output A1 A0 WAVEFORM
be seen that half the pins are 0 0 Square
grounded and from some of held at logic 0 (0V). With a
higher capacitance value 0 1 Triangle
their notations it will probably be 1 x Sine
(correctly) deduced that the selected, so the lower the output
device has more functions than frequency from IC2. where x = don’t care
are used here. For information For the highest frequency Pushbutton switch S4 causes
about the device’s full range of range, capacitor C11 is the the PIC to step through the three
functions, see its data sheet controlling component. Note, waveform codes on a repeating
(details later) or Andy Flind’s though, that its nominal value of
Note that IC6’s Q12 output
is the final one in its counting
sequence. This changes state at
1/4096 of the input frequency
and even at high input rates the
PIC is able to monitor this pin.
Each time the pin changes
state, the PIC registers the fact
Typical LCD display showing that a square and increments an internal
wave is being generated and that a frequency counter.
count of 3,706,286Hz has been read on range
At regular intervals,
7 during the normal 1-second sampling period. selectable for one or ten
cycle. seconds by switch S3 (Sample
FREQUENCY Time), the full 12-pin sequence
The selected waveform is
output at IC2 pin OUT and has a
COUNTER of IC6’s outputs is read and a
frequency value calculated
fixed amplitude of ±1V, Whilst a PIC can be
according to this value and that
symmetrical about 0V. The programmed to act as a
of the internal counter. Once the
output has a very low frequency counter simply by
reading has been taken, the
impedance (typically 0××1W) and monitoring one input pin, the
internal and IC6 counters are
can be used directly via socket maximum frequency that can be
reset (the latter via PIC pin RD4)
SK5. monitored by this method is
prior to the next batch of
severely limited. To enable very
The same waveform is counting.
high frequency signals to be
amplified by the non-inverting counted by the PIC-Gen, a pre- Frequencies in excess of
opamp circuit around IC3a. The counter is used and the output 40MHz have been recorded on
gain is set at x2, resulting in an from that is monitored at regular, the author’s prototype.
output swing of ±2V. Capacitor but slower intervals.
C3 provides DC isolation of the
output and potentiometer VR2 The pre-counter is IC6, a FREQUENCY INPUT
provides full control over the 74HC4040 12-stage ripple
counter. Its outputs are fed into There are three sources
amplitude output at socket SK3, from which the signal to be
from zero to maximum. PIC pins RC0 to RC7 and RD0
to RD3. It will be seen in Fig.1 counted can be input, as
It should be noted that the that the PIC’s pin order use described presently. All three
TL082 used as IC3a does not relative to the output pin order of finally arrive at counter IC6 via
permit the full frequency rage of the counter does not match. the Schmitt trigger NAND gate
the MAX038 to be amplified and This is intentional to simplify the IC7a. Immediately prior to
output. In the prototype, a PCB design, allowing software reading the contents of IC6, the
maximum of about 1MHz is to interpret the input values as PIC sets pin RD5 low, so turning
experienced, after which the correct binary numbers. off gate IC7a and preventing
amplitude progressively falls. further input signals from
Other opamps which have
higher frequency capabilities are
available but no
recommendation is offered on
this point.
Readers should be aware
that whilst some opamps may
seem to offer very high
frequency capabilities according
their data sheets, other factors
(also quoted) can affect the
range and must be taken into
account. PIC-Gen front panel. The waveform button is bottom far right.
The switch marked “pulse” (top right) is the on/off switch in the
final model.
reaching the counter. This Logic level signals either above or below the 0V/5V
allows the ripple-nature of the (nominally 0V to 5V) are input to range should not be input to
counter to stabilize (ripple the PIC-Gen via socket SK1 socket SK1. Those having
through) at the correct count (Logic Input), switch S5 lesser swings may not trigger
value. Software introduces a selecting their routing to gate gate IC7a, those having swings
slight delay between closing the IC7a and the counter. Signals greater than about 6V could kill
gate and taking the reading. having other voltage ranges, it.
Fig.1. Full circuit diagram for the PIC-Gen Frequency generator and Counter.
Signals which are analog or
digital and have a swing range
less than 5V, but greater than
about 2V to 2××5V, are input via
socket SK2 (AC Input). Switch
S6 selects their routing to the
pre-conditioning circuit around
IC7c. This is another Schmitt
trigger NAND gate, having one This display shows a sine wave is being generated and a
input (pin 13) held biassed at a frequency of 25,124Hz has been registered via range 4.
mid-power line level (2××5V) by
the potential divider formed by instability occurred when this selected (sine, triangle or
resistors R8 and R9. The other was generated (as cautioned in square).
input (pin 12) is held at +5V. Maxim’s data sheet). o) Line 1 mid/right:
Consequently, the option to use frequency value.
The input signal is AC this output has been dropped
coupled via C10 to the biased from the published PIC-Gen o) Line 2 left: frequency
input of the gate. Providing the (although the connection tracks range selected (8
input signal’s peak-to-peak on the PCB have been choices).
range is greater than the gate’s retained). o) Line 2 mid/right:
hysteresis value (which varies
sampling range selected
slightly between individual
(2 choices).
devices), so the gate will be 3·2768MHz OUTPUT
triggered. The LCD is shown as X2 in
The PIC is run at a
The output of this gate is frequency of 3××2768MHz, as set Fig.1. It is under standard 4-bit
also fed to switch S5, which control, but whereas many PIC
by crystal X1. Although this
routes it to the counter via IC7a projects control it via PIC Port B,
frequency can be tapped directly
when selected. here it is controlled via Port A
from PIC pin OSC2, it was
(RA0 to RA5). Apart from the
Because the main output deemed better to buffer it via
change of PIC port register
signal from the MAX038 has a gate IC7b before releasing it to
number, the software routine
peak-to-peak swing of ±1V, it the outside world through socket
that drives the LCD is the
too has to be pre-conditioned via SK4. The output is a 5V square
author’s usual “library” routine.
IC7c before its frequency can be wave.
counted, the routing also being It is worth noting, though,
selected by switches S6 and S5, that because Port A RA4 is an
respectively.
DISPLAY MODULE open-collector pin, resistor R7
As is common with so many has to be used to bias it high in
recent EPE Online PIC projects, order to correctly control LCD
LOGIC OUTPUT an alphanumeric liquid crystal pin D5.
The output from IC7c is display (LCD) is used. This The LCD screen contrast is
additionally fed to socket SK7 shows the frequency count and adjustable by preset VR3.
allowing, for example, the sampling rate, plus the
frequency generated by the generated waveform selected
MAX038 to be used as a 5V and its frequency range (as a POWER SUPPLY
square wave (irrespective of number between 0 and 7, where It is intended that the PIC-
which waveform is being 0 is the lower frequency range). Gen should be powered at 9V,
generated), or for the a.c. signal The information displayed takes either from a 9V battery or a 9V
to be converted to 5V pulses a form similar to: mains power supply (in fact,
(whose width depends on the input supply voltages between
nature of the signal). SINE 25124Hz
about 7V and 12V are
Whilst the MAX038 has its Range4 Time1 sec acceptable). Regulator IC5
own 5V square wave available drops and stabilizes the input
where: supply at 5V. This powers IC3,
at the SYNC pin (when pin +DV
is held high), it was found that o) Line 1 left: waveform IC5 to IC7, and the LCD. These
devices must not be powered
COMPONENTS
Resistors See also the
R1 470 ohms
R2, R4, R5, R7, R10 to R13 10k (8 off) SHOP TALK Page!
R3 10 ohms
R6 1k
R8, R9 100k (2 off)
Potentiometers
VR1 10k panel mounting rotary
or multi-turn linear (see text)
VR2 10k panel mounting rotary lin.
VR3 10k miniature preset, round
Capacitors
C1 to C3, C18 to C24 100u radial
electrolytic, 16V (5 off)
C4, C10 22u radial electrolytic, 10V (2
off)
C5, C7, C15, C19 to C23 100n
ceramic disk, 5mm pitch (8 off)
C6, C16 1u radial electrolytic, 10V (2 off)
C8, C9, C11 10p ceramic disk,
5mm pitch (3 off)
C12 100p ceramic disk, 5mm pitch
C13 1n ceramic disk, 5mm pitch
C14 10n ceramic disk, 5mm pitch
C17 10u radial electrolytic, 10V
Semiconductors
D1 1N4148 signal diode
IC1 MAX660 DC-to-DC converter
IC2 MAX038 function generator
IC3 TL082 dual opamp Completed prototype PCB. Differs
IC4 78L05 +5V voltage regulator
IC5 PIC16F877-4P microcontroller (pre-programmed -- see text) slightly from final model.
IC6 74HC4040 12-stage binary ripple counter
IC7 74HC132 quad dual-input Schmitt NAND gate supply is inverted to become –
IC8 79L05 -5V voltage regulator 9V.
Miscellaneous The MAX660 has a much
S1 to S4 s.p. push-to-make switch (4 off) greater output load capability
S5 to S7 s.p.d.t. miniature toggle switch (3 off)
X1 3.2768MHz crystal
than the more familiar ICL7660
X2 2-line 16-character (per line) LCD module (see text) (and similar) devices, typically
about 100mA as compared with
PCB available from the EPE Online Store (code 7000268) at www.epemag.com. 20mA. ONLY the MAX660
knob (2 off); 8-pin DIL socket (2 off); 14-pin DIL socket; 16-pin DIL socket; 20-pin should be used in the PIC-Gen.
DIL socket; 40-pin DIL socket; 1mm pin header strips (see text); 1mm terminal
pins; It had been expected that
2mm socket (7 off, various colors) (or sockets to suit other equipment); plastic the MAX660 could have been
case, powered by the 5V regulated
205mm x 108mm x 57mm; plastic feet for case (4 off); PCB mounting supports
supply from IC4, producing –5V
(4 off); PP3 battery and clip, or socket to suit external power supply (see text);
as a result. However, the first
Approx.
connecting Cost
Guidance Only
wire; cable ties; solder, etc. case, batts)
(Excluding $90 test model of the PIC-Gen
showed significant instability in
within the PIC-Gen circuit at any the frequency generated when
around IC1 and IC8.
other voltages (normal power this method was used.
supply tolerances apply). IC1 is a MAX660 voltage Investigation showed that the
converter, used here to ripple frequency output by the
The 5V supply is also used generate a negative voltage of MAX660 could not be
by the MAX038, but this device the same (inverse) magnitude dampened sufficiently to prevent
additionally requires a supply of as the voltage at which it is it from modulating the MAX038
–5V. A double-staged circuit is powered. In this instance, the 9V frequency output.
used for this purpose, based
Consequently, it was found
necessary to first generate –9V
and then to regulate and
stabilize it down to –5V using
IC8, a negative voltage
regulator. Further smoothing is
given by the use of resistor R3
and capacitors C23 and C24.
A small instability remains,
believed to be due to the
MAX066’s square wave
oscillator radiating into other
parts of the circuit (an
oscilloscope probe on a range of
10mV just picks up the signal
when held near to the device).
The instability is principally
noticeable at higher MAX038
frequencies.
PROGRAMMING
CONNECTIONS
As is customary with the
author’s recent PIC projects, the
PIC device used in this circuit
can be programmed in-situ on
the printed circuit board. The
usual four connections are
provided, ~MCLR (Vpp), DATA,
CLK, and 0V, accessible via
connector TB2, whose
connections are in the same
now-familiar order. Diode D1
and resistor R6 are part of the
required control configuration.
The EPE PIC Toolkit Mk2 (May/
June ’99) is an ideal
programmer to use.
MISCELLANY
Resistors R10 to R13 are
pull-down resistors to
appropriately bias the respective
PIC input pins when switches S1
to S4 are not pressed. NAND Fig.2. PIC-Gen PCB component layout and (approximately)
gate IC7d has its inputs biassed full-size copper foil master pattern. The numbers at the ends of
to a power line (+5V in this the lead-off wires should terminate at identical points on the
case) as is required for unused front panel (Fig.3).
CMOS gates. Opamp IC3b had
been intended for use as an provided cleaner signal control, count signals having a peak-to-
external analog input amplifier, and at a far higher frequency. peak value less than about 2V,
but it was decided that the they should pre-amplify them
If users need to frequency-
configuration around IC7c first.
Fig.3. Layout and wiring to the front panel (full size) mounted components. The inset panels
show wiring to a multiturn pot and suggested wire groupings.
Only the HC versions of IC6 of a 74LS132 should allow capacitors are used throughout
and IC7 should be used lesser amplitude external the circuit at strategic points on
(74HC4040 and 74HC132). signals to be input to the the PCB.
These are typically capable of frequency counter, typically
handling signals in excess of having a peak-to-peak swing of
40MHz. The “standard” CMOS about 0××8V, although this has not CONSTRUCTION
4040 counter is far too slow to been tried. Details of the component
be usable in this circuit. The use and track layouts for the PIC-
Numerous smoothing
Layout of components and wiring inside the case of the completed prototype PIC-Gen.
There are very minor differences between this and the final wiring diagrams.
Note the various wiring “looms”.
Gen PCB are shown in Fig.2.
This board is available from the
EPE Online Store (code
7000268) at www.epemag.com
The author’s preferred
assembly is in order of link wires
(some go under IC positions), IC When the sampling rate change switch is pressed,
sockets, resistors, diode, small the word “counting” is displayed until the first new
capacitors, and remaining count has been completed. In this instance a 10-
components in ascending order
second sampling rate has been selected.
of size. Do not insert the DIL
(dual-in-line) ICs at this stage. Table 1: PIC16F877 configuration bits.
Ensure that all polarized
components are orientated as CP1 CP0 DBG NIL WRT CPD LVP BOR CP1 CP0 POR WDT OS1 OS0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
shown in Fig.2.
Pin-header strips were used
for terminal groups TB1 and of signals interacting with each converter IC1 and check that a
TB2. The order of these other through the interwiring, negative voltage equivalent to
connections is identical to that several “harness” groups were the applied power supply is
used in the author’s recent PIC used, keeping potentially present at it’s output (i.e. –9V for
projects. Details of the source interactive signal paths apart as a +9V supply). Check that –5V
for the LCD module complete seemed reasonable. The groups is present at the output of
with matching connector are can be seen in the photograph, regulator IC8 and at the pin 20
given on this month’s Shoptalk and they are itemized by position of the socket for IC2.
page. connection number in the If all is satisfactory, the
second insert of Fig.3. remaining ICs and the LCD can
The prototype PIC-Gen is
housed in a plastic case Several cable ties are used be inserted. Only one LCD line
measuring 205mm x 108mm x to keep each group separately will be active until the PIC is
57mm. The layout and harnessed. running. Adjust preset VR3 until
interwiring of the off-board the active pixels are seen as
components on the rear of the slightly darkened rectangles, or
case’s front panel are shown in
CHECK-OUT the displayed text is clearly
Fig.3. The illustration is to scale. During the checking-out of visible if the PIC is running.
(Note that the photographs show the circuit, power should always If not already programmed,
slightly different panel wiring to be switched off before inserting the PIC can have its program
that in Fig.3.) ICs or making other alterations. downloaded to it on the PIC-Gen
A choice of frequency Switch off immediately if the board from a suitable PIC
control potentiometer is offered. circuit does not behave as programmer, connecting the
The illustration in Fig.3 shows expected, rechecking your programmer via pin header TB2.
the connections for VR1 as a assembly for errors.
The PIC configuration
standard single-turn carbon Assuming that you have (initialization) required is the PIC
rotary potentiometer. The inset thoroughly checked that you Toolkit Mk2 default as shown in
shows the typical connections have not made assembly or Table 1.
for a multiturn (10-turn in the soldering errors, the first check
should be with the LCD and all Once programmed, the PIC
prototype) wirewound
ICs omitted except the two should immediately start running
potentiometer.
regulators IC4 and IC8. and a set of data similar to that
The standard pot is the least previously discussed should be
expensive choice but does not With power applied, check seen. Set switches S5 and S6
allow the same degree of that +5V is present at the output so that the frequency being
frequency setting precision as of IC4 and at strategic points generated by IC2 is being
the more-expensive multiturn around the PCB (referring to monitored. Observe the results
pot. both Fig.1 and Fig.2). when different waveforms,
To minimize the possibility Insert the negative voltage frequency ranges and sampling
rates are selected using
switches S1 to S4 and with the and switch S5 to minimize the Data sheets for the MAX038
frequency control potentiometer risk of IC7a becoming and MAX660 can be
VR1 at various settings. distressed by negative-going or downloaded from Maxim’s web
If you have an oscilloscope, over-voltage signals.) site at www.maxim-ic.com
monitor the waveforms output at Once fully checked, the PIC- Data sheets for the
all settings and from all panel Gen is ready to be put into PIC16F877 (and other PIC
outputs. Additionally check the general workshop use. products) can be downloaded
two inputs, using an external from Microchip’s web site at
signal generator. Outputs Out www.microchip.com
Direct and AC Out should only RESOURCES
be fed into the AC Input (do not The software for the PIC-
feed them into the Logic Input Gen is available for free
because of their negative-going downloaded from the EPE
content). Obline library at
(You may prefer to insert a www.epemag.com. The
1k resistor between socket SK1 program is written in TASM.
EE213 135 Hunter Street, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs. DE14 2ST
Tel 01283 565435 Fax 546932
http://www.magenta2000.co.uk
E-mail: sales@magenta2000.co.uk
All Prices include V.A.T. Add £3.00 per order p&p. £6.99 next day
MAIL ORDER ONLY • CALLERS BY APPOINTMENT
EPE MICROCONTROLLER PIC PIPE DESCALER
P.I. TREASURE HUNTER
The latest MAGENTA DESIGN – highly
• SIMPLE TO BUILD
• HIGH POWER OUTPUT
• SWEPT
FREQUENCY
EPE
stable & sensitive – with I.C. control
of all timing functions and advanced
pulse separation techniques.
• AUDIO & VISUAL MONITORING
An affordable circuit which sweeps
the incoming water supply with
TEACH-IN
• High stability
drift cancelling
variable frequency electromagnetic
signals. May reduce scale formation,
dissolve existing scale and improve
2000
• Easy to build lathering ability by altering the way Full set of top quality NEW
salts in the water behave.
& use Kit includes case, P.C.B, coupling components for this educational
• No ground coil and all components. series. All parts as specified by
effect, works High coil current ensures maximum
effect. L.E.D. monitor EPE. Kit includes breadboard,
in seawater
KIT 868 .........£22.95 POWER UNIT.........£3.99 wire, croc clips, pins and all
components for experiments, as
• Detects gold, listed in Introduction to Part 1.
silver, ferrous & MICRO PEsT *Batteries and tools not included.
non-ferrous
metals SCARER
• Efficient quartz controlled Our latest design – The ultimate TEACH-IN 2000 –
scarer for the garden. Uses
microcontroller pulse generation. special microchip to give random KIT 879 £44.95
• Full kit with headphones & all delay and pulse time. Easy to
hardware build reliable circuit. Keeps pets/ MULTIMETER £14.45
pests away from newly sown areas,
KIT 847......................£63.95 play areas, etc. Uses power source
from 9 to 24 volts.
PORTABLE ULTRASONIC • RANDOM PULSES
SPACEWRITER
An innovative and exciting
PEsT SCARER • HIGH POWER project. Wave the wand through
A powerful 23kHz ultrasound generator in • DUAL OPTION Plug-in power supply £4.99 the air and your message appears.
Programmable to hold any message
a compact hand-held case. MOSFET output KIT 867................................£19.99 up to 16 digits long. Comes pre-loaded
drives a special sealed transducer with in- with ‘‘MERRY XMAS’’. Kit includes
tense pulses via a special tuned transformer. KIT+SLAVE UNIT...................£32.50 PCB, all components & tube plus
Sweeping frequency output is designed to instructions for message loading.
give maximum output without any special
setting up.
WINDICATOR KIT 849.......................£16.99
A novel wind speed indicator with LED readout. Kit comes
KIT 842........................£22.56 complete with sensor cups, and weatherproof sensing 12V EPROM ERASER
head. Mains power unit £5.99 extra. A safe low cost eraser for up to 4 EPROMS at a time
in less than 20 minutes. Operates from a 12V supply
KIT 856...........................................£28.00 (400mA). Used extensively for mobile work – up-
dating equipment in the field etc. Also in educa-
TENS UNIT
tional situations where mains supplies are not al-
lowed. Safety interlock prevents contact with UV.
KIT 790............................£29.90
SEE ICEBREAK AD DUAL OUTPUT TENS UNIT Set of
PAGE 367 As featured in March ’97 issue. 4 spare

electrodes
SUPER BAT
Magenta have prepared a FULL KIT for this
excellent new project. All components, PCB,
£6.50
DETECTOR
DC Motor/Gearboxes hardware and electrodes are included. 1 WATT O/P, BUILT IN
Our Popular and Versatile DC Designed for simple assembly and testing and
motor/Gearbox sets. providing high level dual output drive. SPEAKER, COMPACT CASE
Ideal for Models, Robots,
Buggies etc. 1·5 to 4·5V KIT 866.... Full kit including four electrodes £32.90 20kHz-140kHz
Multi ratio gearbox
gives wide range of speeds.
NEW DESIGN WITH 40kHz MIC.
LARGE TYPE – MGL £6.95
1000V & 500V INSULATION A new circuit using a ‘full bridge’ audio
SMALL – MGS – £4.77 TESTER amplifier i.c., internal
speaker, and head-
Superb new design. Regulated phone/tape socket. The
Stepping Motors output, efficient circuit. Dual-
latest sensitive transducer,
scale meter, compact case.
Reads up to 200 Megohms. and ‘double balanced mixer’
MD38...Mini 48 step...£8.65 Kit includes wound coil, cut-out give a stable, high peformance
MD35...Std 48 step...£9.99 case, meter scale, PCB & ALL superheterodyne design.
MD200...200 step...£12.99 components. KIT 861.......................£24.99
MD24...Large 200 step...£22.95 KIT 848...................£32.95 ALSO AVAILABLE Built & Tested ....£39.99
MOSFET MkII VARIABLE BENCH EPE ULTRASONIC PEsT SCARER

POWER SUPPLY 0-25V 2·5A. Keep pets/pests away from
Based on our Mk1 design
and preserving all the
PROJECT newly sown areas, fruit,
vegetable and flower beds,
children’s play areas, patios
features, but now with
switching pre-regulator for PICs etc. This project produces
intense pulses of ultrasound
much higher efficiency. Panel Programmed PICs for which deter visiting animals.
meters indicate Volts and all* EPE Projects • KIT INCLUDES ALL
Amps. Fully variable down to 16C84/16F84/16C71 COMPONENTS, PCB & CASE
zero. Toroidal mains trans-
former. Kit includes punched All £5.90 each • EFFICIENT 100V
and printed case and all PIC16F877 now in stock TRANSDUCER OUTPUT • UP TO 4 METRES
parts. As featured in April • COMPLETELY INAUDIBLE RANGE
1994 EPE. An essential piece
£10 inc. VAT & postage TO HUMANS • LOW CURRENT DRAIN
(*some projects are
of equipment. Kit No. 845.................£64.95
copyright)
KIT 812...............................................£15.00
328 Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2000
SIMPLE PIC PROGRAMMER EPE PIC Tutorial
INCREDIBLE LOW PRICE! Kit 857 £12.99
At Last! A Real, Practical, Hands-On Series
INCLUDES 1-PIC16F84 CHIP
SOFTWARE DISK, LEAD
Power Supply £3.99 ɀ Learn Programming from scratch using PIC16F84
CONNECTOR, PROFESSIONAL EXTRA CHIPS:
PC BOARD & INSTRUCTIONS ɀ Start by lighting l.e.d.s and do 30 tutorials to Sound
PIC 16F84 £4.84 Generation, Data Display, and a Security System
Based on February ’96 EPE. Magenta designed PCB and kit.
PCB with ‘Reset’ switch, Program switch, 5V regulator and
ɀ PIC TUTOR Board with Switches, l.e.d.s, and on board
test L.E.D.s, and connection points for access to all A and B programmer
port pins.
PIC TUTOR BOARD KIT
PIC16C84 LCD DISPLAY DRIVER Includes: PIC16F84 Chip, TOP Quality PCB printed with
Component Layout and all components* (*not ZIF
INCLUDES 1-PIC16F84
WITH DEMO PROGRAM
Kit 860 £19.99 Socket or Displays). Included with the Magenta Kit is a
disk with Test and Demonstration routines.
SOFTWARE DISK, PCB, Power Supply £3.99 KIT 870 ...... £27.95, Built & Tested ...... £42.95
INSTRUCTIONS AND FULL PROGRAM SOURCE Optional: Power Supply – £3.99, ZIF Socket – £9.99
16-CHARACTER 2-LINE CODE SUPPLIED – DEVELOP LCD Display ................£7.99 LED Display ..............£6.99
LCD DISPLAY YOUR OWN APPLICATION! Reprints Mar/Apr/May 98 – £3.00 set 3
Another super PIC project from Magenta. Supplied with PCB,

industry standard 2-LINE x 16-character display, data, all PIC TOOLKIT V2
components, and software to include in your own programs. ɀ SUPER UPGRADE FROM V1 ɀ 18, 28 AND 40-PIN CHIPS
Ideal develpment base for meters, terminals, calculators, ɀ READ, WRITE, ASSEMBLE & DISASSEMBLE PICS
ɀ SIMPLE POWER SUPPLY OPTIONS 5-20V
counters, timers – Just waiting for your application! ɀ ALL SWITCHING UNDER SOFTWARE CONTROL
ɀ MAGENTA DESIGNED PCB HAS TERMINAL PINS AND OSCILLATOR
PIC16F84 MAINS POWER 4-CHANNEL CONNECTIONS FOR ALL CHIPS
ɀ INCLUDES SOFTWARE AND PIC CHIP
CONTROLLER & LIGHT CHASER KIT 878 . . . £22.99 with 16F84 . . . £29.99 with 16F877
ɀ WITH PROGRAMMED 16F84 AND DISK WITH
SOURCE CODE IN MPASM
ɀ ZERO VOLT SWITCHING
Now features full 4-channel
chaser software on DISK
SUPER PIC PROGRAMMER
MULTIPLE CHASE PATTERNS and pre-programmed ɀ READS, PROGRAMS, AND VERIFIES
ɀ OPTO ISOLATED PIC16F84 chip. Easily
ɀ WINDOWS↨ SOFTWARE
5 AMP OUTPUTS re-programmed for your
ɀ 12 KEYPAD CONTROL
own applications. Software ɀ PIC16C6X, 7X, AND 8X
ɀ SPEED/DIMMING POT.
source code is fully
‘commented’ so that it can
ɀ USES ANY PC PARALLEL PORT
ɀ HARD FIRED TRIACS be followed easily. ɀ USES STANDARD MICROCHIP ɀ HEX FILES
ɀ OPTIONAL DISASSEMBLER SOFTWARE (EXTRA)
Kit 855 £39.95 LOTS OF OTHER APPLICATIONS ɀ PCB, LEAD, ALL COMPONENTS, TURNED PIN
SOCKETS FOR 18, 28, AND 40 PIN ICs.
PIC TOOLKIT V1
ɀ PROGRAMS PIC16C84 and 16F84 ɀ ACCEPTS TASM AND MPASM CODE ɀ SEND FOR DETAILED
Kit 862 £29.99
Full kit includes PIC16F84 chip, top quality p.c.b. printed with component INFORMATION – A
layout, turned pin PIC socket, all components and software* Power Supply £3.99
*Needs QBASIC or QUICKBASIC SUPERB PRODUCT AT AN
UNBEATABLE LOW PRICE. DISASSEMBLER
KIT 871 . . . £13.99. Built and tested £21.99 SOFTWARE £11.75
PhizzyB ALL PARTS FOR SERIES INCLUDING PCBs,

PROGRAMMED CHIP, CD-ROM AND DISPLAYS PIC STEPPING MOTOR DRIVER
MAIN BOARD – FULL KIT £131.95 BUILT .......... £149.95
I/O PORT KIT ................... £16.99 BUILT ............ £24.99 INCLUDES: PCB,
PIC16F84 WITH
Kit 863 £18.99
L.C.D. ............................... £12.49 POWER SUPPLY .. £3.99 DEMO PROGRAM,
SOFTWARE DISK, FULL SOURCE CODE SUPPLIED.
8-BIT SWITCH/LATCH ..... £7.95 INT. MODULE . £10.45 INSTRUCTIONS ALSO USE FOR DRIVING OTHER
AND MOTOR. POWER DEVICES e.g. SOLENOIDS.
68000 DEVELOPMENT
TRAINING KIT
AND
KIT 621 Another NEW Magenta PIC project. Drives any 4-phase unipolar motor – up
ɀ NEW PCB DESIGN £99.95 to 24V and 1A. Kit includes all components and 48 step motor. Chip is
ɀ 8 MHz 68000 16-BIT BUS pre-programmed with demo software, then write your own, and re-program
ɀ MANUAL AND SOFTWARE
ɀ ON BOARD the same chip! Circuit accepts inputs from switches etc and drives motor in
ɀ 2 SERIAL PORTS 5V REGULATOR response. Also runs standard demo sequence from memory.
ɀ PIT AND I/O PORT OPTIONS ɀ PSU £6.99
ɀ I2C PORT OPTIONS ɀ SERIAL LEAD £3.99
8-CHANNEL DATA LOGGER
Mini-Lab & Micro Lab As featured in Aug./Sept. ’99 EPE. Full kit with Magenta
redesigned PCB – LCD fits directly on board. Use as Data
Electronics Teach-In 7 Logger or as a test bed for many other 16F877 projects. Kit
includes programmed chip, 8 EEPROMs, PCB, case and all components.
As featured in EPE and now
published as Teach-In 7. All KIT 877 £49.95 inc. 8 x 256K EEPROMS
parts
are supplied by Magenta.
Teach-In 7 is £3.95 from us or
EPE
Full Mini Lab Kit – £119.95 –
Power supply extra – £22.55
Full Micro Lab Kit – £155.95
Built Micro Lab – £189.95
All pricesinclude VAT. Add £3.00 p&p. Next Day £6.99
Tel: 01283 565435 Fax: 01283 546932 E-mail: sales@magenta2000.co.uk
Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2000 329

ROLL-UP, ROLL-UP! Win a Pico PC-Based Oscilloscope
Ingenuity is our regular round-up of readers' own • 50MSPS Dual Channel Storage
circuits. We pay between $16 and $80 for all material Oscilloscope
published, depending on length and technical merit. • 25MHz Spectrum Analyzer
We're looking for novel applications and circuit tips, not
simply mechanical or electrical ideas. Ideas must be the • Multimeter
reader's own work and must not have been submitted • Frequency Meter
for publication elsewhere. The circuits shown have • Signal Generator
NOT been proven by us. Ingenuity Unlimited is open to
ALL abilities, but items for consideration in this column If you have a novel circuit idea which
should preferably be typed or word-processed, with a would be of use to other readers, then a Pico
brief circuit description (between 100 and 500 words Technology PC based oscilloscope could be
maximum) and full circuit diagram showing all relevant yours.
component values. Please draw all circuit schematics Every six months, Pico Technology will be
as clearly as possible. awarding an ADC200-50 digital storage oscil-
Send your circuit ideas to: Alan Winstanley, Ingenuity loscope for the best IU submission. In addition,
Unlimited, Wimborne Publishing Ltd., Allen House, East two single channel ADC-40s will be presented
Borough, Wimborne, Dorset BH21 1PF. They could earn to the runners up.
you some real cash and a prize!
tive AC field detector with a vice may be used to detect hid-

Multi-Purpose AC Detec- range of a few meters. den AC wiring.
tor/Switch – Dig Those
If an optional coil L1 is con- As an Alarm Trigger, almost
Fields nected as a sensor (a loud- any metal object may be at-
The circuit diagram shown speaker coil is fairly effective), tached to the circuit as a sensor
in Fig. 1 has potential uses as piezo disc X1 will emit a Geiger- – a door knob, a toaster, or that
an AC Field Detector, a touch counter-like sound in the pres- precious can of premium beer.
alarm trigger, or as a touch-on ence of an AC field as one Static sensitive materials may
touch-off switch. The first stage moves through the home. With also be found to work (e.g. a
of the circuit, based upon the correct setting of poten- synthetic tablecloth). With switch
opamp IC1a, serves as a sensi- tiometers VR1 and VR2, the de- S1 closed, relay contacts RLA1
Fig.1. Circuit diagram for the Multi-Purpose AC Detector/Touch Switch.
Ingenuity Unlimited
momentarily close and open The main function of flip-flop should operate successfully in
again when the sensor is IC2a is to prevent the circuit most (though perhaps not all)
touched, thus serving as a trig- from re-triggering itself through positions in the home.
ger. When S1 is open, the circuit stray pick-up from the relay. Although the circuit is sensi-
acts as a sensitive and reliable IC2a masks such pick-up for a tive, there is virtually no spurious
Touch-On Touch-Off switch. fraction of a second when the triggering, all leads should be
Opamp IC1a is wired as an relay switches. It also serves to kept short. With a large 9V PP9
oscillator, carefully tuned by VR1 select trigger or touch-on/touch- battery, the detector/trigger/
and VR2 so that it is just reluc- off modes through switch S1. switch will remain on standby for
tant to oscillate. The value of Piezoelectric disc X1 is in- up to 2 months. A connection
resistor R2 is high, so that IC1a cluded to monitor whether IC1a may be taken from point ‘A’ to
is sensitive to stray pick-up by is breaking into oscillation. Light- most CMOS logic inputs.
the sensor, which biases the os- emitting diode D2 indicates
cillator into operation. IC1b is when IC1b goes high. Note that Rev. Thos. Scarborough
wired as a simple comparator, the circuit is obviously depen- Fresnaye, Cape Town
which detects a rise in voltage in dent on the electromagnetic field South Africa
capacitor C2 and provides a generated by the AC mains, and
clear logic high or low output at will only operate in the vicinity of
point ‘A’. AC wiring or appliances. It
Versatile Car Interior

Light Delay – Light Work
Many cars manufactured
these days include an interior
light (“dome light” in the USA)
delay unit as a standard feature,
but the circuit diagram of Fig. 2
was devised to fit an older vehi-
cle without one. The unit uses a
555 timer in its astable mode
and a useful automatic cancel
feature is also included.
On opening a car door, relay
RLA is energized via diode D4
which grounds the relay coil to
the car chassis (0V) through the
normally-closed door pillar
switch. The interior light remains
on for as long as the door re-
mains open. The Reset (pin 4)
on timer IC1 is grounded until
Fig.2. Circuit diagram for a Versatile Car interior Light Delay.
the door is closed, when it goes
to +12V via resistor R3, so the (Be aware that altering the vehicle wiring may invalidate any
timing cycle starts. warranty – check first.)
The relay is now “latched low, which turns off TR1, caus- Run-On
on” via contacts RLA2, the sup- ing the relay to unlatch and
ply to the 0V side of its coil now switch off the interior light. A The problem of the light
being maintained by transistor fairly long ON period can be staying on after driving off is
TR1 which itself is kept in the used to allow time for the pre- overcome by transistor TR2
conducting state by resistor R1. driving-off activities of fastening which conducts as soon as the
After a pre-set interval (usually 1 seat belts, loading audio cas- starter is operated, so switching
to 3 minutes is about right), de- settes or CDs, or applying off TR1 and the relay as before.
termined by the RC network on make-up! The addition of pushbutton
IC1, the output at pin 3 goes switches S1 and S2 as indepen-
Ingenuity Unlimited
dent On and Off switches allows down a door pillar) and the use timer circuit, a loop of suitable
the light to be operated with the of appropriate male, female and wire could be added while the
engine running which is useful if piggy-back spade connectors, starter switch is exposed, fitted
the driver needs to stop briefly to the unit can be installed without with a concealed switch (S3) to
look at directions for example, or cutting existing wiring to the provide added security against
to switch off the light after allow- light. The only additional con- the vehicle being started by an
ing a passenger to get in or out nections required are an Earth unauthorized key holder.
of the vehicle. to the vehicle body and a
“Scotch-lok” splice to the starter Andrew R.G.Calder
By threading the extra wires Leigh, Lancs, UK
down the same route as the ex- feed from the ignition switch.
isting wiring to the light (usually Although not part of the
Musical Chip Amplifier –

Loud and Clear
Musical greeting cards in-
corporate a “chip-on-board”
(COB) device which plays a tune
through a piezo disc when the
card is opened. The card actu-
ally acts as a resonator, which
contributes considerably to the
volume of the tune.
The circuit diagram shown
Fig.3a. Simple “greeting card” Musical Chip Amplifier
in Fig. 3a is a simple amplifier,
which will allow a musical chip to circuit diagram.
be played over a conventional
loudspeaker instead. It was peaking inductor to increase the
found that the chip would run voltage swing still further. A
from 4××5V (three button cells), “ringing choke” (L1) load can be
hence it was felt worth con- added (see Fig. 3b), which could
structing a simple bridge ampli- perhaps be sufficient to drive a
fier to try to double the voltage logic-compatible MOSFET tran-
swing across the loudspeaker sistor, which has a gate opti-
coil. It was constructed using mized for a +5V drive signal
parts to hand and none of the (e.g. BSS98, ZVN4206, 2SK940
transistor types are critical, nei- etc.). The inductor L1 should
ther is the loudspeaker type. have as large a value as possi-
ble, using trial and error.
Some circuits require a pull-
Fig.3b. using an inductor L1
up or pull-down resistor on the I. Field,
output of the chip. If so, this pro- to increase the output
Letchworth, Herts, UK
vides an opportunity to add a voltage.
my own experience with SCSI, I

Narrow SCSI Active Ter- have found that “active” termina-
SCSI only, not the differential
minator – Cheaper Solu- SCSI Host Adapters.
tors are the better ones to use,
tion but such devices are often ex- As can be seen, the design
pensive for what they are. is very straightforward, and uses
If you are using more than the simple Zener regulation
one SCSI device in your home The circuit diagram of Fig. 4
method to hold the SCSI signals
PC, you will probably be aware shows how to construct an Ac-
at about 3××3V (the inactive
that terminating the SCSI bus is tive Terminator for an 8-Bit SCSI
Bus (Narrow SCSI). Note the state). The 220 ohm pull-up re-
essential to ensure reliable com-
terminator is for Single-Ended sistors limit the current to about
munication across the Bus. In
25mA when the SCSI signals
Ingenuity Unlimited
become active and fall to
ground.
The IDC plug used in the
main diagram shows the con-
nections for an internal termina-
tor and the Centronics plug in
diagram Fig.5 shows the con-
nections for an external termina-
tor often used with Scanners
and other peripherals.
Paul Entwistle
Bolton, Lancs, UK
Fig.4. Circuit diagram for an 8-bit Narrow SCSI Active Termi-

nator. The terminator is for Single-Ended SCSI only, not the
differential SCSI Host adapters.
Fig.5 (right). Connection de-

tails for a Centronics
50-way male plug external
terminator.
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
DETECTOR by KEITH GARWELL - PART 2
Investigate Nature’s power-house with this intriguing This means that the meter
experimental design. unit’s output of +5V or –5V can
be read and is very helpful when
Last month we dealt with the can be very difficult to make trying to back off the plate
Meter Interface Buffer and Dual- head or tail of them. voltage with the high voltage
Voltage Power Supply circuits A pair of moving coil meters supply. When voltages of
together with suggested are required with a full scale of greater than 5V are present at
stripboard constructional details. 0××1 milliamps. These are usually the meter output, S2 can be
We conclude this month with around 1000 ohms or less in turned off so that the full range
meter switching, module resistance, which is small (10V) of the meter is available.
interconnections and probe enough to be ignored for this Switch S1 is used to reverse the
details. exercise. The scale will normally meter connections if necessary.
be marked with 0 to 10 with 0××2 Meter ME2 is also a 0××1
intervals. milliamp meter which is used to
SYSTEM METERING measure the high voltage supply
Meter ME1 in Fig.8 is used
Moving coil meters are the with a 10 volt scale to show the output. It is very helpful if this
favorite for this application as they output of the high resistance meter is marked 0 to 3, and
show more clearly the activity that meter and is provided with a there are some meters about
is taking place. Digital voltmeters center zero facility, and a which have two scales 0 to 10
(DVMs) are fine in some respects reversing facility. Included along and 0 to 3. The alternative is to
but when the voltage is changing with the meter and its switches do the arithmetic, i.e. multiply
rapidly (as it often is in this caper) is a 2-cell AA size battery pack the reading by 30 if it is
the digits just whirl about and it which is switched into effect by calibrated 0 to 10.
S2 to give half scale deflection It is entirely up to the user
i.e. center zero. Preset VR2 is how the “metering” is arranged.
used to adjust the reading to 5, In the prototype, the meters are
the half-way mark. separate, but it could be more
convenient to build them into a
Fig.8. Circuit diagram for the Fig.9. Schematic illustrating the connections dis-
twin meters. tributed from the power supply.
dedicated unit. It depends to be the monkey in the cage!), and the dual supply should all be
whether you have other uses for but he has noticed that walls in the same box, with just the
them, and they do require the seem to provide protection, controls and the 7-pin DIN
largest capital outlay of the whether glazed or brick. connector to connect to the meter
whole project. The 0V line of the 12V circuit showing, plus some means
power supply source and the of easily removing the battery (or
case MUST BE CONNECTED connecting to it) for charging.
INTERCONNECTIONS TO GROUND. If the 12V supply Sealed versions of lead acid
So far we have discussed is derived from a mains power batteries are available which can
the various units in isolation, and supply rather than a battery, be mounted in any position. A
they must be brought together to then the mains earth will be whole range is available from
implement Fig.1 (last month). sufficient, but check that there is about 0××5Ah upwards (YUASA
The interconnections no significant voltage between range). If such a battery is used, it
between the various system this and true ground. If a battery must be provided with a suitably
components are shown in Fig.9. is being used for the 12V supply rated fuse (100mA) as they are
There are three controls, an on/ then an earth connection must capable of very high currents
off switch (S4) and a reversing be made to the 0V line. If no under fault conditions.
switch (S3) to change the other is available an earth spike The author has two separate
potentials of the high voltage must be used, driven into the power supplies available, a mains
supply, plus a rotary control ground beside the unit. DO NOT only unit, and a battery powered
(VR3) to adjust the voltage earth the 0V line of the ±14V unit which can also be connected
supplied to the monitoring supply. to the mains (the latter is
system. There are also the two effectively a no-break 12V
moving coil meters, ME1 and supply), with the option for
ME2, connected as shown CONSTRUCTION supplying 12V at 100mA or
earlier in Fig.8. An aluminum box about 500mA.
Switches S3 and S4 must 120mm x 120mm x 50mm deep
There are various aluminum
be rated at least at 250V AC. was used for the prototype
boxes available and one
The current involved is only a power supply, its controls and
convenient form is a two-part unit
few microamps. connectors.
where the top (lid) is formed into a
A 6-way cable (low voltage) The panel layout is open to U-section and fits over the base,
with a 7-pin DIN plug at either the constructor’s preference and which has sides formed and an
end connects this unit with the no layout is offered. In the edging with fixing holes to fasten
meter interface unit and needs prototype the connectors are at the top. One of these was used
to be long enough to enable the the top of the panel and the for the meter unit, and another for
user to be well away from the controls below. the high voltage power supply and
plate when it is being used for For a portable unit perhaps controls.
atmospheric measurements, 15 a 12V lead acid battery, meters
meters for example.
It must be pointed out that
the sensitivity of the meter unit
allows it to detect the static on
the author’s clothes at 10
meters, and don’t try using the
unit if there’s any washing
hanging on the line – the pinging
noise made by the meter
becomes quite audible! Arrange
to share the good days with wife
and family!
The author has not tried
screening the system between
himself and the probe (he Fig.10. Block diagram illustrating the cabled interconnections
doesn’t think he’s really cut out between the various units.
Fig.11. Details of the sug-

gested sensor probe plate.
prepare the probes.
Close up details of the constructed power supply board.

PROBES
However you decide to mark. Refit the cover. The probe suggested in
house it, once the building work Fig.1 last month is the author’s
Now fit the short coaxial principal tool. As the illustration
is finished it is time for testing. connector with about 6cm of coax
Thoroughly check all suggests, it is nothing more than
cable attached to it, and a a piece of aluminum 316mm
connections, particularly the 0V crocodile clip at the far end of the
line. At this stage don’t connect square, which gives one tenth of
cable. The screening is removed a square meter in area.
the meter unit or its cable. for about 30mm to allow the clip
It is recommended that a to be fitted. The corners are just nicked
regulated and current-protected with tin snips or a fine saw from
The meter needle should the corner towards the center for
(at about 100mA) 12V power wander back and forth as you
supply should be used while about a centimeter and then the
move around the unit. The next four edges are just dressed
testing the units. step is to check the calibration, down a little way. This both
With power switched on, the which requires another meter, stiffens the plate and prevents it
output of the high voltage meter preferably a DVM, and two or fluttering in the wind, see Fig.11.
should be adjustable (using three test voltages of between 0V
VR3) between about 0V and and 5V. The latter can be It is supported on 41mm,
300V. Note that 0V might not be achieved by using three single outside diameter, standard
reached and that the minimum cells or a battery with a plastic waste pipe and
might be nearer to 5V. potentiometer across it. connector, both obtainable at
any DIY store.
If this is OK so far, check By this means apply voltages
the low voltage (nominally ±14V) between the meter unit input and The connector was first cut
outputs at pins 2, 3 and 4 of the the 0V line of the 12V supply. in half, the sealing rings
7-pin connector SK2. Check on both polarities and on removed, and then glued to the
the agreement between meter center of the metal plate using
Fit the two AA cells to the hot-melt glue. The pipe was
ME1 and the DVM. Don’t be
low voltage meter ME1 and then pushed into the connector.
surprised by slight irregularities,
switch on S2. Adjust VR2 to give
moving coil meters are not In a very similar way, the
exactly half scale (5V).
perfect. base for the pipe was made
Connect the meter interface from a piece of chipboard,
To make checks above 5V up
unit and open the case just 380mm x 280mm x 20mm. This
to 10V, the meter’s center zero
enough to get at its off-set was just a scrap found in the
will have to be switched off and
balance adjustment preset VR1 workshop and its thickness
the full scale used.
and adjust it to give zero output, makes it heavy enough to be a
i.e. the meter needle on the 5V If this is OK, you can now firm support. Screwed to the
Meter interface unit connected to the sen- Details of the meter interface unit and the in-
sor probe plate. terconnecting probe clip.
center of this is a “socket” made require alternative lengths of

from another scrap of wood perhaps 0××5 and 1××5 meters.
about 100mm x 100mm x
Connection between the
45mm.
plate and the meter unit is made
A 41mm diameter hole was by means of the short length of
drilled into this block, which was coaxial cable with its plug at one
then screwed to the chipboard. It end and a crocodile clip at the
provides a firm fit when the pipe other, the latter clips on to a
is pushed in and there is no small screw on the underside of
tendency to wobble. the plate.
The pipe can be cut to This arrangement works
length as required – the well and the pieces (plate, pipe
“standard” length is one meter, and base) need only to be
the length used for reference connected together as and when
readings, but experiments may required. Several lengths of pipe
allow measurements to be taken
at different heights. Fig.12. Alternative sensor
plate support construction.
ALTERNATIVE was taking place. A quick wave
SUPPORT of a hair drier warmed the pipe
enough to stop the
The simple arrangement
condensation, but the readings
described has two
were still nonsense. It eventually
shortcomings. A change in
became apparent that
height requires a change in the
condensation was taking place
supporting pipe and, as the
on the inside of the pipe as well!
values being measured can
change quite quickly, it would be In a sense, these are trivial
nice to be able to change the problems, one of which only
height quickly. occurs when it’s cold and damp,
but it was still thought desirable
Secondly, it is necessary to
to avoid the support problem
be aware of the possibility of
altogether. As a consequence,
condensation on the surfaces of
The author’s prototype the arrangement shown in
the pipe. On one occasion when
Fig.12 was invented.
single-plate atmospheric de- the readings didn’t make sense
tection platform it was realized that condensation No support is used as the
plate is suspended and can be So do the meter needles! We will be happy to
raised or lowered by shortening Ah well, there are times published any feedback from
or lengthening the guy line when when you can’t win them all, but readers through our Readout
the whole affair tips backwards it otherwise does the job it’s column. Ed.
or forwards on its foot. It all meant to. Do any readers have
works like a charm – until there any bright ideas to steady the
is a breeze when the plate plate?
waves around like a mad thing!
AUTHOR’S WEB SITE

This equipment is referred to on the author’s in particular the meteorological site at Reading
web site under Atmospheric Electricity, and which University: www.met.reading.a.c.uk
is kept updated with developments: The UK Meteorological Office site is at
http://members.tripod.co.uk/GarwellK www.meto.gov.uk
The author would also be pleased hear from The equivalent US site (National Oceanic and
you via his E-mail address at: kgar- Atmospheric administration) is at www.noaa.gov
well@hotmail.com
There are many other sites dealing with Atmo-
spheric Electricity which are well worth a browse –
Established 1990
QUASAR ELECTRONICS
Unit 14 Sunningdale, BISHOPS STORTFORD, Herts. CM23 2PA
SURVEILLANCE
High performance surveillance bugs. Room transmitters supplied with sensitive electret microphone & battery holder/clip. All trans-
TEL: 01279 306504 FAX: 0870 7064222 mitters can be received on an ordinary VHF/FM radio between 88-108MHz. Available in Kit Form (KT) or Assembled & Tested (AS).
ADD £2.00 P&P to all orders (or 1st Class Recorded £4, Next day ROOM SURVEILLANCE TELEPHONE SURVEILLANCE
* MTX - MINIATURE 3V TRANSMITTER * MTTX - MINIATURE TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER
(Insured £250) £7, Europe £4.00, Rest of World £6.00). We accept all Easy to build & guaranteed to transmit 300m @ 3V. Long bat- Attaches anywhere to phone line. Transmits only when phone
major credit cards. Make cheques/PO's payable to Quasar Electronics. tery life. 3-5V operation. Only 45x18mm. * 3007KT £5.95 is used! Tune-in your radio and hear both parties. 300m range.
Prices include 17.5% VAT. MAIL ORDER ONLY AS3007 £10.95 Uses line as aerial & power source. 20x45mm. 3016KT £7.95
FREE CATALOGUE with order or send 2 x 1st class stamps MRTX - MINIATURE 9V TRANSMITTER AS3016 £13.95
(refundable) for details of over 150 kits & publications. Our best selling bug. Super sensitive, high power - 500m range * TRI - TELEPHONE RECORDING INTERFACE
@ 9V (over 1km with 18V supply and better aerial). 45x19mm. Automatically record all conversations. Connects between
3018KT £6.95 AS3018 £11.95 phone line & tape recorder (not supplied). Operates recorders
PROJECT KITS
OUR PROJECT KITS COME COMPLETE WITH ALL COMPONENTS,
HPTX - HIGH POWER TRANSMITTER
High performance, 2 stage
transmitter gives greater
with 1.5-12V battery systems. Powered from line. 50x33mm.
3033KT £7.95 AS3033 £16.95
* TPA - TELEPHONE PICK-UP AMPLIFIER/WIRELESS
stability & higher quality PHONE BUG
HIGH QUALITY PCBs, DETAILED ASSEMBLY/OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS reception. 1000m range 6- Place pick-up coil on the phone line or near phone earpiece
12V DC operation. Size and hear both sides of the conversation. 3055KT £10.95
* 2 x 25W CAR BOOSTER AMPLIFIER Connects to SPEED CONTROLLER for any common DC motor up 70x15mm. 3032KT £8.95 AS3055 £19.95
the output of an existing car stereo cassette player, to 100V/5A. Pulse width modulation gives maximum AS3032 £17.95 * 1 WATT FM TRANSMITTER Easy to construct. Delivers a
CD player or radio. Heatsinks provided. PCB torque at all speeds. 5-15VDC. Box provided. 3067KT * MMTX - MICRO-MINIATURE 9V TRANSMITTER crisp, clear signal. Two-stage circuit. Kit includes microphone
76x75mm. 1046KT. £24.95 £10.95 The ultimate bug for its size, performance and price. Just and requires a simple open dipole aerial. 8-30VDC. PCB
* 1W+1W STEREO AMPLIFIER MODULE Uses * 3 x 8 CHANNEL IR RELAY BOARD Control eight 12V/1A 15x25mm. 500m range @ 9V. Good stability. 6-18V operation. 42x45mm. 1009KT £14.95
Samsung KA2209 IC (equivalent to the TDA2822) relays by Infra Red (IR) remote control over a 20m range in 3051KT £7.95 AS3051 £13.95 * 4 WATT FM TRANSMITTER Comprises three RF
designed for portable cassette players & radios. 1.8- sunlight. 6 relays turn on only, the other 2 toggle on/off. 3 oper- * VTX - VOICE ACTIVATED TRANSMITTER stages and an audio preamplifier stage. Piezoelectric
9VDC. PCB 35x50mm. 3087KT £4.25 ation ranges determined by jumpers. Transmitter case & all Operates only when sounds detected. Low standby current. microphone supplied or you can use a separate pream-
* 10W+10W STEREO AMPLIFIER MODULE Uses components provided. Receiver PCB 76x89mm. 3072KT Variable trigger sensitivity. 500m range. Peaking circuit sup- plifier circuit. Antenna can be an open dipole or Ground
TDA2009 class audio power amp IC designed for high £44.95 plied for maximum RF output. On/off switch. 6V operation. Only Plane. Ideal project for those who wish to get started in
quality stereo applications. 8-28VDC. PCB 45x80mm. * PC CONTROLLED RELAY BOARD 63x38mm. 3028KT £9.95 AS3028 £22.95 the fascinating world of FM broadcasting and want a
Convert any 286 upward PC into a dedicated HARD-WIRED BUG/TWO STATION INTERCOM good basic circuit to experiment with. 12-18VDC. PCB
3088KT £9.95
Each station has its own amplifier, speaker and mic. Can be 44x146mm. 1028KT. £23.95
* 18W BTL AUDIO AMPLIFIER MODULE Low volt- automatic controller to independently turn on/off
up to eight lights, motors & other devices around set up as either a hard-wired bug or two-station intercom. 10m * 15 WATT FM TRANSMITTER (PRE-ASSEMBLED &
age, high power mono 18W BTL amp using HA13118 x 2-core cable supplied. 9V operation. 3021KT £13.95 (kit
the home, office, laboratory or factory using 8 TESTED) Four transistor based stages with Philips BLY
IC. Delivers 14W into 4 Ohm’s (1% THD) with 13.2V form only)
240VAC/12A onboard relays. DOS utilities, sample 88 in final stage. 15 Watts RF power on the air. 88-
supply. Thermal/surge protection. 8-18VDC. Heatsink * TRVS - TAPE RECORDER VOX SWITCH 108MHz. Accepts open dipole, Ground Plane, 5/8, J, or
provided. PCB 57x55mm. 3105KT £8.95 test program, full-featured Windows utility & all Used to automatically operate a tape recorder (not supplied) YAGI configuration antennas. 12-18VDC. PCB
* 3-CHANNEL WIRELESS LIGHT MODULATOR components (except cable) provided. 12VDC. PCB via its REMOTE socket when sounds are detected. All conver- 70x220mm. SWS meter needed for alignment. 1021KT
No electrical connection with amplifier. Light modula- 70x200mm. 3074KT £29.95 sations recorded. Adjustable sensitivity & turn-off delay. £69.95
tion achieved via a sensitive electret microphone. * 2 CHANNEL UHF RELAY SWITCH Contains the 115x19mm. 3013KT £7.95 AS3013 £19.95 * SIMILAR TO ABOVE BUT 25W Output. 1028KT £79.95
Separate sensitivity control per channel. Power hand- same transmitter/receiver pair as 30A15 below plus
ing 400W/channel. PCB 54x112mm. Mains powered. the components and PCB to control two
Box provided. 6014KT £24.90 240VAC/10A relays (also supplied). Ultra bright * STEREO VU METER shows peak music power * 3V/1·5V TO 9V BATTERY CONVERTER Replace
* 12 RUNNING LIGHT EFFECT Exciting 12 LED LEDs used to indicate relay status. 3082KT £26.95 using 2 rows of 10 LED’s (mixed green & red) expensive 9V batteries with economic 1.5V batter-
light effect ideal for parties, discos, shop-windows & * TRANSMITTER RECEIVER PAIR 2-button keyfob moving bar display. 0-30db. 3089KT £10.95 ies. IC based circuit steps up 1 or 2 ‘AA’ batteries to
eye-catching signs. PCB design allows replacement style 300-375MHz Tx with 30m range. Receiver * AM RADIO KIT 1 Tuned Radio Frequency front- give 9V/18mA. 3035KT £4.95
of LEDs with 220V bulbs by inserting 3 TRIACs. encoder module with matched decoder IC. end, single chip AM radio IC & 2 stages of audio * STABILISED POWER SUPPLY 3-30V/2.5A Ideal
Adjustable rotation speed & direction. PCB Components must be built into a circuit like kit 3082 amplification. All components inc. speaker provid- for hobbyist & professional laboratory. Very reliable
54x112mm. 1026KT £16.95; BOX (for mains opera- above. 30A15 £13.95 ed. PCB 32x102mm. 3063KT £9.95 & versatile design at an extremely reasonable price.
tion) 2026KT £8.50 * TELEPHONE LINE RELAY SWITCH Turn on/off 4 * DRILL SPEED CONTROLLER Adjust the speed Short circuit protection. Variable DC voltages (3-
* DISCO STROBE LIGHT Probably the most excit- relays over your phone line from anywhere in the world. 4- of your electric drill according to the job at hand. 30V). Rated output 2.5 Amps. Large heatsink sup-
ing of all light effects. Very bright strobe tube. digit security code. Line protection circuitry built-in (non- Suitable for 240V AC mains powered drills up to plied. You just supply a 24VAC/3A transformer. PCB
Adjustable strobe frequency: 1-60Hz. Mains powered. approved). PCB 78x105mm. 3086KT £39.95 700W power. PCB: 48mm x 65mm. Box provided. 55x112mm. Mains operation. 1007KT £17.50.
PCB: 60x68mm. Box provided. 6037KT £29.90 * PC DATA ACQUISITION/CONTROL UNIT Use your 6074KT £17.90 Custom Designed Box 2007 £34.95
* SOUND EFFECTS GENERATOR Easy to build. PC to monitor physical variables (e.g. pressure, tem- * 3 INPUT MONO MIXER Independent level con- * STABILISED POWER SUPPLY 2-30V/5A As kit
Create an almost infinite variety of interesting/unusu- perature, light, weight, switch state, movement, relays, trol for each input and separate bass/treble controls. 1007 above but rated at 5Amp. Requires a
al sound effects from birds chirping to sirens. 9VDC. etc.), process the information & use results to control Input sensitivity: 240mV. 18V DC. PCB: 60mm x 24VAC/5A transformer. 1096KT £29.95. Custom
PCB 54x85mm. 1045KT £8.95 physical devices like motors, sirens, relays, servo & 185mm 1052KT £16.95 Designed Box 2096 £34.95
* ROBOT VOICE EFFECT Make your voice sound stepper motors. Inputs: 16 digital & 11 analogue. * ELECTRONIC SIREN 5 Watt. Impressive 5W * RFI POWER SUPPLY Designed to power RF
similar to a robot or Darlek. Great fun for discos, Outputs: 8 digital & 1 analogue. Plastic case with print- power output. Suitable for alarm systems, car, transmitters/receivers. Blocks high frequencies &
school plays, theatre productions, radio stations & ed front/rear panels, software utilities, programming motorbikes, etc. Output frequency 1·2kHz. 6-12V eliminates problems like noise, overheating, stand-
playing jokes on your friends when answering the examples & all components (except sensors & cable) DC. PCB: 37mm x 71mm. Siren not provided ing waves, etc. Output: 12-14VDC/3A.
phone! PCB 42x71mm. 1131KT £8.95 provided. 12VDC. 3093KT £79.95 1003KT £5.95 Thermal/short circuit protection & electronic stabili-
* AUDIO TO LIGHT MODULATOR Controls intensi- * PIC 16C71 FOUR SERVO MOTOR DRIVER * NEGATIVE\POSITIVE ION GENERATOR sation. You just supply a 18VAC/3A transformer.
ty of one or more lights in response to an audio input. Simultaneously control up to 4 servo motors. Software & Standard Cockcroft-Walton multiplier circuit. Mains PCB 72x82mm. 1171KT £24.95
Safe, modern opto-coupler design. Mains voltage all components (except servos/control pots) supplied. voltage experience required. 3057KT £9.95 * MOTORBIKE ALARM Uses a reliable vibration sen-
experience required. 3012KT £7.95 5VDC. PCB 50x70mm. 3102KT £14.95 sor (adjustable sensitivity) to detect movement of the
* MUSIC BOX Activated by light. Plays 8 Christmas bike to trigger the alarm & switch the output relay to
songs and 5 other tunes. 3104KT £6.95 which a siren, bikes horn, indicators or other warning
* 20 SECOND VOICE RECORDER Uses non-
volatile memory - no battery backup needed.
Record/replay messages over & over. Playback as
required to greet customers etc. Volume control &
GAIN
BARUY!!
30-in-ONE device can be attached. Auto-reset. 6-12VDC. PCB
57x64mm. 1011KT £11.95 Box £5.95
* CAR ALARM SYSTEM Protect your car from
theft. Features vibration sensor, courtesy/boot light
built-in mic. 6VDC. PCB 50x73mm.
3131KT £11.95 B Electronic Projects Lab voltage drop sensor and bonnet/boot earth switch
sensor. Entry/exit delays, auto-reset and adjustable
* TRAIN SOUNDS 4 selectable sounds : whistle Great introduction to electronics. Ideal for the budding elec- alarm duration. 6-12V DC. PCB: 47mm x 55mm
blowing, level crossing bell, ‘clickety-clack’ & 4 in 1019KT £11.95 Box £6.50
tronics expert! Build a radio, burglar alarm, water detector, * LIGHT ALARM Protect your valuables. Alarm
sequence. SG01M £4.95
* ANIMAL SOUNDS Cat, dog, chicken & cow. Ideal morse code practice circuit, simple computer circuits, and sounds if circuit detects smallest amount of light.
for kids farmyard toys & schools. SG10M £4.50 much more! NO soldering, tools or previous electronics Place in cash box etc. 3008KT £4.50
* 3 1/2 DIGIT LED PANEL METER Use for basic knowledge required. Circuits can be built and unassembled * PIEZO SCREAMER 110dB of ear piercing
voltage/current displays or customise to measure repeatedly. Comprehensive 68-page manual with explana- noise. Fits in box with 2 x 35mm piezo elements
temperature, light, weight, movement, sound lev- tions, schematics and assembly diagrams. Suitable for age built into their own resonant cavity. Use as an
els, etc. with appropriate sensors (not supplied). alarm siren or just for fun! 6-9VDC. 3015KT £9.95
Various input circuit designs provided. 3061KT 10+. Excellent for schools. Requires 2 x AA batteries. * COMBINATION LOCK Versatile electronic lock
£12.95 ONLY £14.95 (phone for bulk discounts). comprising main circuit & separate keypad for
* IR REMOTE TOGGLE SWITCH Use any TV/VCR remote opening of lock. Relay supplied. 3029KT
remote control unit to switch onboard 12V/1A relay * PC SERIAL PORT ISOLATED I/O BOARD * LED DICE Classic intro to electronics & circuit £9.95
on/off. 3058KT £9.95 Provides eight 240VAC/10A relay outputs & 4 opti- analysis. 7 LED’s simulate dice roll, slow down & land * ULTRASONIC MOVEMENT DETECTOR Crystal
cally isolated inputs. Designed for use in various con- on a number at random. 555 IC circuit. 3003KT £7.95 locked detector frequency for stability & reliability. PCB
trol & sensing applications e.g. load switching, exter- * STAIRWAY TO HEAVEN Tests hand-eye co-ordination. 75x40mm houses all components. 4-7m range.
nal switch input sensing, contact closure & external Press switch when green segment of LED lights to climb Adjustable sensitivity. Output will drive external
FACTOR
X PUBLICATIONS
voltage sensing. Controlled via serial port & a termi-
nal emulator program (built into Windows). Can be
used with ANY computer/operating system. Plastic
case with printed front/rear panels & all components
the stairway - miss & start again! Good intro to several
basic circuits. 3005KT £7.95
* ROULETTE LED ‘Ball’ spins round the wheel,
slows down & drops into a slot. 10 LED’s. Good intro
relay/circuits. 9VDC. 3049KT £12.95
PIR DETECTOR MODULE 3-lead assembled unit
just 25x35mm as used in commercial burglar alarm
systems. 3076KT £7.95
THE EXPERTS IN RARE & (except cable) provided. 3108KT £49.95 to CMOS decade counters & Op-Amps. 3006KT * INFRARED SECURITY BEAM When the invisi-
* UNIPOLAR STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER for any £9.95 ble IR beam is broken a relay is tripped that can be
UNUSUAL INFORMATION! 5/6/8 lead motor. Fast/slow & single step rates. * DUAL LED DICE PIC 16C54 circuit performs sim- used to sound a bell or alarm. 25 metre range.
Full details of all X-FACTOR PUBLICATIONS can be found in Direction control & on/off switch. Wave, 2-phase & ilar function to 3003KT above but two dice. Good Mains rated relays provided. 12VDC operation.
our catalogue. N.B. Minimum order charge for reports and half-wave step modes. 4 LED indicators. PCB intro to micro-controllers. 3071KT £11.95 3130KT £11.95
plans is £5.00 PLUS normal P.&P. 50x65mm. 3109KT £14.95 * 9V XENON TUBE FLASHER Transformer circuit * FUNCTION GENERATOR Quad Op-Amp oscilla-
* SUPER-EAR LISTENING DEVICE Complete plans to * PC CONTROLLED STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER steps up 9V battery to flash a 25mm Xenon tube. tor & wave shaper circuit generates audio range
build your own parabolic dish microphone. Listen to distant Control two unipolar stepper motors (3A max. each) Adjustable flash rate (0·25-2 Sec’s). 3022KT £10.95 square waves (6Hz-6KHz), triangle & pseudo sine
voices and sounds through open windows and even walls! via PC printer port. Wave, 2-phase & half-wave step * LED FLASHER 1 5 ultra bright red LED’s flash in outputs. 9VDC. 3023KT £3.95
Made from readily available parts. R002 £3.50 modes. Software accepts 4 digital inputs from exter- 7 selectable patterns. 3037MKT £4.50 * LOGIC PROBE tests CMOS & TTL circuits &
* TELEPHONE BUG PLANS Build you own micro-beetle nal switches & will single step motors. PCB fits in D- * LED FLASHER 2 Similar to above but flash in detects fast pulses. Visual & audio indication of
telephone bug. Suitable for any phone. Transmits over 250 shell case provided. 3113KT £16.95 sequence or randomly. Ideal for model railways. logic state. Full instructions supplied. 3024KT
metres - more with good receiver. Made from easy to * 12-BIT PC DATA ACQUISITION/CONTROL UNIT 3052MKT £4.50 £6.95
obtain, cheap components. R006 £2.50 Similar to kit 3093 above but uses a 12 bit Analogue- * INTRODUCTION TO PIC PROGRAMMING. * SQUARE WAVE OSCILLATOR Generates
* LOCKS - How they work and how to pick them. This fact to-Digital Converter (ADC) with internal analogue mul- Learn programming from scratch. Programming square waves at 6 preset frequencies in factors of
filled report will teach you more about locks and the art of tiplexor. Reads 8 single ended channels or 4 differen- hardware, a P16F84 chip and a two-part, practical, 10 from 1Hz-100KHz. Visual output indicator. 5-
lock picking than many books we have seen at 4 times the tial inputs or a mixture of both. Analogue inputs read 0- hands-on tutorial series are provided. 3081KT 18VDC. Box provided. 3111KT £7.95
price. Packed with information and illustrations. R008 £3.50
* RADIO & TV JOKER PLANS 4V. Four TTL/CMOS compatible digital input/outputs. £21.95 * PC DRIVEN POCKET SAMPLER/DATA LOG-
We show you how to build three different circuits for dis- ADC conversion time <10uS. Software (C, QB & Win), * SERIAL PIC PROGRAMMER for all 8/18/28/40 GER Analogue voltage sampler records voltages
rupting TV picture and sound plus FM radio! May upset extended D shell case & all components (except sen- pin DIP serial programmed PICs. 3rd party software up to 2V or 20V over periods from milli-seconds to
your neighbours & the authorities!! DISCRETION sors & cable) provided. 3118KT £47.95 supplied expires after 21 days (costs US$25 to reg- months. Can also be used as a simple digital
REQUIRED. R017 £3.50 * LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR/RAIN ALARM Will indi- ister). 3096KT £14.95 scope to examine audio & other signals up to
* INFINITY TRANSMITTER PLANS Complete plans for cate fluid levels or simply the presence of fluid. Relay * ‘PICALL’ SERIAL & PARALLEL PIC PRO- about 5KHz. Software & D-shell case provided.
building the famous Infinity Transmitter. Once installed on output to control a pump to add/remove water when it GRAMMER for all 8/18/28/40 pin DIP parallel AND 3112KT £19.95
the target phone, device acts like a room bug. Just call the reaches a certain level. 1080KT £6.95 serial PICs. Includes fully functional & registered * 20 MHz FUNCTION GENERATOR Square, tri-
target phone & activate the unit to hear all room sounds. * UNIVERSAL TIMER Seven crystal controlled tim- software (DOS, W3.1, W95/8). 3117KT £54.95 angular and sine waveform up to 20MHz over 3
Great for home/office security! R019 £3.50 ing operations in steps of 0.1s from 0.1-6553.6s or 1 * ATMEL 89Cx051 PROGRAMMER Simple-to-use ranges using ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ frequency adjust-
* THE ETHER BOX CALL INTERCEPTOR PLANS Grabs second steps from 0.1-65536s. Allows 4 signal input yet powerful programmer for the Atmel 89C1051, ment controls. Adjustable output from 0-2V p-p. A
telephone calls out of thin air! No need to wire-in a phone 89C2051 & 89C4051 uC’s. Programmer does NOT
bug. Simply place this device near the phone lines to hear types from push button to electrically isolated volt- TTL output is also provided for connection to a
the conversations taking place! R025 £3.00 age switching sources. On-board relay will switch require special software other than a terminal emu- frequency meter. Uses MAX038 IC. Plastic case
* CASH CREATOR BUSINESS REPORTS Need ideas 240V/5A. Box, software & all components provided. lator program (built into Windows). Can be used with with printed front/rear panels & all components
for making some cash? Well this could be just what you PCB 56 x 97mm. 3054KT £24.95 ANY computer/operating system. 3121KT £34.95 provided. 7-12VAC. 3101KT £49.95
need! You get 40 reports (approx. 800 pages) on floppy
disk that give you information on setting up different busi-
nesses. You also get valuable reproduction and duplication WEB: http://www.QuasarElectronics.com Secure Online Ordering Facilities
Full Kit Listing, Descriptions & Photos
rights so that you can sell the manuals as you like. R030
£7.50 email: epesales@QuasarElectronics.coms Kit Documentation & Software Downloads
338 Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2000

latch’s D-input is written to the
by ALAN WINSTANLEY & IAN BELL latch’s Q output, and the latch
stays in that condition until
Our ever-helpful team of circuit surgeons check out a another suitable clock signal is
CMOS D-type latch and offer suggestions for a low- delivered. The Q
voltage monitor circuit. complementary output is just the
inverse of Q.
CHECKING THE www.semiconductors.com/ The clock signals for all four
products/ then do a search for latches are connected via an
CHIPS “4042”. Data sheets are exclusive-NOR function (XNOR)
Our thanks to Mr. D. Lee of published in Adobe Acrobat which has two inputs. These
Birkenhead, Cheshire, UK, who format (PDF file types) which inputs can be interpreted as the
wrote asking for help in testing can be read and printed using clock (C) and polarity control (P)
4042 logic devices. Mr. Lee says the free Adobe Acrobat for the clock (see Fig. 1a).
that he needs a simple test Reader from Philips’ 4042 data sheet
circuit to “fully auto-test the logic www.adobe.com describes them as Enable 0
outputs” of the 4042. He has Data sheets often include (E0) and Enable 1 (E1). In fact
previously built circuits to test function diagrams of the chip the data sheet includes a
basic gates, but testing the 4042 and Philips’ data is helpful as function table (Table 1) which
presents a more difficult case. always. The 4042 is a CMOS outlines the logical operation of
We’re not sure how feasible level-sensitive quad D-latch, this chip.
it is to custom-build a tester with complementary outputs Looking in more detail at the
dedicated to a specific chip, and a clock input with circuit for an individual latch, see
however our first port of call has selectable polarity. Fig 1b, the four latches each
to be the Philips Semiconductor Basically speaking, a D- have a positive level sensitive
web site to fetch a data sheet, Latch (or Data latch) is a clock labeled CP. When CP is
so point your web browser at circuit that “remembers” high data is transferred from the
(latches) data when a suitable D input to the Q and Q outputs
clock pulse comes along. The of each latch, and when the
data (0 or 1) presented to the clock goes low the state on the
Q and Q output at that time is
Table 1: Logic operation of memorized or latched.
the 4042.
E0 E1 Output Qn
L L Dn
L H Latched
H L Latched
H H Dn
(H = high, L = low)
Fig.1a. Internal logic diagram

for the HEF4042 (Philips
Semi). Note the CP signal
cannot be accessed Fig.1b. Circuit for an individ- Fig.1c. Pinout details for the
externally. ual latch. 4042B.
Circuit Surgery
comparator
TEST THIS OUT outputs will always indicate
“equals”. The comparator output
To test the logic function of
should be sampled by the
the latch, we would need to
counter clock (i.e. stored in a
check that the output could
flip-flop using the counter clock)
follow the input to both 0 and 1
to prevent any variations in
with CP high, and when CP was
timing between the 4042’s
taken low both a 1 and a 0 could
output and the test sequence
be latched without a subsequent
generator from indicating false
change on D changing the Fig.2. Possible 4042 test se- “not equals” states from the
stored value. quence (see text). comparator.
In practice, the CP line is
device such as a PIC to A third possibility for
not accessible externally as it is
generate the C and P implementing the tester is to
driven from the C and P signals
sequences and check the program an EPROM with the
(pins 5 and 6) via the XNOR
sequence on Q and Q. This may test input and expected output
gate. We can hold P at one
be a good option for someone sequences stored in
state and fully test the latches,
who is familiar with a particular consecutive memory locations
after which all we have to do is
microcontroller and has all the (one EPROM data bit per device
check that the C signal still gets
kit and software ready to use. under test I/O pin). The
through to the CP with P in its
EPROM’s address bits would be
opposite state (it is not
connected to a counter that
necessary to fully test the
latches twice).
IN SEQUENCE would step the EPROM through
An alternative is to build a the addresses containing the
A sequence of inputs that test sequence.
should achieve our purpose is sequence generator from basic
logic. One way of doing this is to As with the previous
shown in Fig.2, together with the
build a counter that goes suggestion a logic comparator
expected output from Q (also Q
through ten states: a would be used to compare the
should always be the
synchronous binary up-counter expected and actual output
complement or opposite state of
which is synchronously reset to sequences. This approach could
Q) and the state of the internal
0 from state 9 is probably the also be extended to test devices
clock signal CP (we cannot
best choice. other than the 4042, spare
access this but it is drawn to
The outputs of the counter address lines could be used to
help show circuit operation).
(Q3, Q2, Q1, Q0) can then be select which sequence the
The test sequence works as counter ran through.
follows. First the transmission of decoded using combinational
a 1 with CP high is checked logic to give the required
(T1), then the 1 is latched (L1) sequences. For example, the ADVANCED
sequence on P is obtained using
and D is changed to check that
the function P = Q3 OR (Q2 OPTIONS
the 1 has actually latched (C1).
This is repeated for a 0 (T0, L0, AND Q1), which requires an A more sophisticated
C0). The value of P is changed AND gate and an OR gate. version of this approach would
and the T1, L1, C1 sequence is These circuits can be built with be to use a RAM or E2PROM
repeated to check that C still ordinary discrete logic gates which could be loaded with a
gets through to CP. designed by using K-maps (as test sequence from a PC using,
described in our series Teach-In say a serial port, allowing a large
How do we automate the ’98 – An Introduction to Digital number of test sequences to be
process? We need a circuit to Electronics). defined and stored on the PC
generate the sequence on P and and downloaded to the tester
C and also check that the output To check the output we
could use a logic comparator when required..
from Q is correct, which means
we need to generate the connected to the Q and Q The previous discussion has
expected sequence from Q and outputs and to the Q and Q overlooked an important point –
Q too. There are a number of sequence logic derived from the what is meant by “fully test’’?
ways of doing this. We could counter’s outputs. If the device We have only considered one
program a microcontroller under test is OK then the latch (to keep things simple) and
Circuit Surgery
it would seem at first that we switching, microprocessor
could supply the same monitoring etc., noting that the
sequence to all the D inputs to CMOS chips typically consume
check the latches in parallel. a meager 5uA, so their impact
This would let us detect a on battery life is negligible.
significant number of faults – for To answer your questions,
example if one of the Q outputs Adam, a low voltage alarm can
was open-circuit we would not readily be constructed using the
observe the expected sequence MAX8211 which will operate
on it. Fig.3a. Low voltage alarm with any supply from +2V to
However, if we apply the using the MAX8211 to drive +16××6V. Since its output is
same sequence to all the D a LED. current limited it can drive a
inputs then all the latches are light-emitting diode (LED)
doing the same thing and short directly, see Fig.3a.
circuits between equivalent from Harris, who sold their
semiconductor business to The chip monitors the power
points in any two latches would
Intersil. This company used to supply rail by comparing the
not be detected. We could get
manufacturer a bipolar version, voltage at the threshold pin
around this by running the
the ICL 8211/8212. Maxim also against the internal reference.
sequence more than once with
produce CMOS versions, When pin 3 is less than 1××15V,
different values on adjacent D
namely the MAX8211/8212. pin 4 goes low, current sinks
inputs, but the best way to do
The overall chip design has into it and illuminates the LED.
this may depend on knowledge
been around a good 20 years, (consider a high-efficiency type).
of the structure of the chips (i.e.
and although Intersil flagged The potential divider R1/VR1
which latches, and latch I/O pins
them as obsolete there should was set for 50uA maximum. The
are next to one another and thus
be plenty around. Let’s narrow trimmer resistor adjusts the set-
more likely to short).
down our options and look at the point.
The problem of short circuits
Maxim version. Data sheets for The hysteresis feature was
gives us some hint of the
the CMOS type can be obtained unused in this example, which
difficulty of testing circuits. In
from Maxim’s web site means that the switching point
general, although we can
(www.maxim-ic.com). will be very sensitive. The LED
perform simple tests to prove
Both the MAX8211 and may flash or jitter when the chip
the logic of the latches is
MAX8212 contain a 1××15V is at its threshold. The addition
operating, it would be difficult to
of hysteresis introduces a
prove that the device had been reference, a comparator, an
difference in the switching points
“fully tested” – tested for what open-drain n-channel output
which allows for two switching
faults? Shorts? Opens? Defects transistor and an open-drain p-
levels (high and low). This can
in the oxide of the MOS channel transistor on the
be accomplished using a third
transistors causing increased hysteresis pin. The chips
resistor shown in circuit diagram
leakage? IMB. operate in a manner opposite to
Fig.3b.
LOW VOLTAGE each other. The 8211 output
Note that this arrangement
transistor turns on when the
DETECTOR input voltage is less than the is only suited if detecting a drop
I am a 16 year old student threshold or reference voltage. in the supply rail, i.e. when the
designing an intercom. I’d like to Its output (pin 4) goes low and supply voltage is the same as
attach a low battery indicator to sinks up to 7mA. that powering the 8211. To
a 9V battery for use with my calculate the resistor values,
However, the 8212 output
project, but I can’t find any firstly decide on the desired
turns on (goes low) when the
schematics. Is it possible to hysteresis voltage – the
input is greater than the
build a low battery indicator with difference between the upper
threshold. Note that the 8212’s
and the lower switching points,
the ICL8211 chip? Adam via output is not current limited, and
say 75mV. Then decide on a
email. can sink typically 35mA. The
value for resistor R3, anything
chips are handy for under-
up to 10M should do. In this
voltage or over-voltage
I think the 8211/8212 low example, 750k (kilohms) was
detection, back-up battery
voltage detectors originated assumed. Choose the alarm
Circuit Surgery
monitor a +5V logic supply, with
an alarm output when the rail
drops below +4××5V. The 75mV
hysteresis ensures that the alarm
will not be for ever triggering when
the 8211 is hovering around the
threshold point. I’m sure the
circuit can be adapted as needed.
The ICL821x and MAX821x are
listed by Farnell. ARW.
Fig.3b. A logic level alarm
which monitors a 5V logic
supply. Note the addition of
hysterisis using
resistor R2.
voltage level (4××5V here).
The hysteresis resistor R2 is
calculated using:
R2 = R3 x (Vlow – 1.15V) / 1.15V
= 2M2
Lastly resistor R1 is
calculated using:
R3 x (Vhyst / 1.15V) = 48k9
This circuit is designed to
Robert Penfold looks at the Techniques of Actually Doing it!
According to the old proverb

“you should not judge a book by
its cover”, but it is a fact of life
that people will judge your com-
pleted electronic projects by the
standard of their external finish
rather than the quality of the cir-
cuit boards and wiring.
It is probably fair to say that
most constructors, even if they
were primarily interested in the
electronics rather than the me-
chanical side of construction,
Fig.2. Some example labels produced using a Brother PT75
would prefer to produce neat
looking projects. Few will be sat- labeler. The three at the top left-hand corner were produced
isfied with perpetually churning using a Dymo Mini.
out projects that look as if they
have just had a nasty accident. trols you will not get that profes- to use and getting neat results is
It takes more money and sional look. not particularly easy.
often quite a lot of additional Even if you are not worried Probably their biggest draw-
time to put the finishing touches about the appearance of your back is their lack of durability.
to the exterior of a project, but it projects, it is still a good idea to They rub-on easily enough, but
is likely to be time well spent. clearly label the controls and they rub off again just as easily.
sockets. Having just finished the Lacquers and varnishes can
project you can probably re- render them less vulnerable, but
THE RUB-OFF member the function of every are usually something less than
You can put a great deal of control and socket, but you 100 percent effective.
time and effort into the exterior might find the going more diffi- Obtaining the smaller sizes
finish of a project, but without cult when returning to the project is also more difficult than it used
some neat legends for the con- at some later date. to be, presumably due to a drop
Also, it pays to bear in in demand as other labeling
mind that others may need methods have become more
to use the device. With no popular. Rub-on transfers re-
labels to indicate the func- main a perfectly valid approach
tions of the controls, oper- to panel legends, but here we
ating the gadget becomes a will concentrate on the other op-
matter of trial and error. tions.
In the past the standard
method of producing panel CHEAP AND CHEER-
legends was to use rub-on
transfers. These days there FUL
are a number of alterna- The quickest and easiest
Fig.1. An electronic labeling ma- tives that are quicker, eas- method of adding legends is to
ier, and tougher. Rub-on use a labeling machine. The
chine (left) and (right) a simple me- transfers can produce
chanical type which produces em- least expensive of these are the
some first class results, but Dymo labelers (Fig.1), which are
bossed lettering, self-adhesive la- even in the hands of experi- purely mechanical devices that
bels. enced users they are slow produce embossed lettering on
Practically Speaking
self-adhesive tapes.
These labelers cost only a
few pounds each complete with
one tape, and are available from
the larger stationers. Tapes of
various colors are available, and
this is a very inexpensive means
of making labels.
To produce a label you dial Fig.3. A front panel overlay produced using a PC and a laser
up the letters one by one, oper-
printer. The printing is on the underside of a transparent sheet.
ating a simple lever system to
put each letter onto the tape. QWERTY keyboard and there is 9mm type is well suited to most
Once the label is finished it is a small liquid crystal display so projects, and there is usually an
cut from the tape using the built- that you can check that words option to print in small text if
in cutter. have been entered correctly. necessary. Text from the PT75
Unfortunately, the finished Upper and lower case letters are is normally a little over four mil-
labels tend to have a “cheap and available, together with numbers limeters high, but it can be re-
cheerful” look, and even if you and a full range of punctuation duced to half this if desired.
are very careful in their prepara- marks and symbols. Addition- With the aid of a sharp modeling
tion they do not look very profes- ally, there is a limited choice of knife or scalpel and a metal ruler
sional. Another slight problem is text sizes and styles, and it is it is possible to trim labels hav-
that the tapes are quite wide at also possible to underline words ing small letters so that they will
about 9mm, which makes the or have them within a frame. fit into quite small spaces.
labels too large for some pro- The labels are produced us- Electronic labeling machines
jects. However, if you simply ing some form of thermal printer are somewhat more costly than
wish to add some labels as technology, and the quality of the mechanical variety, but their
quickly, easily, and cheaply as results from even the cheaper greater versatility and higher
possible, a simple labeler of this labelers is certainly very impres- quality results seem to more
type has no competition. sive. The results obtained from than justify the extra cost. It is
a Brother PT75 labeling ma- worth bearing in mind that both
chine can be seen in Fig.2, and types of labeler are also suitable
HI-TECH LABELS they are at least as good as for general labeling around the
Electronic labeling machines those produced using rub-on home or office.
have been in existence for many transfers. The three labels in the
years now, but they used to be top left hand corner were pro-
prohibitively expensive for occa- duced using a Dymo Mini SELF CENTERED
sional amateur use. In common (mechanical) labeling machine, Using labels gives less neat
with most electronic goods, they and are clearly not in the same results than applying lettering
have been subject to steady league. directly on to a panel one letter
price reductions in recent years, at a time, but with many modern
Operating an electronic la-
and the cheaper units are now cases labels are a more practi-
beling machine is extremely
starting to “put the squeeze” on cal approach. With many con-
simple. Having set the text size,
mechanical labeling machines. temporary cases the front panel
etc., it is just a matter of typing
The simpler electronic units in the required word, pressing is not removable, making ac-
from Dymo, Brother, and proba- the Print button, and then press- cess to the panel very awkward.
bly some other manufacturers, ing a lever to cut off the com- The one letter at a time ap-
are available for less than 20 UK pleted label once it has been proach can then be very tricky
pounds complete with one tape. printed. indeed.
They are occasionally put on When using labels you still
In common with mechanical
special offer at about half that need to be careful to get the
labelers, one slight drawback of
price. words properly centered above
the electronic units is the width
In the Brother PT75 elec- of the tapes, which is either controls and sockets, and to
tronic labeler, shown in Fig.1, 9mm or 12mm. However, the make sure they are not on a
letters are entered on a form of slant. If the lettering uses pro-
portional spacing, and the elec- sitioning of the label much less Windows 95 and 98 is capable
tronic labeling machines nor- fiddly. Having maneuvered the of the full range of Windows
mally do, you have to be careful label precisely into position it fonts and text sizes.
when determining the center of can be pressed down onto the Some of the standard Win-
a word. panel. dows fonts are actually sets of
For example, on the face of With this method the labels symbols. Most of these are of
it the center of the word can be fitted into otherwise inac- little use in an electronic context,
“balance” is in the middle of the cessible places. They can even but it is worthwhile looking
second “a”. However, with probe added with the controls in through the symbols for some-
portional spacing the “l” is allot- place on the panel and the con- thing useful.
ted less space than the other trol knobs fitted. Try going through the Vaca-
letters in this word, pushing the Both types of label seem to tion and Wingdings fonts. The
center slightly to the right of this. be quite durable and do not Arial font is a good choice if you
The only sure way to deter- need to be protected with lac- require a simple font that will
mine the center of the label is to quer or varnish. Be careful with produce neat looking labels.
measure it. You can then lightly your choice if you should decide There are plenty of fonts to
mark lines on the panel to help to apply a protective coating, choose from if you prefer fancy
keep the labels on the level, and Some varnishes and lacquers lettering styles. Many of the
to indicate the center point for will attack the labels, so it is ad- standard fonts look slightly
each label. The labels can then visable to make a test on a “heavy” when used for panel
be carefully positioned on these dummy label before progressing legends, but some of the fonts
marks, preferably just covering to the “real thing’’. are also available in light ver-
up the marks so that the prob- sions.
lem of removing them is The simple way of handling
avoided. PC LABELS
computer generated labels is to
Alternatively, if you are good Many people these days produce a page containing the
at this type of thing you can sim- own or have access to a PC and required words, print it out, cut
ply position the labels “by eye”. a printer. As we have pointed out the labels using a sharp
When designing front panel layout in the past, this combination knife and a cutting edge, and
outs and fitting labels it is the can print excellent labels at quite then glue them to the panel. Any
design that looks the best that is low cost. The quality of the la- general-purpose adhesive
right, and not the one that is bels clearly depends on the ca- should be suitable, but do not
mathematically perfect. pabilities of the printer used, but use so much that it soaks into
any modern inkjet or laser the labels and ruins them.
The adhesive on labels from
printer should produce “crisp”
either type of labeling machine Double-sided adhesive tape
text characters.
is usually quite strong, so it is is also suitable, and avoids any
not possible to slide the labels A laser printer seems to pro- risk of the adhesive soaking into
into position once they are even duce more durable labels, which the labels. Stick the tape in
partially stuck to the panel. If a are waterproof and can be place behind the labels prior to
mistake is made it is often pos- printed on a wider range of me- trimming them down to size.
sible to carefully peel the offend- dia. Inkjet printers have the ad- That way the tape is trimmed
ing label from the panel and vantage of being able to pro- down to size at the same time,
reposition it, but doing this more duce multi-colored labels if de- and is always a perfect match.
than once will probably damage sired.
It can be a bit difficult to get
it. Fortunately, making a re- A modern word processor the backing paper away from
placement should only take a enables lettering to be produced the tape when doing things this
few seconds and cost less than in a wide range of fonts and way, but it can usually be prized
0××1 pence! sizes, as does any desktop pub- free without damaging the label.
Experience suggests that lishing program and most draw- It is also a good idea to print
the best method of positioning is ing programs. If you have a PC some extra labels to allow for
to place the label on the end of a you almost certainly have some casualties.
metal or plastic rod about software that can produce la-
You can also print the labels
150mm or so in length. This bels. Even the humble Wordpad
in various sizes. If you then find
acts as a handle that makes po- word processor supplied with
that your original choice looks onscreen rulers that enable let- able for fixing most transparent
slightly too large or too small tering to be positioned accu- films to most types of front
once in place, another size can rately on the page. With drawing panel. Whatever adhesive you
be tried. It is possible to get a programs you can add custom use it is advisable to make tests
large number of labels onto an symbols and other graphics as to ensure that it will not attack
A4 size sheet, and the cost per well. the film, or the panel if the case
label is negligible, so wastage is For the ultimate in durability is a plastic type.
not a problem. the panel design should be
printed as a mirror image on
UP-MARKET transparent film. When viewed
from the “wrong” side the image
The more up-market ap- is the right way round (Fig.3),
proach to computer generated and the lettering is protected by
labels is to produce a complete the transparent film.
overlay for the front panel. Mod-
Scotch “Spraymount” is suit-
ern wordprocessors, etc. have
SURFING THE INTERNET
By Alan Winstanley
FRIED SPAM message appears below: ject header very closely, an

open relay at the University of
SPAM stands for Supply Victoria, Canada, was found
Pressed American Meat, a famil- which was promptly reconfig-
iar tinned meat (yum) dating back ured to close it. All of this police-
over 60 years, but thanks to the Many more examples of work takes time and effort
Internet it also implies another these messages started flooding though, and it often needs an
form of import which is unwel- in to my mailbox. This is be- expert to analyze the headers
come by almost every Internet cause my domain had been fully. The ORBS (Open Relay
user. The past few months have forged as the original sender Behaviour-modification System)
seen a major resurgence in the (see the FROM: line) by the at www.orbs.org is a voluntary
level of unsolicited commercial spammer, who then proceeded organization which provides on-
email (UCE) or “spam’’ being re- to mail out thousands, if not mil- line resources to help combat
ceived at my regular E-mail ad- lions, of similar messages in my abuse of insecure mailservers
dress. name. Any messages which by spammers.
Recently, a number of Inter- could not be delivered would be
net users including myself have “rejected” and sent back to its
faced a real barrage of spam, in “sender” (me).
HEADING FOR HOME
my case 30 or more per day at Spammers often use “open Looking further into the
times. The spam is actually a Re- relays” – third party mail servers header, the interesting part is
ject message sent to my default which inadvertently allow spam- the line:
“postmaster” address. By check- mers to use them from any- Received: from ppp-xx.tnt-
ing a typical Reject message, it’s where in the world in order to 1.hou.smartworld.net (HELO
possible to see what’s really going mail spam to its intended vic- orI2786xN?).
on. An abbreviated header and tims. By examining another Re-
Every forged Reject mes-
sage contained a similar line,
——— Here is your List of Failed Recipients ——— which starts to reveal the true
<xxxxxxx@xxx.net> identity of the spammer: it’s a
dial-up (PPP account) user of an
———— Here Is Your Returned Mail ———— American ISP called Smart-
World, who told me they were
Received: FROM mail-gw.datawld.com BY vs.mail.xxx.net ; Wed Apr 12
filing a lawsuit against the user.
08:47:22 2000
Wed, 12 Apr 2000 07:58:08 -0400
Spam on this scale is bad
for everyone: the huge volume
Received: from ppp-xx.tnt-1.hou.smartworld.net (HELO orI2786xN?)
of UCE damages the relation-
(xx.xx.xx.xx) by xxxxx.xxxxxxx.educ.xxxxxxxx.xx with SMTP; 28 Aug 1999 ship between the originating ISP
02:23:13 - 0000
and its bandwidth provider, and
DATE: 12 Apr 00 7:32:06 AM it causes support problems for
FROM: AiVs85TN4@epemag.demon.co.uk everyone concerned, including
Message-ID: <402WavWnR1A1x4s3Vz> Demon Internet and Smart-
SUBJECT: COMPLETE ONLINE BUSINESS!!! World. It blocks my email, and
obscures genuine e-mails which
get lost amongst the volume of
Build a residual income from time you spend on the Internet placing FREE adver-
tisements like this. Successful Internet company wants you to help them market UCE.
their products and services online. To Register with the program and to begin Unwanted spam places the
receiving instructions, simply reply to this email and type your first and last name.
mailto:xxxxxxx to be removed from this list
burden of cost on everyone ex-
cept the sender. It causes direct
mailto:xxxxxxx@england.com?subject=remove
costs to be incurred in terms of
Net Work
wasted time, lost productivity ured only to allow mail ad- worth more money).
and Internet access costs. In dressed to my recognized E- You can also help combat
this case it also made my do- mail addresses. UCE by forwarding examples
main appear to be responsible This can be done as follows: (with headers) to the originating
for sending the spam. go Tools/Message Rules/Mail. ISP (e.g. SmartWorld). They
These Reject messages 1) Select the Conditions for usually have an abuse@ E-mail
were unremitting for several your rule: [tick Where the To line address so send it there, along
months and the sheer volume contains people]. with your polite comments. Re-
forced me to re-configure my member you are dealing with
email client. It was noticeable 2) Select the Actions for tech support people at the other
that almost always, the Reject your rule: [tick Do Not download end who may be inundated with
messages had my genuine host it from the server]. problems similar to yours, so
name but the user name was 3) Rule Description: keep your complaint reasonable.
randomized to bypass mail fil- [configure Where the To My E-mail address is
ters. In the above example, it line does not contain alan@epemag.demon.co.uk
was mailed to “alan” or “arw” or “user” and you can check my web site
AiVs85TN4@epemag.demon.c or “postmaster”]. Here, at http://homepages.tcp.co.uk/
o.uk edit the rule’s options ~alanwin. See you next month.
My main Turnpike 5.0 mail then click the Options
software was reconfigured to button in the “Select Peo-
only accept emails addressed to ple” dialog box, to further
recognized email user names customize the rule:
(e.g. – Apply Rule if Message
alan@epemag.demon.co.uk); does not contain the
sure enough, Turnpike immedi- people below, and
ately began to report that mes- – Apply Rule if Message
sages were being rejected from matches any one of
my mailbox, meaning that at the people below.
long last, I was starting to get
my revenge. There is no prob- So if the To: line does not
lem in rejecting mail in this way, contain “alan” or “arw” or “user”
as it will hopefully get routed to a or “postmaster” it will not be
“bit-bucket” where the message downloaded from the server.
will be scrapped. Microsoft Outlook Express 5
Interestingly, the spam arrives with Microsoft Internet
stopped just a few days later, Explorer 5. Its filter rules look
although whether this was be- complicated but they are written
cause the spammer finally took in plain English and are quite
the hint, or whether he had been easy to use, but you will need to
closed down, is unclear. How- refine the rules over time. Test
ever at the time of writing, com- the filters by sending E-mailing
plaints are appearing in Demon to yourself.
newsgroups of yet another It is worth reminding readers
forged UCE campaign starting that under no circumstances
up. should you ever reply to any
email address contained in any
HOW TO FRY SPAM spam message unless it’s a
genuine mailing which you sub-
There are some lessons to scribed to. Never email to ask
be learned from extreme cases them to stop, and never reply to
like this. Learn to use the mail the Remove-me address. Reply-
filter rules of your software. I use ing confirms your address is
Microsoft Outlook Express 5.0 valid, making it a prized com-
on my laptop, which is config- modity amongst spammers (and
PIC DR DAG REVIEWED
Robert meets DrDAQ and finds that apart from professional use he has enormous
play value for the electronics hobbyist, and is eminently suited for anyone looking
for an easy, inexpensive way into computer interfacing.
Pico Technology is a many purposes, such as the interface or a printer.

company that is best known for measuring temperature, light The interface unit is an
its PicoScope interfaces, which levels, pH, etc. It can also be uncased printed circuit board
turn practically any PC into a used for sampling audio that seems to have most of the
storage oscilloscope. In fact the frequency signals, albeit with a components on the underside,
current software provides somewhat limited bandwidth. where they are hidden by a
several additional functions such foam covering that ensures the
as frequency measurement and GETTING unit will not scratch tabletops.
spectrum analysis. On top of the board (Fig.2) there
The DrDAQ unit reviewed
CONNECTED is the parallel port connector at
here could be regarded as a DrDAQ is primarily aimed at one end, and three sockets plus
greatly simplified version of the educational establishments, but a microphone at the other.
PicoScopes. It is an analog-to- it would also seem to be a The built-in microphone
digital converter that connects to worthwhile proposition for enables sound waveforms to be
the parallel port of a PC, but it professional electronic displayed and sound levels to be
has a relatively slow maximum engineers. At a VAT exclusive measured. One of the input
sampling rate of 10kHz to price of 59 UK pounds for the sockets is a BNC type that is
15kHz, depending on the speed basic version, it is within the
of the PC used. The interface budget of many electronics
has no built-in memory, but with hobbyists as well. The basic
such a modest maximum version comprises the interface
sampling frequency the PCs and a parallel port connecting
memory can be used if storage cable, plus two programs and
facilities are required. the necessary drivers.
Although high-speed No power supply unit or
sampling is not possible, this batteries are required, because
interface is still adequate for the interface taps off the small
amount of power it requires from
the parallel port.
Consequently, getting the
interface ready for use is
just a matter of
connecting one end of the
supplied cable to the
interface and the other to
the parallel port of the PC.
There is no through-port
connector on the Fig.2. The uncased DrDAQ cir-
interface, so it will either cuit board showing the parallel
require its own parallel port connector, three sockets
port or a switching unit will plus microphone. The underside
Fig.1. There are various installation be required to enable one components are hidden by a
software options to choose from. port to operate with either
Special Review
Channel Range Resolution Accuracy
Sound +/-100 0.3 --
Waveform
Sound Level 55-100dBA 1dBA 5dBA
Voltage 0-5V 5mV 3% of FSD
Resistance 0-1M 100 ohms at 10k 2% at 100k
400 ohms at 100k
pH 0-14 0.02pH Calibration
dependent
Temperature 0-70C 0.1 at 25C 2 at 25C
Light 0-100 0.1 --
intended for use with a standard

pH sensor. The other two are
telephone style connectors that
are intended for use with
temperature sensors, etc. Fig.3. Selecting the PicoScope option lets you view
There is also a light-emitting audio waveforms or show temperature data.
diode (LED) indicator and a 4-
way connector block that (Fig.1), but simply selecting the defaults is all that will normally be
provides a ground terminal, a required.
digital output, and voltage plus
There are two applications programs provided, called PicoScope
resistance inputs. The LED and
and PicoLog. PicoScope provides an oscilloscope style display and is
the output can be set to operate
used to display data gathered over a relatively short period, whereas
at a given threshold level so that
PicoLog is primarily for gathering data over much longer time-spans.
they can be used in alarm and
control applications. PicoScope is therefore used for such things as viewing audio
waveforms (Fig.3) or showing temperature data from experiments
Last and by no means least,
that produce rapid changes in temperature. PicoLog is used for an
there is a photo-resistor light
application such as logging weather data over a period of days.
sensor and a semiconductor
temperature sensor. With three
integral sensors the interface is PICOSCOPE
clearly useful for a variety of
experiments and applications Starting with PicoScope, this is very similar to the software
even without any external supplied with the Pico range of storage oscilloscope interfaces, but
sensors added. some concessions have to be made to the slower sampling rate of
SOFTWARE
The review unit came
complete with three floppy discs
containing the software, but the
production units will have the
software on CD-ROM. The
software is compatible with
Windows 3.1, 95, 98, 2000, and
NT. Under Windows 98, the
software loaded without any
difficulty and the installation
process follows along normal
Windows lines. There are Fig.4. Trigger dialog box. Trigger options are:
various installation options to none (free running); auto; repeat and single,
select, such as choosing the with adjustable trigger level.
programs you wish to install
Special Review
multiplication color. However, results are
factors are only easier to follow with just two
a practical traces, see Fig.5.
proposition at The three buttons towards
the slower the top left-hand corner of the
sweep rates screen enable the required
where there function to be selected. By
are enough default the program starts in
samples taken oscilloscope mode, but the
to permit a buttons enable oscilloscope,
magnified spectrum analyzer, and
view. voltmeter functions to be
Most selected.
things can be Operating a button does not
handled by the switch the current window to a
on-screen new operating mode, but instead
Fig.5. Using just two of the possible four traces controls, but
(channels) can make it easier to follow what’s there are the launches a new window. You
can therefore have something
happening. usual pop- like two oscilloscopes in
down menus operation simultaneously, or
DrDAQ. Accordingly, the fastest
and dialog boxes as well. For three windows with each one
sweep rate is 1ms per division,
example, the Trigger dialog box operating in a different mode
but at the other end of the range
is shown in Fig.4. The basic (Fig.6). For this type of thing it is
the slowest rate is a generous
trigger options are none (free obviously advantageous to use
50s per division. A panel having
running), auto, repeat, and a large monitor running at high
a pop-down menu enables
single, with a fully adjustable resolution. The voltmeter and
sweep rates to be selected, and
trigger level. The dialog box analyzer features are useful, but
the times are in the usual 1-2-5-
offers further options such as a the abilities of the latter are
10 progression, as can be seen
preset delay, triggering on the severely restricted by the
in Fig.3.
rising of falling edge of a signal, relatively low sampling rate.
The same method is used to and the channel used as the
select a multiplication factor trigger source. The program has facilities
from 1 to 200, and this enables for printing traces, etc. to any
There are four channels Windows compatible printer,
part of the waveform to be
available, and each one can be and data can be saved to disk
viewed in detail. Of course, high
used to and exported via the clipboard.
measure The clipboard enables data to
Sound be exported in graph form or as
(waveform a text file containing a list of
or level), readings. There are various set-
Volts, up options that provide control
Ohms, pH, over the screen colors,
Temperatur maximum number of screen
e, Light, or updates per second, and
one of the various other factors.
external
inputs. It is
possible to
have all four
channels
operating
simultaneou
sly, with
Fig.6. You can have two oscilloscopes in operation each trace
simultaneously or, as here, three windows each drawn in a Fig.7. Setting up and select-
operating in a different mode. different ing the record program.
Special Review
output (where required), and the interface is apparently
PICOLOG channel to be used. compatible with any standard pH
By its nature, PicoLog is Once the preliminaries have sensor. The deluxe version
somewhat less straightforward been completed the data logging costs 99 UK pounds plus V.A.T.
to use. There are actually two can commence, and there are With PicoScope set to read
programs, which are the tape recorder style control the appropriate sensor or
recorder and the player. buttons just beneath the main sensors it is possible to have a
However, the recording program menu. These provide re-record, straightforward readout of
also has playback facilities, and record, pause/resume, and stop temperature or pH values, and
is possible to log and analyze functions. (or) a graph showing how the
data without resorting to the data changes over a period of
playback program. We will only The three control buttons on
the other side of the screen are time (Fig.9). The temperature
consider the recording program sensors cover a range of –10°C
here. The playback facilities of used to view data. The first
button just brings up a simple to +105°C, and pH is measured
the playback program seem to
be much the same as those of text editor that can be used for over a range of 0 to 14.
the recording program. notes. The other two buttons Probably most professional
bring up the data as a table of users and experimenters will opt
A certain amount of setting results or a graph (Fig.8). There
up is required before the for the standard kit, but the
are various control buttons in the deluxe kit seems to be a good
recorder is ready to do anything graph window that permit part of
useful, and the software choice for educational users.
the graph to be expanded and
includes a “guided tour” that viewed in detail, the graph to be
helps to get you started. The printed or copied to the CONCLUSION
first task is to run the recorder clipboard, and so on.
(Fig.7) and then select a The interface board is well
filename for the new data to be built and getting it “up and
saved under. Then the Settings OPTIONAL EXTRAS running” is about as simple as it
menu plus some dialog boxes possibly could be. With built-in
In addition to the standard sensors the unit can be used for
are used to set such things as
kit, Pico offer a deluxe version some simple experiments
the rate at which data will be
that also includes two straight away. The price is good
read, the maximum number of
temperature sensors and one but not especially low for what is
samples to be taken, threshold
pH type. One sensor of each really a fairly simple interface,
levels for the LED and digital
type is shown in Fig.10. The but the inclusion of the
PicoScope and PicoLog
software makes both the
standard and deluxe kits very
good value for money.
Both programs are
sophisticated enough to be
genuinely useful, but are still
reasonably easy to use. It is
only fair to point out that the
programs reviewed here are
beta versions that still have a
few bugs and omissions, but
this should all be sorted out by
the time this review is
published.
As pointed out previously,
DrDAQ is primarily aimed at
educational establishments,
Fig.8. Test result sound waveform graph. Various control but- and it can certainly be
tons in the graph window allow it to be enlarged, printed or recommended to those involved
sent to “clipboard”. in teaching computer interfacing,
Special Review
requiring an inexpensive but effective analogue-to-
digital converter, but only if they do not require high
sampling rates. The DrDAQ kits have enormous play
value for the electronics hobbyist, and are eminently
suitable for anyone looking for an inexpensive and
easy way into computer interfacing.
The DrDAQ standard kit costs 79.90 UK pounds
(59.00 plus 9.00 for delivery within Europe, and VAT).
The all-inclusive price for the kit with two temperature
sensors and one pH sensor is 126.90 pounds, or
103.40 pounds with two temperature sensors but no
pH type. Both types of sensor are available
separately.
For more information contact Pico Technology
Fig.9. Graph showing how the temperature Ltd., Dept EPE, The Mill House, Cambridge Street, St.
Neots, Cambridgeshire, PE19 1QB, UK. Tel. +44 (0)
data changes over a period of time.
Some of DrDAQ’s possible experiments.

Fig.10. The two types of sensors: left, temper-
ature sensor and right, pH sensor. Both types 1480-396395, Fax +44 (0) 1480-396296, Email
can be purchased separately. post@picotech.com. Also, additional information
and demonstration software, etc. is available from
or wishing to use computer based equipment when the Pico web sites at www.picotech.com and
demonstrating appropriate scientific experiments. www.drdaq.com
Incidentally, the Pico Technologies web site has
details of numerous experiments that can be
carried out using DrDAQ, and this information will
be included on the CD-ROM included with the kits.
DrDAQ is also suitable for professional users
CAPACITOR SIZE AND STORAGE ABILITY ARE BEING DRAMATICALLY
INFLUENCED BY AEROGEL FOAM TECHNOLOGY. IAN POOLE REPORTS.
Like many other areas of alternative. However they need SUPERCAP

electronics, capacitor technology to have very high levels of
capacitance if they are to In applications such as
is being developed and as a
undertaken this function these a new breed of capacitor
result existing capacitor types
correctly. known as supercapacitors or
are being greatly improved, and
supercaps are being used.
in other areas new types of Another application for high
Although these components
capacitor are appearing. It is value capacitors is to store
have been around for a while,
only necessary to look at a charge to enable high current
new developments are
printed circuit board today to see pulses to be generated. Under
improving their performance so
the very small surface mount these conditions the current
that they can meet the demands
capacitors that are in pulses may damage the battery,
being made on them.
widespread use. if this is the source of the power,
especially if the pulses are In areas where the
Years ago all capacitors
required frequently over a period capacitors are used to supply
were leaded and very much
of time, or the battery may not current pulses, one of the most
larger. Now with the widespread
be able to supply the pulse important attributes of the
use of surface mount technology
satisfactorily. capacitor, apart from
capacitors are very much
capacitance and working voltage
smaller. To achieve this has Whilst the battery may be
is the equivalent series
given capacitor developers able to deliver the required
resistance (ESR). This is
some significant challenges. It power over a longer period of
effectively the internal resistance
has been necessary to squeeze time, the high current pulse
of the capacitor, and if it is high
very high levels of capacitance requirement means that a larger
it will tend to limit the current
into minute packages and this battery needs to be used, and
capability.
has required new types of space or weight constraints may
dielectric to be developed. preclude this. Unfortunately it Cooper Electronic
often happens that both size and Technologies have developed a
Whilst surface mount
weight are of paramount new type of supercap that
technology has been a major
importance in today’s achieves significant reductions
driver in pushing forward many
equipment. in ESR when compared to other
developments in capacitor
similar capacitors. This enables
technology it is not the only one.
it to fulfil its role more efficiently
Higher voltages, greater
than before.
reliability and new applications
have also played a major part. The new capacitor is known
as the PowerStor Aerogel
capacitor. It is what is termed a
POWER STORAGE double layer capacitor and has
Fig.1. Representation of a electrodes formed from a
One such application is for a “standard” capacitor.
capacitor that is able to be material called carbon aerogel
charged up when a unit is under foam. This foam gives a high
power and hold its charge to electrical conductivity as well as
enable a memory to hold its data providing a controlled ultra-fine
or for another device to operate pore size and it provides a high
if there is a power failure. useable surface area for double
layer formation.
Rechargeable batteries do
not always perform particularly
well under these circumstances, Fig.2. How charge is stored
and capacitors are an in an aerogel foam capacitor.
New technology Updates
electronics applications they are less.
CONSTRUCTION crucial when high levels of pulse All of these attributes make
The construction of the new current are required. it an ideal choice for applications
capacitor bears many In addition to the low level of where a “hold up” current is
similarities to both Lithium Ion ESR the new capacitor has a required. Here the capacitor can
batteries and to electrolytic low level of leakage, and this is supply a small current of a few
capacitors (see Fig.1). A porous particularly useful in applications microamps or milliamps for a
separator is placed between the where the capacitor has to hold few hours or days, to keep a
two electrodes. This sandwich is its charge over any length of circuit operational after the main
rolled up and then inserted into time. power has been removed.
a can. Electrolyte is then added Typically a memory circuit or a
and absorbed by the separator. In addition to supplying
pulse currents, supercaps can clock may be required to remain
The can is sealed and the operational under such
electrodes added to the be used to provide power in
other areas where the current circumstances. In these circuits
electrodes that protrude from it. the very high capacitance rather
requirement is more even. Often
The electrodes are formed rechargeable cells are used in than the low ESR is the main
from the carbon aerogel foam. this function, but they have a requirement. The PowerStor
The charge is stored in this as number of disadvantages. supercap operates well under
shown in Fig.2. Here it can be these conditions.
seen that the porous nature of Firstly they have a limited
the foam gives a significant life. The quoted life of a cell
increase in the surface area that varies from one type to the next FUTURE
allows much greater levels of and may be a few hundred
In view of the very high
charge storage than would charge–discharge cycles. With
capacitance and low volume of
normally be possible with a each cycle their maximum
these components, it is hardly
conventionally manufactured capacity is slightly reduced.
surprising to note that the
supercap. Capacitors are able to undergo
working voltages are relatively
many thousands of charge–
low. Components in this range
discharge cycles with no
are available with a working
RESULTS degradation in performance.
voltage up to 2××75V. However,
The chief advantage of the Also they do not require the very
the company expects to
new material is that it provides a careful charging methods that
introduce a component with a
very low level of ESR. Typically are required by many types of
working voltage of 5××5V.
it can give a value of only 15 secondary cell.
milliohms for a 10 farad The capacitors also have Further information can be
capacitor, whereas a advantages over other large obtained from the Cooper
comparable part made by more capacitance components. When Electronics Technologies
traditional means might have a compared to electrolytics, the website at www.radio-
value of 200 milliohms. Although supercap has a far greater electronics.com
these values may appear to be capacitance for a given volume,
insignificant for normal and its leakage is very much
PART PART 9 – Transistors
by John Becker
With eight parts of our Teach-In 2000 series In the last two parts it has been opamps
complete, we trust that you are gaining a good that have been covered, allowing you to
grasp of what makes electronic circuits amplify and otherwise manipulate analog
function. We have covered various passive electrical signals. This month it is transistors
components, examined logic gate devices and we examine. These are not only the
other digital integrated circuits. You have also fundamental building blocks of any integrated
assembled and have been using a computer circuit, but are still used as individual devices
interface, which has allowed you to examine in many circuit designs. At the simplest level of
various waveforms generated by your understanding, they are not hard to use in a
experimental circuits. variety of ways.
At the heart of each active live State-side and could not get noting the different outline orien-
integrated circuit (IC) you have hold of the European type num- tation for the 2N3704 at the bot-
been using so far, whether it has bers from your local stockist – tom of the figure. Like so many
been a digital inverter, logic gate, also see Panel 9.1). It looks like electronic components, transis-
counter or opamp, is a collection the three small devices at the tors are very conscious about
of transistors, cleverly intercon- bottom center of Photo 9.2. correct power supply polarities.
nected during manufacture to per- As with opamps, we’ll first Indeed, we’ll briefly digress
form the function required. The run through a few experiments and point out Fig.9.3b and
same holds true for all the ICs you using this transistor, and then Fig.9.3c. The former shows the
could encounter in any of today’s we’ll don our Tutorial togas and pinouts (legouts?) for the BC549
electronic equipment. discuss what you’ve found. and the 2N3704, as though
The 74HC14 Schmitt trigger looking at an angled view of the
inverter you have made great use top of the transistor. Fig.9.3c
BASIC BITS FIRST shows them from underneath,
of through much of this Teach-In
series has 60 transistors. The Strip out any components which is the way most data
Pentium microprocessor in a currently inhabiting your bread- sheets show them.
modern computer has in excess board between columns 16 and Whereas ICs have numbers
of seven million! 36, temporarily remove oscillator allocated to their pins, transistor
capacitor C1, but otherwise legs or pins are referred to by
Despite the multitude of ways leave the oscillator and com-
in which many transistors can be letters. Those for the type of
puter interface circuits intact. transistor you’re using now are
connected together in single Then assemble the breadboard
packages, transistors continue to lettered c, b and e, the letters
layout shown in Fig.9.1, referring standing for collector, base and
find use as individual components to Fig.9.2 for the component val-
in a variety of more simple cir- emitter. You will see the same
ues and the equivalent circuit letters drawn within TR1 in
cuits. It is appropriate, therefore, diagram. The transistor is re-
that you now dig into your compo- Fig.9.1.
ferred to as component number
nents bag and pull one out for TR1. The circuit diagram symbol
closer examination! for this transistor, in Fig.9.3a,
Ensure that you plug in the shows the same letters next to
One marked BC549 is what transistor so that its shape
you need (or the 2N3704 if you the schematic legs, note the ar-
matches the outline in Fig.9.1,
TEACH-IN 2000
Fig.9.3. Symbol for an npn

transistor, plus pinouts for
BC549 and 2N3704.
Fig.9.2. Circuit diagram for of VR5 clockwise, while watching
the first transistor experiment the meter. As the rotation gets to
about one-tenth of full rotation, the
voltage reading on the meter
should begin to fall. There will
come a point, not long after the
wiper has passed the one-tenth
position, that the voltage will read
as 0V. It will remain at that level
however far you now rotate the
wiper towards the 6V end.
Rotate VR5’s wiper anticlock-
wise until the meter reading just
ceases to be at 0V. Disconnect
the meter and read the voltages
at VR5’s wiper and at the transis-
Fig.9.1. Breadboard layout tor pin marked “b” (base). Make a
for the first transistor experi- note of these values.
ment. Note the different ori- Return the meter to reading
entation for TR1 depending the collector voltage. Continue
on whether it is of type rotating VR5’s wiper anticlockwise
BC549 or 2N3704. until the meter reads just under
the maximum power supply volt-
row, which indicates current flow age. Again make a note of the
direction. We’ll say more on all voltage at VR5’s wiper and at
this by-and-by. TR1’s base.
Photo 9.1. Detail of the Slightly rotate VR5 back a bit
DISCOVERY TIME breadboard using a BC549 until the collector voltage reads
transistor. Ignore column about 3V (half the battery supply).
Before connecting your bat-
numbers. The position is very sensitive.
tery, and referring to Fig.9.1, set
Once more note the wiper and
the preset wipers as follows: Note the voltage reading base voltages.
VR1 and VR2 midway, VR5 fully you get at “Output” (the connec-
anticlockwise (wiper to 0V). tion to TR1’s collector, notated Now, equally slowly, adjust
Connect your multimeter be- as “c”), it should be virtually the VR2’s wiper, first fully anticlock-
tween the point marked “Output” same as the voltage being deliv- wise (maximum resistance be-
and the negative (0V) terminal ered by your battery, about 6V tween it and resistor R2), and
of your battery. Set the meter for or so. (It would be a good idea then fully clockwise (minimum re-
a DC range suited to monitoring to check your battery as well – if sistance between it and R2).
up to 6V. Connect power to the it’s delivering nearer to 5××5V, it’s In the first instance, increas-
breadboard in the same posi- time to change it!) ing the resistance will be accom-
tions as in previous parts of panied by a reduction in the volt-
Teach-In. Very slowly rotate the wiper
age at the collector, perhaps right
TEACH-IN 2000
asked you to do resistance) decreased the
in Part 7. collector voltage, and vice
In the versa.
opamp experi- f) with VR5’s wiper set for
ments, within midway bias and VR2 set
range limits dis- midway, increasing the re-
cussed in that sistance of VR1 (base re-
Tutorial, the resistance) increased the col-
sults showed lector voltage, and vice
linear responses versa.
between the in- g) You may well have found
put and output that, whereas we state min-
voltages, even imum and maximum bias
though amplifi- voltage levels of 0××6V and
Photo 9.2. A selection of transistors and other cation occurred. 0××7V, your observed read-
related components. Many other What you ings may be different, e.g.
case styles exist. should find minimum of 0××5V and maxi-
studying your mum of 0××6V.
down to 0V. In the opposite di- transistor voltage readings is
rection the voltage will rise, back that (within about 0××1V of the From these facts, and the
close to the power supply level, voltages we quote): knowledge you’ve gained in ear-
but possibly a little below it. lier parts of this series, you
Make a note of the voltage read- a) with VR5’s wiper voltage should now be able to deduce
ings at TR1’s collector and base below about 0××6V that:
when VR2’s wiper is at the ex- (minimum bias voltage
h) a change in current flowing
treme ends of its travel. level), the collector voltage
through VR2 must occur in
remained close to 6V, irre-
Again return VR2’s wiper to order to comply with the
spective of the settings of
the position at which the meter observed fact that its col-
VR1 and VR2.
reading is about 3V. lector voltage can be
b) with VR5’s wiper above changed depending on the
Preset VR1 is the next to
about 0××7V (maximum bias settings of one or more re-
adjust. Take a reading of TR1’s
base voltage before doing so. voltage level), the collector sistances (VR1 and VR5).
Maximum resistance between voltage would not decrease
i) a change in current flowing
VR1’s wiper (fully anticlockwise) below a certain level, that
through VR1 must occur
and resistor R1 should result in level being dependent on
since the base voltage can
an increase in the collector volt- the setting of VR1 and
never exceed about 0××7V,
age reading; note it and the VR2.
even though the voltage
base voltage. Minimum resis- c) with VR5’s wiper set about supplied by VR5 can be
tance will probably decrease the half-way between the mini- raised well above 0·7V.
collector voltage, perhaps even mum and maximum bias
j) when the base voltage is
as far as 0V; again note it, and voltage readings you made
below about 0××6V, the volt-
that at the base. (midway bias), the collector
voltage could be set for age at the wiper of VR5
varying levels, but again has the same value.
NOTED RESULTS dependent of the settings k) from (j), there is no current
Cogs are probably turning in of VR1 and VR2. flowing through VR1 when
your brain right now, wondering d) the voltage at TR1’s base the base voltage is below
about the meter readings you’ve never exceeded a voltage about 0××6V.
noted down. Do they follow a of about 0××7V, irrespective l) when no current is flowing
pattern? If so, it’s not a pattern of how high the voltage at through VR1, no current
such as you would have seen VR5’s wiper became. flows through VR2.
when examining the output of an
opamp in response to voltage e) with VR5’s wiper set for m) your min/max bias voltage
changes on its input, as we midway bias and VR1 set range may be below that
midway, increasing the re- which we state (or even a
sistance of VR2 (collector bit above).
TEACH-IN 2000
RAW NATURE PANEL 9.1 – IDENTYFYING TRANSISTORS
Two basic facts about tran- The American labeling system for transistor identification uses the
sistors emerge from these ob- prefix ‘2N’ followed by four numbers. The European system for label-
servations: ing standard transistors consists basically of two letters followed by
1) a minimum base voltage three numbers. Transistors for special applications are identified by
(in the region of about three letters and two numbers.
0·6V) must exist before The first letter indicates the material from which the transistor is
current will flow through the made:
base resistance.
A = germanium
2) the current flowing through B = silicon
the base resistance deter-
mines the current flowing The second letter indicates the typical area of use:
through the collector resis-
tance. C= low power, low frequency
D= power, for low frequency
In essence, the second fact F= low power for high frequency
sums up the entire nature of a L= power for high frequency
transistor. It is a current ampli- P= phototransistor
fier, purely and simply. The fact S= switching transistor for low power
that you have observed voltage U= switching transistor for high power
changes in respect of current
changes is a by-product of cur- The third letter, where included, does not generally have any par-
rent amplification. ticular significance, apart from manufacturer’s identification. There is
Typically, for the tran- sist no coding used to indicate whether a transistor is an npn or pnp type,
or type you are using now, the or whether it is bipolar or field effect, etc. (see Panel 9.3).
current amplification (gain) Bipolar transistors may also have a letter which follows the num-
might be about 100, thus 1mA ber, such as A, B, C or L. Letters A, B and C indicate the maximum
flowing into the base would amount of gain (amplification) which can be expected from a bipolar
cause a current of 100mA to transistor, it is usually quoted in data sheets as a range within which
flow into the collector (assuming the gain can be.
the resistance through which it Suffix C indicates a gain greater than that for suffix B, which in
flows will allow this amount of turn is greater than for suffix A. Transistors without a suffix can have
current flow). a gain anywhere between the extremes. Suffix L is not a gain code, it
is a pinout orientation code.
GAIN TERMINOLOGY Transistor specifications cannot be identified through the type
There are two “official” number. These facts can only be identified from data sheets and cata-
terms given to a transistor’s gain logs.
factor: hFE and hfe. The former value given is the expected gain through the transistor’s third leg,
refers to large signal (DC) for- provided by a typical transistor the emitter (e), but it does not
ward current gain, and the sec- flow through the collector. The
of that type. However, as with
ond to small signal (AC) forward collector current flows through
other component values, the
current gain. However, the com- the transistor and also out
gain is subject to a tolerance
plexities of the difference are through the emitter (but not
factor. The BC549 has a quoted
outside the scope of what we through the base). The total cur-
hfe range of 110 to 800. The
want to demonstrate. It is hfe rent flowing out through the
2N3704 has a range of 100 to
which is quoted in most data emitter is thus the total of the
300.
sheets and catalogs and is the base and collector currents.
value which we shall use here
(even though purists may at CURRENT FLOW The fact that a minimum
times regard its use as an over- bias voltage is required before
simplification). You are no doubt wondering current amplification can occur
about where the current flows, is something of a stumbling
Whenever you see hfe the answer is simple. Base cur- block, however. The problem is
stated for a transistor type, the rent flows into the base and out that the region is very narrow
TEACH-IN 2000
between the bias voltage just In extreme circumstances,
about causing current to flow particularly when there is no lim-
through the collector (causing the iting resistor in the collector
transistor to begin to conduct or path, a situation known as ther-
turn-on), and it allowing maximum mal run-away can develop, in
current to flow. The range is also which the increased current flow
somewhat unpredictable, from causes increased heating, which
three points of view. causes yet further increases in
First, the actual voltages con- current flow, and so on until the
cerned vary slightly, not only be- transistor gets so hot that it dies.
tween transistors of different You can prove that a tran-
types, but also between individu- sistor’s response is temperature
als of the same type. dependent (without endangering
Second, the current flowing it) in a very simple experiment:
between the base and emitter is Still referring to the circuit on
not just a product of that being Fig.9.4. Variation of transis- your breadboard, first set VR5’s
allowed through by the base resistor base-emitter current with wiper so that the collector volt-
tance, it is subject to a more fun- changes in base voltage. age is a little below the power
damental fact of nature. Here, line maximum. Now warm your
though, we are in danger of now on levels, and then further thumb and first finger against
peering into the awesome abyss, changes in bias current will be the side of a hot tea cup (or cof-
which holds the fundamental se- responded to as linear current fee cup if you prefer!). Then grip
crets of the universe, life and ev- gain through the collector- the transistor’s plastic body to
erything! emitter path. transfer heat to it. Observe the
So we’ll avoid that route and meter while doing so. The col-
Of course, once we have
its discussion of electrons, holes lector voltage will be seen to
predictable current gain, we can
and carriers and the like. Suffi- progressively fall as the transis-
think about what values of resis-
cient to say that at very small val- tor gets warmer.
tance in the collector path can
ues of bias applied to transistor’s be used to produce voltage Remove your fingers once
base, the current flowing between changes in respect of current you’ve seen the principle,
the base and emitter has an es- changes on the base. Which is whereupon the transistor will
sentially unpredictable value, and where Ohm’s Law comes in start to cool, allowing the collec-
can change exponentially in re- handy again: V = I x R. tor voltage to rise again.
spect of minute linear increases in
The third problem to be con- When you get a moment,
bias voltage. The graph in Fig.9.4
sidered about the circuit in see if you can plot graphs of the
illustrates this.
Fig.9.2 is one we have men- rate at which the collector volt-
tioned several times throughout age changes with time and tem-
TAMING BEHAVIOUR this series – temperature. The perature.
characteristics of a transistor are
Happily for us all (and the
heavily dependent on its temper-
electronics industry), there comes
ature. For example, the current
DEMO PROGRAM
a point once the bias has risen
flow into its base-emitter junc- Time to bring our virtual
sufficiently high into the “turn-on”
tion is likely to rise as the tem- guns into action – from the main
region, that further increases of
perature rises, either due to the program menu select Transis-
current flow into the base-emitter
temperature of the transistor’s tors – Menu.
path (junction) are responded to
surroundings, or due to internal On selecting this option, you
by linear increases in the current
heating caused by the current will be presented with a sub-
flow through the collector-emitter
flowing through the collector- option menu, devoted to the
path, but amplified by the gain
emitter path. transistor demos. As part of this
factor of the transistor.
In both cases, the result is screen is a text which briefly re-
Thus, in order to tame a tran-
that the increased current flow minds you that some transistor
sistor’s behavior, it is only neces-
through the transistor will cause responses can be a bit unpre-
sary to set up a basic bias voltage
the voltage at the junction of the dictable, and that the demos are
on its base, somewhere between
collector and its resistor to fall. just generalized guides to their
the minimum and maximum turn-
TEACH-IN 2000
Photo 9.3. Interactive demo screen which il- Photo 9.4. Interactive demo screen which il-
lustrates the basic transistor principle. lustrates DC voltage amplification.
behavior. PANEL 9.2 – BIPOLAR gain could be,

Selecting the first option, and often quoted
Transistors – Principle, reveals
TRANSISTOR ABBRE- in relation to a
another screen which shows you VIATIONS specified current
a theoretical transistor’s re- at which that gain
When you examine the data occurs.
sponse to varying levels of input sheets or catalog details for bipo-
current (see Photo 9.3). lar transistors, you are likely to o) VCEO(max) – Voltage maxi-
You will quickly spot, find a large number of columns mum which can
though, that there are two tran- and abbreviations describing each be applied be-
sistor outlines, not one. The rea- transistor’s characteristics. Until tween the collec-
son is that the transistor you are you are more fully knowledgeable tor and the emit-
using now has a mirror-image about other aspects of electron- ter.
“twin”. Yours is known as an npn ics, you can usually ignore most o) IC(max) – Current maxi-
type and as such has its collec- of them, with the following excep- mum which can
tor and emitter connected tions: safely be allowed
across the power lines as shown o) Type – npn or pnp to flow through
in Fig.9.2 and implied on the left the collector/emit-
of the screen display. o) Material – Silicon or germa- ter path.
nium (silicon tran-
The second transistor is sistors are far o) PTOT – Power total which
known as a pnp type and func- more widely used the transistor can
tions with an opposite polarity to than germanium, handle, the prod-
an npn, the emitter nearest to the latter having uct of the voltage
the positive line, collector near- become largely across the collec-
est to the lower voltage (e.g. 0V) obsolete). The tor and emitter
line. This is illustrated in the transistors used and the current
right-hand screen outline. Both in this Teach-In flowing between
transistor types belong to a gen- are made from them.
eral family known as bipolar. It is silicon. o) ft(typ) – Frequency up to
a term that describes the manu- which the transis-
facturing process. o) Pinout – The order in
which the transistor can typically
Although most of our dis- tor’s pins are ar- operate before
cussions are concerned with ranged. signal degrada-
npn types, later we shall briefly tion
describe and ask you to explore o) hfe(typ) – Gain occurs.
an example of a pnp type in op- (amplification fac-
eration. Basically, a pnp transistor), usually spec-
tor is used the “other way up”, ified as a typical
and is biased accordingly. range within
which the actual
The Principles screen dislay
TEACH-IN 2000
is interactive, use the control very sensitive to both base and Listing 9.1
keys stated. collector currents. It will fre-
quently show the same 10 Icmax = Vs / R2
“clipping” characteristics that 20 Rx = 1000
NPN DC AMPLIFIER you encountered when examin- 30 Ib = (Vin - 0.6) / (R1 + Rx)
40 IF Ib < 0 THEN Ib = 0
DEMO ing opamps. 50 Ic = hfe * Ib
In a real life situation, tran- 60 IF Ic > Icmax THEN Ic = Icmax
Sub-menu option two, NPN 70 Vc = Vs - (Ic * R2)
DC Voltage Amplifier, illustrates sistors used in the manner
a simple form of the circuit you demonstrated now are ex-
tremely difficult to bias so that commercial software programs
have been experimenting with. It
the output waveform retains the which provide such facilities. We
has been stripped to just two
shape of the original. The re- are simply demonstrating the
resistors, base and collector,
sponse is also very dependent most elementary characteristics
plus a variable DC base bias
on temperature. of transistors.
voltage (see Photo 9.4).
Where this circuit finds con- At the top of the screen are
We mentioned a few para-
siderable use, though, is as a shown the command lines which
graphs earlier that transistors
switch. The voltage at the collec- are used within the full QuickBA-
can die if too much current flows
tor is very easy to be caused to SIC program to perform the cal-
through them. This is why in ad-
swing between the two extremes culations whose results you see
dition to presets VR1 and VR2 in
of fully on or off in response to displayed, as repeated in Listing
Fig.9.2, we also have fixed re-
an input voltage swinging above 9.1 (but with line numbers to aid
sistors R1 and R2. The purpose
and below the 0××6V turn-on our description of it).
of these is to limit the maximum
current which you can cause to threshold. The program performs the
flow through the transistor, and Two particular applications interpretation of the basic simple
so avoid killing it through care- for this are in raising a low am- formula:
lessness. plitude input waveform to a max- Vc = Vs – (Ib x gain x R2)
With the demo screens imum power line level swing, where:
there is no chance of you killing and in switching on and off such
hardware as relays. In the latter Vc = collector voltage
the virtual transistors. You can
stick as much voltage or current case the relay coil Vs = positive power line voltage
through them as you wish! (electromagnet) is used in place Ib = base bias current
of resistor R2 (sorry, but relays
On entry to this demo, the
will not be examined in this Let’s quickly run through the
bias voltage is set just below a
Teach-In series). command lines:
theoretical turn-on voltage of
0××6V (at 0××56V). There are a 10. The maximum current
number of control options allow- CALCULATIONS (Icmax) which can flow
ing principal factors to be through the transistor is lim-
Be aware that the controlling
changed, including the ability to ited by the value of resistor
program which simulates the
use either a steady DC voltage R2 in relation to the power
transistor’s response is only a
or a sine wave as the input volt- supply voltage, Vs.
simple model of what actually
age. All control options are item-
happens in a real transistor. For 20. Rx represents the base-
ized on screen, as usual.
example, the base bias voltage emitter resistance referred
To bring in the sine wave range we discussed earlier is to a moment ago, and is set
input, first press <A> to highlight not allowed for, the “turn-on” for a nominal value of 1000
AC Amplitude. Then press the bias being taken as exactly 0××6V. ohms.
<*> key a few times to increase Neither has the varying current- 30. Ib represents the current
the waveform’s amplitude. At dependent base-emitter resis- flowing into the base. This is
low amplitudes you won’t see it tance been simulated. It has determined by the input volt-
as a sine wave because of the been taken as a fixed value of age (Vin) minus the 0××6V
screen resolution, but the calcu- 1000 ohms. In real life, the actu-
lations which are performed as- transistor turn-on voltage,
ally value can be vastly different. divided by the total value of
sume that it is sinusoidal.
However, we have not pro- the base input resistance,
Note how the output shape vided these demos as design consisting of R1 plus the
of the amplified waveform is tools, there are many excellent base-emitter resistance Rx.
TEACH-IN 2000
The basic formula here, as
you will recognize, is I = V /
PANEL 9.3 TRANSISTOR TYPES
R (Ohm’s Law). Bipolar transistors
40. Purely for the program’s The simplest type of transistor is known as a bipolar transistor
benefit, current into the base and it has three connections, referred to as the base, emitter and col-
is not allowed to fall below lector (usually abbreviated to b, e, c).
zero. There are two fundamental types of bipolar transistor, npn (think
50. The basic collector current of it as negative-positive-negative) and pnp (think of it as positive-
(Ic) that can flow, without negative-positive). These terms describe the internal construction po-
the presence of R2, is the larity between the junctions of collector, base and emitter.
base current (Ib) multiplied Current through a transistor’s principal terminals, the collector and
by the transistor’s supposed the emitter, should only be allowed to flow in one direction: from col-
gain. lector to emitter for npn, from emitter to collector for pnp.
60. For the program’s benefit, if For silicon npn transistors, base current must be supplied at a
the calculation result is minimum voltage level of around 0××6V above the voltage at the emitter
greater than resistor R2 can
before it will “turn-on”. For silicon pnp transistors, the turn-on voltage
allow (Icmax), the result is
is about 0××6V below the emitter voltage.
limited to that value.
For germanium transistors (now seldom encountered), the volt-
70. The current (Ic) flowing
age differential is about 0××3V.
through R2 and the collector
determines the voltage that This differential can sometimes make transistors easy to check in
appears at the collector circuit: if the voltage differential between the base and emitter is ever
(Vc). This is calculated by well above the “normal” level, the transistor is dead.
multiplying Ic by R2 and
subtracting the answer from
the supply voltage, Vs. Field effect transistors
Field effect transistors (FETs) do not require current flow in order
to be “turned on”. Instead, this control occurs in response simply to
At the top right of the screen the presence of a voltage (electrical field) on their control electrode
are shown the intermediate re- (pin), the value of the voltage determining the amount of current which
sults for Ib, Ic and Vc. They are can flow through the transistor’s main path. (There will be a small
those for the immediate value of amount of control current consumed, but it will be so extremely small
Vin, as shown to the left of R1. that it can essentially be discounted.)
In the full program the cal- FETs have three terminals, gate, source and drain, which are the
culations are repeatedly made equivalent of the bipolar base, emitter and collector, respectively. (In
for each voltage value being this context, the term gate should not be confused with a gate as
supplied to resistor R1, and plot- used in logic circuits.)
ted on screen as the output.
They are available as two basic types, known as n-channel and p-
It is important to note that channel. They are (usually) as conscious of their electrical orientation
the actual overall gain in respect to power line polarities as bipolar transistors.
(amplification) given to a voltage
or current, steady or varying, is
not necessarily the same as the Darlington transistors
transistor’s quoted gain value. It
Darlington is the name given to a configuration of two transistors
is limited by the collector resis-
connected as shown in Fig.9.5 (upper right), and combined in the
tance and whether or not the
same package. The first transistor has high gain characteristics, while
output signal becomes clipped.
the second is capable of passing high currents.
Incidentally, when the input
Because there are two base-to-emitter junctions in series, the
current causes the collector volt-
turn-on voltage for a Darlington is twice that of a single bipolar transis-
age to fall to the same voltage
tor, i.e. about 1××2V to 1××4V.
as on the emitter (in this case
0V), the transistor is said to be
TEACH-IN 2000
PANEL 9.3 TRANSISTOR TYPES cont saturated.
Phototransistors As previously said, if you
press <A> and then the <*> or
Phototransistors conduct current when exposed to light. They be- <+> keys you can cause a
long to the optoelectronics class of components. Other members of waveform to be input to TR1 via
the category include any device that responds to light falling on it, or VR1. For the most part the out-
emits light, or displays information in a controllable manner. Examples put will be seen to be an ampli-
of the latter two groups are light emitting diodes (LEDs) and liquid fied, but inverted, version of the
crystal displays (LCDs). input but with clipping on its up-
per peaks. This can be adjusted
Thyristors, triacs and diacs by changing the DC bias voltage
(use <D> and then the <* / + –>
Thyristors, triacs and diacs are three of the principal components keys).
in the area of power electronics, where the switching of large currents
and high voltages is involved. However, they can only block and con- Experiment with this for a
duct current, they cannot be used to amplify it. Strictly speaking they while, also changing the values
are not classified as transistors. for R1, R2, hfe and the power
supply voltage. You will find that,
Thyristors can be used to control AC or DC power; triacs and di- whilst the shape of the wave-
acs are principally intended for AC power control. form can be made to follow the
Thyristors and triacs are manufactured for switching currents input more adequately, it is not
which can range from a few hundreds of milliamps to several thou- easy to select the right combina-
sand amps and to voltages well over 1000V. tion of the changeable parame-
ters.
What is much easier,
Unijunction transistors
though, is to set high gain val-
A unijunction (UJT) or filamentary transistor has two bases, B1 ues and achieve full maximum
and B2, and an emitter. It is principally used in thyristor and triac firing to minimum output voltage
circuits. swings. This bears out our previ-
ous statement that this circuit is
more suited to switching rather
than waveform amplification.
IMPROVED
AMPLIFIER
If you were to connect the
triangle waveform from IC1a pin
1 (see previous parts of Teach-
In) to transistor TR1 on your
breadboard via preset VR1, with
preset VR5 removed, you would
find that the collector voltage
would always be at 0V (fully sat-
urated). The voltage from IC1a
pin 1 never falls below 0××6V and
so always keeps TR1 turned on.
As with the opamp circuit,
though, we can isolate the tran-
sistor from the DC influence of
the oscillator. Basically, this is
again done by inserting a capac-
itor (call it C1) between the oscil-
Fig.9.5. Circuit symbols for the various forms of transistor lator and the input to the ampli-
types. fier (TR1 base, in this case), see
TEACH-IN 2000
Fig.9.6.
On the breadboard layout
(Fig.9.7) we have also included
an opamp buffer (not shown in
Fig.9.6) between IC1a pin 1 and
this capacitor, to prevent
“loading the oscillator” (as dis-
cussed in Part 7). On its own,
C1 might still not allow the input
waveform voltage to swing ade-
quately above and below the
nominal 0××6V threshold. The sig-
nal level might cause TR1 to op-
erate in its principally unpre-
dictable bias region, in which the
base-emitter resistance can vary
greatly (as previously dis-
cussed). Fig.9.6. Circuit diagram for
the AC coupled phase-split
What we can do, though, is
amplifier.
to add an extra and greater fixed
current flow into the base, which
is just right to ensure that TR1 is level will always have the same
primarily biased to operate in its amplitude (minus a DC shift of
more linear region. In this way, 0××6V) as that being input, pro-
the incoming signal via C1, even vided the latter never falls below
if it is only very small, will cause the transistor’s 0××6V turn-on volt-
the collector voltage swing to age differential between base
become a more faithfully ampli- and emitter. Fig.9.7. Breadboard layout
fied version of the input wave- A second attribute, which for the circuit in Fig.9.6.
form. follows on from this, is that the Again note the different tran-
signal level is always the “same sistor orientation if using a
way up” as the original (as you 2N3704 instead of a BC549.
EASIER BIASING were able to achieve with the
In this circuit, the bias set- non-inverting opamp configura- as a phase-splitter. This term is
ting using VR5 is also far less tion). The output is said to have especially relevant when the
critical. The reason is that we the same phase as the input. In gain is set so that the amplitude
have introduced resistance into some respects, the emitter out- of the collector signal is the
the emitter path, using VR3 and put can be regarded as the tran- same as that at the emitter.
R3. sistor equivalent of an opamp Such a circuit is invaluable in a
The addition of emitter re- buffer. number of situations, one of
sistance creates two new situa- Even though the emitter out- which is in audio circuits if
tions. First, it allows a signal to put is not amplified, the signal at “push-pull” power amplification
be output at the emitter. Sec- the collector is still capable of is required (offering greater
ondly, it raises the effective re- being amplified according to the power handling efficiency).
sistance between the base and choice of collector resistance. It Before examining the bread-
emitter, so reducing the load continues to be an inversion of board setup of the phase-split
that the preceding circuit experi- the original, i.e. having an oppo- configuration, let’s again look at
ences through its connection to site phase. a computer demo. Select sub-
the transistor’s base. The tran- menu option NPN Phase-Split
sistor circuit is now said to have
a higher input impedance. PHASE-SPLIT Amplifier (see Photo 9.6).
AMPLIFIER When you experiment with

An important point about the the demo circuit, it will become
signal output at the emitter is Because the circuit pro- obvious why the base bias set-
that it does not provide an ampli- duces two signals of opposite ting is far less critical in this cir-
fied signal. The output voltage phases it is sometimes known
TEACH-IN 2000
poses, independent of the tran- lel formula (see Part 1):
sistor’s own gain factor.
Rb = 1 / ((1 / R5) + (1 / Rx))
With this configuration, the
actual gain applied to any wave- Therefore the base voltage
form is simply defined by the for- (Vb), in the absence of an input
mula: signal, is defined by using the
potential divider formula, as:
gain = R2 / R3
Vb = Vs x (Rb / (R4 + Rb))
This is not to say that hfe is
unimportant, it isn’t. It plays a Because there is a
part in the impedance that the (nominal) voltage drop of 0××6V
incoming signal’s source sees, between the base and emitter,
and in determining the bias volt- the emitter voltage (Ve) is thus
age at the base, and hence the Vb – 0××6 (providing, of course Vb
voltage at the emitter. However, is greater than 0××6V, if it’s not
in most circuits, the input then Ve = 0V).
impedance imposed by the bias-
Photo 9.5. Detail of the ing resistors will be lower than The collector voltage (Vc) is
the effective base-emitter resis- then defined as:
breadboard using a BC549
transistor. tance and the latter can have Vc = Vs – ((Vb – 0×6) x (R2 /
less significance.
R3))
cuit. Whereas previously the
bias had to be set precisely To establish the collector
within the 0××6V region, we now DEMO and emitter voltages when a
have a situation in which a base CALCULATIONS waveform is applied via capaci-
bias voltage in excess of the tor C1, its instantaneous value
In the control program for
nominal 0××6V will appear at the (Vin) is simply added to the
this circuit, the appropriate sec-
emitter, minus 0××6V. The emitter value of the base voltage (Vb) in
tion of which is shown at the top
resistance “takes up the slack”, the equation defining Vb.
of the screen, a lot of com-
so to speak. mands are required to produce
This circuit is only for use a reasonable model of what EXCESS INPUT
with AC coupled input signals happens.
(the bias setting resistors would
VALUES
First, the resistance (Rx)
simply impose a greater load on between the transistor base and A curious fact is worth high-
a DC coupled circuit without ac- emitter has been redefined to lighting about the relationship
tually providing the required bring hfe and the value of R3 into between the collector and emit-
bias). play. Again an assumption has ter voltages. It must be obvious
When choosing the values been made about it having a that the collector voltage can
for the potential divider R4 and predictable value which, as we never go below that on the emit-
VR5, we select them so that, in have said before, is not neces-
the absence of an input signal, sarily the case in a real transis-
the collector voltage sits at tor.
about the midway power line For the sake of this demo,
level, and the emitter voltage is we have defined Rx as:
just above 0V.
Rx = R3 x hfe x 100
This ensures that the collec-
tor output waveform can swing With R3 in play, but having
evenly, and that the emitter out- the effective value Rx, the volt-
put waveform never “bottoms- age at the base is set by the po-
out” (never reaches 0V). tential divider in which R4 is the
A further and really impor- upper part, and the lower part
tant point about this circuit is (Rb) comprising R5 in parallel Fig.9.8 Using diodes to pro-
that the signal gain at the collec- with Rx. tect a transistor from excess
tor is, to all intents and pur- Using the resistors in paral- input voltage
TEACH-IN 2000
exceed it, the cathode on the base of TR1.
internal na- In both cases, excess volt-
ture of the age flows through the diode to
transistor or from the relevant power line.
preventing it. The voltage drop across each
To pre- diode is about 0·7V (as dis-
vent the latter cussed in Part 4) and the volt-
from happen- age on the base is limited to
ing, a diode within ±0××7V of the power lines.
(D1 in
You are more likely to en-
Fig.9.8) can
counter circuits which use the
Photo 9.6. Screen dump of the interactive npn be connected
negative-limiting diode (that
Phase-Split Amplifier demo. in parallel with
across R5), rather a diode
R4, cathode (k)
across R4. (CMOS integrated
ter, since the current flows on the positive
circuits have voltage limiting
through the collector to the emit- power line, anode (a) on the
diodes between their inputs and
ter. base of TR1.
the internal power connections
By the same token, one A related problem exists if to “short out” such excess volt-
might expect that the emitter the input voltage level falls ages).
voltage will always be less than greatly such that a negative volt-
Note that the diode must be
or equal to the collector voltage. age appears on the transistor
capable of handling the currents
Not necessarily so, as you can base. Whilst the transistor can
that are likely to flow in excess
illustrate via your screen demo withstand a certain amount of
input voltage situations. In most
presently (using a very high in- reverse bias (base less positive
cases, though, a diode such as
put amplitude). than the emitter) there are limits
the 1N4148 type you have been
Suppose that the incoming as stated in transistor data
using in the oscillator circuit will
signal has a positive peak value sheets. If these are exceeded,
provide adequate protection.
which exceeds the calculated the transistor could die.
Also be aware that the
collector voltage by at least Another diode (D2 in
diodes will place a load on the
0××6V. The collector voltage can- Fig.9.8) can prevent this, using it
signal source if they are caused
not fall to its expected value, it in parallel with R5, anode on 0V,
to conduct. In some cases it
can only fall to the same level as
on the emitter. Consequently,
the collector voltage waveform
will take on an unexpected
shape (see Photo 9.7).
The collector voltage begins
to fall in the usual way as the
input voltage starts to rise.
Then, as the input level contin-
ues to increase, the collector
and emitter voltages become
equal. Further increases in the
input voltage now cause the
emitter voltage to rise higher
still, and the collector voltage is
also forced to rise.
In extreme circumstances, Photo 9.7. Composite screen dump of three transistor-
where the peak input voltage
level exceeds the power line
amplified waveforms as monitored at the collector. Top,
voltage supplying the transistor, evenly amplified using correct base biasing. Middle, lower
the emitter voltage can actually part of waveform distorted by emitter voltage rising too
rise above the supply voltage, high. Bottom, base bias too low causing waveform to satu-
although the collector cannot rate (“bottom-out”).
TEACH-IN 2000
PANEL 9.4 – CALCULATING RESISTORS generated when the transistor is
only partly turned on, rather than
When deciding which range of resistor values to choose from in when it is fully turned off or fully
an amplifying circuit, the first matter you should consider is what load turned on. This is due to the
is going to be placed on the collector output by the circuit into which it transistor offering resistance to
feeds. the current flow when it is only
The resistance of the load forms a potential divider with the col- partly turned on.
lector resistor R2 as its upper part. The voltage output at the collector Recalling the derivative of
can only ever have a maximum of the potential divider voltage. As dis- Ohm’s Law from Part 3, which
cussed in other parts (e.g. Part 1), the load should have a resistance states that P = I x V, where P is
at least 10 times greater than the resistance of the significant divider the power in watts, you measure
arm, i.e. R2 should be at least 10 times less than the minimum load the voltage drop between the
resistance. transistor’s collector and emitter,
Once R2’s value is known, the other resistor values can be cho- and the current flowing into the
sen to achieve the optimum biasing as discussed. Should doubt exist collector. From this you can cal-
about any current requirements, assume a worst case condition and culate whether the transistor is
calculate accordingly. It is always better to have more current capabil- safely operating within its cur-
ity available than is likely to be consumed. rent and wattage limits.
Always ensure that the components you use are capable of han- Another test that can some-
dling the currents and wattages required. Err on the side of caution in times be useful (if not very sci-
all cases and don’t allow components to exceed their limits. Manufac- entific), is to feel the transistor
turers’ data sheets quote component limits and other parameters. between your fingers. If it feels
hot, then it is probably too hot,
and the current flow should be
may be desirable to have a same phase and amplitude as reduced. With power transistors
current-limiting resistor between the signal on the base. What (those designed to handle high
them and the source (e.g. Rx as may not be immediately appar- currents), metal heatsinks can
in Fig.9.8). ent is that the current available be clipped or bolted to them to
When you have assembled at the emitter is related not only dissipate excess heat. That is
the split-phase circuit layout of to the resistance in the collector another story, though, beyond
Fig.9.7, experiment with the pre- emitter path (R2 + R3 as in the scope of this series.
sets and observe the results on photo 9.6), but to the current
gain provided by the transistor. The benefit of a transistor
your computer (Analog Input configured in this mode, known
Waveform Display) and meter. If we remove resistor R2, as emitter-follower mode, is that
the total current flowing into R3 it can be used as a buffer to in-
is the current flowing into the crease the impedance
NPN AC AMPLIFIER base times the gain (hfe) of the (resistance) seen by a preceding
DEMO transistor. The maximum current circuit, allowing the current-
that can be allowed to flow into amplified signal to drive (feed
A shortened version of the R3 is only limited by what the
phase splitter which is well into) a much lower resistance.
transistor can safely handle. In
suited to AC coupled signal the case of the BC549, this is a The mode can be used for
switching is demonstrated in the maximum of 100mA; the AC and DC coupled signals.
sub-menu selection NPN AC 2N3704 can handle 800mA.
Voltage Amplifier. In it, the emit-
ter is taken direct to the 0V line. However, the “safely” term CURRENT AMP
must also take in account the
We shall not discuss this demo,
heat which will be generated
DEMO
but let you explore it at your
leisure. within the transistor when that The demo program NPN DC
current flows, in other words, the Current Amplifier shows a sim-
wattage limits of the transistor ple circuit for a DC coupled
TRANSISTOR must also be considered. The emitter follower (with the collec-
BUFFER limits for the BC549 and 2N3704 tor resistor R2 omitted).
are 625mW and 360mW re- In the demo, emitter resistor
We have commented on the spectively. R3 represents the resistance of
emitter voltage retaining the
Note that more heat will be the load (e.g. next circuit) into
TEACH-IN 2000
which the amplified current can vider formula: VR2 is at its minimum. If you
be fed. The use of base resistor wish, replace R2 and VR2 by a
R1 is not always necessary. Vb = Vin x (Rx / (R1 + Rx)) wire link between the collector
The maximum current that where Rx = R3 x hfe x 100 and the positive line, but retain
can flow through R3 is ex- (using the same assumption as R3 and VR3 in the emitter path
pressed according to Ohm’s discussed earlier) as a safety measure.
Law, I = V / R The program’s calculation
With R1 omitted, the current commands and intermediate re- NEXT MONTH
(Ie) which will flow through R3 sults are again shown at the top In Part 10 we examine the
is: of the screen. theory of power supplies, includ-
I = (Vb – 0××6) / R3 or Experiment with the pro- ing those operated from the AC
gram’s options, and then return mains. However, we shall not
I = Ve / R3 to your breadboard layout in ask you to actually plug anything
Fig.9.6 for of the Split-Phase cir- into the mains (other than your
For the demo calculations
cuit and experiment there, con- computer as usual!).
and with R1 included, Vb is cal-
centrating on the emitter voltage
culated using the potential di-
when the collector resistance
TEACH-IN 2000 – EXPERIMENTAL 9
As this month’s first experi- ponents you were advised to ob- sistor’s input capacitor C1 and
mental suggestion, insert LEDs tain in Part 1) into the collector its base, referring to the circuit
(light emitting diodes) into the and emitter paths, in place of diagram shown in Part 8,
emitter and collector paths in the LEDs. Allow the oscillator Fig.8.13.
your breadboard assembly of frequency setting to vary the Next remove oscillator
Fig.9.7 from the Tutorial. Each rate at which the buzzer is diodes D2 and D3 again, and
should be placed between the turned on and off. Which posi- replace D3 with a 100 ohm re-
relevant power line and existing tion of the buzzer produces the sistor.
100 ohm resistor. An extra link best response, in the collector or
wire will be needed for each of emitter path? Running the Computer as
them. Frequency Counter program,
Reinstate diodes D2 and D3 connect the output of IC1a pin 2
Discover how the LEDs can in the oscillator circuit (see Part to one of the computer interface
give an indication of the transis- 4, Fig.4.1) and experiment with inputs. Discover the range of
tor’s response to different different ramp waveform set- frequencies that you can hear
choices of circuit gain and signal tings, discovering how the through the headphones. Use
bias. buzzer’s on-to-off periods can different values of oscillator ca-
Remember that a LED re- be changed. Try different values pacitor C1 and settings for its
quires a voltage drop across it of for the oscillator’s capacitor C1. preset VR1.
about 2V. If the LED is placed
between the emitter and 0V, AUDIO OUTPUT
how does this affect the base MIC AND SENSORS
bias voltage required to turn it If you insert your head- With the opamps discussion
on? phones into the collector or last month, we explained how an
emitter paths (LEDs and buzzer electret microphone, a light sen-
Can you have LEDs in both
removed), you can hear the fre- sor (LDR) and a heat sensor
the collector and emitter paths
quency generated by the oscilla- (thermistor) could be used with
at the same time?
tor around IC1a. How does the an opamp circuit.
base bias voltage setting affect
We believe that now having
BUZZER CONTROL not only the volume of the sound
worked your way through eight
but also its quality?
Experiment with placing the Tutorials, your confidence will be
active buzzer (one of the com- Also try inserting a volume such that you can experiment
control preset between the tran-
TEACH-IN 2000
with finding out how all three de- PANEL 9.5 – PRINTER PORT PROBLEM
vices can be used with a transis-
tor amplifier. With your head- A few readers have experienced problems regarding the voltages
phones still in use, start off by obtained when their demo PCB is coupled to the computer via the
putting the microphone into cir- Centronics printer port cable, in some cases experiencing negative
cuit. voltages.
Then, with headphones re- It appears as though there are at least three different wiring ar-
moved, experiment with the two rangements for Centronics cables, even though the fittings at each
sensors, monitor the response end are the same:
on your meter and the com-
o) Type 1 – No pins connected to ground, but case connected to
puter’s waveform display pro-
ground.
gram.
o) Type 2 – One pin only connected to ground.
o) Type 3 – At least five pins connected to ground.
PNP CONVERSION We were totally unaware that PC to Centronics printer port cables
Now for another challenge might differ. We have numerous such cables and all work inter-
(or more)! changeably and we have never had to specify a particular type when
Our discussions and demos purchasing new ones. It had been assumed that IBM PC-compatible
in this month’s Tutorial were all computers would all be identically compatible in respect of parallel
associated with transistors of printer port connections.
the type thaty we referred to as The IBM data we have states that Centronics parallel printer con-
npn. We mentioned that an nectors have 0V (ground) at the following pins: 16, 17, 19 to 30 and
“upside-down” version of this 33. The Teach-In interface board was designed to minimize the num-
transistor type exists, that known ber of soldered connections that inexperienced constructors would
as pnp. have to make.
With a pnp transistor, cur- Consequently, only one 0V connection was incorporated, that be-
rent flows from the emitter into ing the one at the “front” of the connector.
collector, and from the emitter Readers who are having problems which might be attributable to
into the base. When the differ- the printer port connection should try connecting all the 0V pins to the
ence in the base bias and emit- 0V pin already in use on the Teach-In board, as shown below. Solder
ter voltages is less than 0××6V, connecting wire between all the 0V pins, ensuring that it is insulated
the transistor is turned-off. A against connecting to other pins.
bias voltage difference greater
than this turns the transistor on.
When turned on, the current
flowing through the emitter-base ponent positions have been

path causes a current to flow swapped between top and bot-
through the emitter-collector tom to match the reverse emitter
path, amplified by the gain (hfe) and collector positions. Their
of the transistor. Apart from the values, though, are identical for
different current flow directions, each circuit.
pnp and npn transistors behave The pnp transistor you re-
identically. quire from your bag is marked
In Fig.9.9 is shown the pnp either BC559 or 2N3702.
equivalent of the npn phase- The breadboard layout for
splitting circuit of Tutorial the circuit of Fig.9.9 is given in
Fig.9.9. Circuit diagram for a Fig.9.6. Compare the two cir-
pnp Phase-split amplifier. Fig.9.10. Reassemble the board
cuits and observe how all com-
TEACH-IN 2000
Again check out your results
on the meter and computer dis-
play.
Fig.9.11 Symbol for a pnp

transistor plus pinouts for
BC559 and 2N3702.
to match this layout and perform

the same experiments as you
did for its npn counterpart. Use
your meter and computer dis-
play to observe the results.
You might also care to ex-
periment with the LEDs, buzzer
and headphones insertion as
you did for the npn circuit.
When you’ve spent a while
at this, turn your attention back
to Fig.9.1 and Fig.9.2. Recon-
Fig.9.10. Breadboard layout struct the breadboard in Fig.9.1
for the circuit in Fig.9.9, for use with the pnp transistor. It
will help if you first redraw
again with choice Fig.9.2 as a pnp circuit diagram.
of transistor.
A ROUNDUP OF THE LATEST EVERYDAY NEWS
FROM THE WORLD OF ELECTRONICS
3G AND UMTS MOBILES

The new 3G mobile networks will offer higher data rate exchanges.
Barry Fox looks at the figures.
The UK’s recent 3G fre- ing with existing operators who for transmission and another
quency auction was the first in already have GSM 900 or DCS slice for reception, as with exist-
the world, and earned the Trea- 1800 spectrum. TIW’s License A ing cellphones. Paired spectrum
sury about 22××5 billion UK is two times 15MHz paired plus will be used with W-CDMA,
5MHz unpaired, License B is wideband code division multiple
pounds. BT/Cellnet paid 4bn,
two times 15MHz paired and no access. This is a spread spec-
Vodafone 6bn, Orange 4bn,
unpaired, Licenses C to E are trum system where all users use
One2One 4bn, and TIW of
two times 10MHz paired plus the whole band, but their signals
Canada 4××4bn. All the licensees
5MHz unpaired. are digitally labeled.
must now pay a similar amount
to build new networks. Unpaired spectrum must be
Paired Spectrum used for time division duplex
The Isle of Man should pro-
(TDD) mode of CDMA working;
vide a dry run, with the first ser- “Paired spectrum” means a single frequency is used for
vice, promised by British Tele- that a slice of frequencies is set both receive and transmit. This
com (BT) and its subsidiary aside for the base station to use is how the digital cordless phone
Manx Telecom, due to launch
next year, a year ahead of the
UK. NEW MICROCHIP CD-ROM
Frequency Limits
3G, third generation mo-
biles, will use the UMTS or Uni-
versal Mobile Telecommunica-
tions System, which is now an
international standard, on higher
frequencies than current sys-
tems (1900-1980, 2010-2025,
2110-2170 MHz). This allows for
data rates of up to 2Mbits/sec.
But the actual data speeds
on offer will usually be far lower,
because of error correction Microchip’s new 2000 Technical Library CD-ROM is now avail-
overheads; 144Kbps for full mo- able. It contains a complete compilation of documentation on the PIC
bility applications over wide ar- microcontrollers and associated development tools, plus all other Mi-
eas; 384Kbps for limited mobility crochip devices and peripherals. Source listing examples are also in-
applications with 2Mbps used cluded.
only for low mobility applications The CD-ROM replicates the information on Microchip’s web site
in very small cells. and can be viewed with an HTML browser.
The issue is further compli- For further information contact Arizona Microchip Technology
cated because the licenses are Ltd., Dept. EPE, Microchip House, 505 Eskdale Road, Winnersh Tri-
for different amounts of spec- angle, Wokingham, Berks RG41 5TU, UK.
trum, which will limit the band-
Tel: +44 (0) 118-921-5858
width the operators can offer.
New entrant TIW gets License A Fax: +44 (0) 118-921-5835
and a better chance of compet- Web: www.microchip.com
NEWS......
systems CT2 and DECT work. A nounced GPRS roaming trials safer, or in the fond belief that
chunk of data is transmitted, with AT&T in the UK, USA, they protect the head from radi-
then a chunk received, then a Hong Kong and Taiwan. ation. The results were so sur-
chunk transmitted, and so on. Orange has been mysteri- prising that Which? did the tests
The mobile stitches them to- ously quiet on HSCSD and in again.
gether. late April admitted that the The connecting cords acted
Although existing GSM/ Christmas service had still not as vertical aerials, channeling
DCS1800 cellphone services been launched. According to Or- three times as much radiation
run only at painfully slow ange all the network modifica- into the head. Holding the phone
9××6Kbps (compared to 33××6Kbps tions were in place by the end of out sideways, so that the cord is
or 56Kbps from a fixed line mo- 1999, but Nokia failed to deliver horizontal, kills the radiation.
dem) there are two ways to ac- the PCMCIA cards that will plug
celerate GSM and DCS1800 into a laptop PC and connect to
a phone.
Whose Responsibility?
data links. The irony is that the
current operators are already In practice the difference The BT Cellnet headset is
working on this. between 144Kbps for 3G and not made by Cellnet. But that’s
112Kbps for GPRS/GSM may no excuse. If anyone else
not make much difference, be- started selling products marked
System Services BT Cellnet or Carphone Ware-
cause the limiting factor is more
Last year, Orange was likely to be Internet congestion. house they could very soon ex-
promising to launch a new ser- MPEG-4 video will be possible pect to hear from the compa-
vice for Christmas called High at either speed. The key issue nies’ lawyers.
Speed Circuit Switched Data, will be cost per minute on line This divided responsibility is
which hikes the speed to and this will be controlled by the the crux of the problem. If one
28××8Kbps. four existing cellphone operators company made both the phone
Rivals One2One, Cellnet and a newcomer crippled by and the headset we could hope
and Vodafone were, however, high license and start up costs. that they had used filters to stop
waiting a year for completely dif- 3G looks most unlikely to be the radio signal going up the au-
ferent technology, called Gen- cheap. dio lead, and screened the lead
eral Packet Radio Service. to stop it radiating. As things
stand responsibility is split.
Both systems are authorized
by ETSI, the European MOBILE PHONE Very possibly there are
Telecommunications Standards EARPIECE other kits that don’t radiate. But
Institute, but are not fully com- so far no-one has spoken out
patible. SAFETY QUES- with a test-based reassurance.
HSCSD uses less error cor- TIONED Graeme Jacobs, Editor of
rection to increase the basic Which?, is very blunt about
GSM data rate to 14××4Kbps, and Which? discovers phone shields, too. “The ones
then gangs channels together to looked at don’t help, so if you’re
hands-free earpieces thinking of buying one, don’t
give 28××8Kbps or higher.
might increase waste your money”.
GPRS works on the as- alleged radiation haz-
sumption that most users do not
need constant data speed. A ards. Barry Fox reports. Testing the Allegation
pool of capacity serves several Which? reminds that there
users at the same time, with bits The recent auction of fre- is no scientific evidence that
allocated as and when they are quencies for third generation cellphones are dangerous. If
needed. Services are promised mobiles coincided with fresh they are, it will take years to
for September 2000, with questions on cellphone safety. prove. It will be even more diffi-
speeds up to 56Kbps, rising to While testing cellphone shields cult to reassure that there is no
112Kbps by 2001. Which? also tested a couple of risk. Negatives are well-nigh im-
In March 2000 Vodafone the hands-free earpieces (from possible to prove.
claimed the “first public GPRS BT Cellnet and Carphone Ware- The cellphone manufactur-
demonstration” at a trade exhibi- house) that people use, either ers have yet to take the blind-
tion in Birmingham, while BT an- for convenience, to make driving
NEWS......
ingly obvious and easy step of
The newsletter also has its
putting the aerial on the bottom NEC Boosts Scotland usual offerings of tips and ideas
of the phone so that is in free
The NEC Corporation will for the electronics enthusiast.
space in front of the jaw, not flat
this year invest a further 60 mil- We’ve said it many times, but
against the head. Inverse
lion UK pounds in its subsidiary we have no hesitation in saying
square law would then drasti-
NEC Semiconductors (UK) Ltd again that if you want to belong
cally reduce the strength of the
in Scotland. The additional in- to a worthwhile Club that en-
signal reaching the body.
vestment will go towards further courages interest in electronics,
strengthening the Scottish plant then consider joining the
BLUETOOTH BITES as a global production centre in B.A.E.C.
NEC’s electron device business. For more information, con-
Many moons ago we re-
ported on how Bluetooth would The plant will be upgraded tact the Hon. Secretary, Martyn
provide a revolutionary standard to use leading-edge 0××18 micron Moses, 5 Park View, Cwmaman,
for short-range wireless commu- process technology, producing Aberdare, Mid Glam CF44 6PP,
nication which is intended to re- around 27,000 wafers a month. UK.
place cables connecting PCs to For more information Tel: +44 (0) 1685-879025
peripherals. Founded by global browse www.nec-global.com Email: MP-
technology leaders, Bluetooth is
MOSES@compuserve.com
supported by over 1000 organi-
zations. Ericsson estimate that UK and the Comet Web: members.tripod/
before the year 2002, Bluetooth ~dledgard/baec.htm
will be a built-in feature in more The Surrey Space Centre,
than 100 million mobile phones part of the University of Surrey,
and many millions of other com- has won a contract to manufac- FARNELL WEB SITE
munications devices. Bluetooth ture the attitude control momen- Leading distributor Farnell
is effective over a 10 meter dis- tum wheel for the Rosetta Lan- has recently launched an all new
tance and line of sight is not re- der mission to be launched in e-commerce web site. Available
quired. 2004. The Rosetta spacecraft to anyone with Internet access,
will rendezvous with comet 46P/ the site combines an intuitive
Brain Boxes have now Wirtanen nine years later, map-
launched and demonstrated the user interface with sophisticated
ping its surface in fine detail and searching facilities to deliver
world’s first working PCMCIA land a package of instruments
Type 2 Bluetooth module at the what Farnell describe as
on its surface. “unrivalled access” to their
recent CeBIT 2000 fair in
Hanover. The product becomes For more information 100,000-plus branded products
available in commercial volumes browse www.sstl.co.uk and services.
by June 2000. Amongst the Farnell has built extensive
other Bluetooth products to be B.A.E.C. product search facilities into the
launched will be a printer port to site and combined this with a
Bluetooth box, with support Again we are given the op- convenient “shopping basket”
available in all Windows operat- portunity to publicize that system for order assembly.
ing systems. renowned institution, the British There is seamless hyperlinking
Amateur Electronics Club to over 750 Farnell supplier web
For more information con-
(B.A.E.C.), with the arrival of sites making available a vast
tact Brain Boxes Ltd., Dept EPE,
their latest newsletter (No 135, array of additional details on
Unit 3c, Wavertree Boulevard
April 2000). products.
South, Wavertree Technology
Park, Liverpool L7 9PF, UK. One of the benefits of be- The new web site comple-
longing to B.A.E.C., Chairman ments Farnell’s 6-book paper
Tel: +44 (0) 151-220-2500 and Editor George Burton re- catalog by providing an alterna-
Fax: +44 (0) 151-252-0446 minds us in his Editorial, is that tive means of obtaining products
E-mail sales@brainboxes.com the Club has a library of several and information 24 hours day,
hundred books (mostly paper- 365 days a year. A CD-ROM
Web: www.brainboxes.com back) which are available on version is also available.
loan for the cost of the return
Tel: +44 (0) 870-1200-200
postage. The newsletter item-
izes the books available. Web: www.farnell.com/uk
John Becker addresses some of the general points readers have raised. Have
you anything interesting to say? Email us at editor@epemag.com!
important. 5) Never send open letters ad-

WIN A DIGITAL dressed as “Dear Sir” etc.
MULTIMETER Ten (+1) Golden Rules for Find the exact names and
selling ideas: job titles of both manage-
1) Develop any ideas you have ment and the plebs who do
The DMT-1010 is a 3 1/2 digit the work and decide who
informally, to see how
pocket-sized LCD multi-meter “logical” they are: only ever might be best to contact.
which measures a.c. and d.c. spend significant money and People in sales are the easi-
voltage, d.c. current, and re- time on ideas where you est to find (for obvious rea-
sistance. It can also test know it satisfies a current sons) but often the hardest
diodes and bipolar transistors. need which is not being to make any progress with.
filled, or filled badly at the Try to get them to give you a
Every month we will give a present time. name of a technical contact.
DMT-1010 Digital Multimeter Always try and speak to
to the author of the best Read- 2) Only concentrate on things
people are likely to spend people on the phone and
out letter. money on; a remote control begin the conversation by
integrated into a coffee table saying that you “need ad-
is probably useful to some- vice” on a new product idea
body but nobody is ever rather than trying to sell it to
likely to buy one. If it is to them in the first 10 seconds.
business then it’s likely that If nothing else these conver-
* LETTER OF THE products that save money sations will often give you
MONTH * will succeed. If its aimed at high quality market research
consumers, then things like data. Try to strike up a rap-
fashion, labor saving fea- port with the person on the
SELLING IDEAS AND IN- tures, etc. are often impor- other end of the phone, after
VENTIONS tant. all they’re human too, and
will often respond positively
Dear EPE, 3) Research your target com- if you’re friendly and ami-
I was saddened but maybe panies (customers) VERY, able. Practice on your bank
not surprised to read Jim De- VERY carefully. Understand manager.
laney’s letter (Readout May ’00) their current product line,
work out a logical fit for your 6) Be prepared and plan realis-
regarding the reception he had tically for failure; if you go
from various companies and indi- invention in their current
product range. If you can’t into a meeting deciding the
viduals when trying to sell his in- color of the Porsche you’ll
ventions. From two years of earn- see where your product fits,
they’re probably the wrong buy with the proceeds from
ing a living from doing just this I selling your idea, you’re
can understand how tough it ap- company.
doomed to disappointment.
pears. On the bright side there 4) Work out who their competi- This can de-motivate you
are ways of approaching this that tors are (this is becoming just at the time you need to
might be more likely to bring suc- progressively easier with the be at your most productive.
cess, or at least won’t leave you Internet). If the first com-
feeling as downcast when another pany turns you down, ap- 7) If you do manage to sell
rejection letter hits the mat, or proach their competitors your idea, understand that it
worse still, nothing hits the mat. armed with a more complete might be many months or
They are summarized in ten case using the experience even years before you see
golden rules, plus an eleventh of your prior conversations any cash from the sale of a
platinum that is probably the most product based on your tech-
Readout
nology. How will you feed 11) ***MOST IMPORTANT*** in Readout April 2000 issue, I
and clothe yourself in the Don’t give up your day job; read this letter and the corre-
meantime? at least try not to until you sponding answer and thought
8) Have plenty of ideas on the can see money generated that perhaps I could add a little
go at any one time; truly in- by your invention being paid information on virtual scopes on
ventive people have hun- into your bank account. PCs, and whether an old ’386
dreds of ideas, some good, Julian White could cope.
most not so good. Be objec- via the Net From 1995 to ’97 my job in-
tive at every stage of the de- volved designing software for
velopment as to how useful data acquisition and control us-
an idea is. Concentrate on Thank you Julian, we believe ing PCs (I don’t think the field
the wheat and not the chaff, quite a few readers will benefit will have changed much in the
but never discard anything from this advice. last three or four years). To say
as you can never tell how The UK Government also offers it shortly, it is possible to have
circumstances might the following web sites for fur- data acquisition, and thus a vir-
change in favor of a particu- ther guidance: tual scope, on a ’386 computer
lar idea. If ideas are left to (or even less), at least using
their own devices, they often The Patent Office: plain old DOS. The problem is
seem to develop and im- www.patent.gov.uk whether you can get it at an af-
prove of their own accord. NESTA: www.nesta.org.uk fordable price, and that almost
Business Link: nobody programs for DOS
9) Ideas often run out of www.businesslink.co.uk
steam; sometimes you’ve nowadays.
DTI Innovation Unit:
done as much as you can www.innovation.gov.uk There are three main ways
think of developing and sell- to do data acquisition with a PC
Institute of Patentees and
ing an idea, and you literally that I know of:
Inventors:
can’t think of anything else 1) Directly with an unbuffered
www.invent.org.uk
to do. Often a good strategy internal card. The card does
HISTORY
is to stop and “park it” and one A/D conversion, then
get on with something more Dear EPE,
the computer reads the data
promising. Doing this isn’t Just a little note to say thank (1 or 2 bytes). The speed
giving in to failure, it’s prag- you for the many years that the limit here is the bus or inter-
matism taking over. As mag has been going. The value face used. In the case of the
above, a parked idea can for money has never been ISA bus (the old 8-bit for
spring back into life for any greater than it is today. I have a PCs, and perhaps the 16-bit
number of reasons; you copy of Practical Electronics expanded version for ATs)
might be surprised how dif- from Nov 1971, one of the few the limit was 100K samples
ferent things look after a few older ones that I have left. per second using DMA
months’ break. transfer. I couldn’t find a
From 20p in those days, to
10) Don’t be tempted to file 2.65 UK pounds, the magazine faster card of this type; but
patents on every idea you is worth every penny. even a 30Ks/s card had a
have at the time you have it price of around 400 euros
(you’ll soon run out of Andrew Allen (clones were cheaper).
money!). Develop ideas pri- via the Net Much better cards, PCI bus
vately until you can convince version from a well known
yourself of their worth, and manufacturer could cost
then file (be careful of dis- Thanks Andrew, we appre- 3000 euros. And, yes, we
closure to anybody during ciate your kind note, and long used them on the now old
this period). Good patent term support. ’386, running plain DOS, at
agents will never give an perhaps 20Ks/s. For Win-
opinion as to the worth or SCOPE CHOICE (1) dows you need much better
otherwise of an idea, they computers, as it is slower in
Dear EPE,
assume you have done that general.
and that’s why you are Regarding the Scope
2) Buffered type internal card.
patenting it. Choice question by R.J. Spratt
These have a local memory,
Readout
used to store a number of Thank you for your useful pared to the Cockroft and Wal-
conversions (running unat- contribution. ton voltage multiplier fed by a
tended by the main CPU) till mains transformer winding
the computer reads all the which, typical with many oscillo-
SCOPE CHOICE (2)
samples in one operation. I scope designs, will be between
saw a prototype, two 8-bit Dear EPE, 750V and 1000V and capable of
channels running perhaps at As a Solatron CD1400 user supplying several hundred mil-
1Ms/s on a 10MHz 8086 PC, myself (Readout April ’00), I am liamps from the winding, and at
around 1990. The snag is that aware of the transformer prob- least a lethal number of mil-
acquisition is not continuous if lem, the second one that blew- liamps from the multiplier!
the sampling speed is faster up is still in my possession just The concern over voltage
than what the computer bus in case I ever find the time to regulation stems from the fact
can handle; but for a scope repair it! that increasing the EHT in-
displaying continuous periodic creases the electron beam cur-
What I had originally consid-
signals, it is usually OK. rent – this results in greater de-
ered was replacing the circuitry
3) An external box, connected to used to generate the EHT and flection energy requirement to
the serial or parallel port (or focus potentials and it occurred deflect the spot. The EHT is just
another dedicated port, e.g. to me that the line timebase sec- as much a calibrated specifica-
GPIB), buffered or unbuffered tion from a B&W portable TV tion as the attenuator trimmers
(even a real scope connected might do the job. Typically, the and timebase oscillator presets!
to the PC could be grouped EHT in one of these units is The most compelling reason
here). The limits are similar to around 12kV. The fact that this for abandoning these plans was
the above said cases. There is three times the value required the fact that a visit to the local
are little ones advertised in may not be a problem. council tip produced an Advance
your magazine (Pico ADC200 OS2000R that was much easier
A well-known fact in my
and 216, but I have not used to repair!
trade, not so widely appreciated
them personally) which claim
elsewhere, is that in the CRT Such Civil Amenity Sites
to sample at 100Ms/s, storing
horizontal drive timebase the are usually contracted out to
the 8-bit samples on a 32Kb
scanning coils are the primary private operators by the Envi-
internal memory (that means
inductive component in the reso- ronmental Health division of
0××16ms total time for two
nant system. With these discon- local authorities. In my experi-
channels). I find 8-bit insuffi- nected, the EHT voltage will fall ence, it is possible to “haggle”
cient for serious work, other dramatically. From this point it is for discarded items. Oscillo-
than seeing the shape: I pre- possible to “tune” the primary scopes, computers and an un-
fer 12-bit minimum, but then inductance of the flyback trans- expected diversity of electronic
the sampling rate goes down former by experimenting with equipment form a “not infre-
to 3Ms/s, and I do not find different values of flyback tuning quent” part of the treasure
them very cheap then. They capacitor. This component is trove!
supply DOS based software, directly across the collector/
so perhaps it will work OK on emitter pins of the line output I. Field
the ’386 computer. transistors and usually has a Letchworth, Herts, UK
The card I used most was a value of several nanofarads and
PClab 812PG from Advantech, a voltage rating of at least 400V.
old technology even on Win95, Don’t try this with a color chas- We wonder just how many
and expensive at 400 euros (local sis. readers these days are familiar
Spanish price). There were clones with working on high voltage
There are several reasons electronic equipment. Personally
at nearly half that cost, and much why I did not proceed with this
better cards from National Semi- I learned much of my early elec-
plan. The first being the limited tronics only through figuring out
conductor for 3000 euros and space inside the CD1400 cas-
more. how to repair defunct TVs pur-
ing, also the need to accurately chased for about five shillings
Carlos Robinson determine the final EHT voltage. (25p in today’s currency) from
Spain, via the Net This was not so much for safety local markets. It also taught me
reasons – the low power flyback to respect the charge held on
generator is “harmless” com- capacitors even when the mains
Readout
power is switched off! magazine we can really only 5000 instructions) in Basic using
“take on board” programming a lot of the ZX functions. I also
Perhaps we now “molly-
languages and dialects which used designs similar to those
coddle” readers too much by
the majority of the readers use shown in Mike Tooley’s Elec-
stressing the dangers of AC
or have access to. In terms of tronic Circuit Book to input and
mains voltages and the like. But
Basic, this really brings us to output analog information via the
then most of electronics these
only supporting QBasic, Quick- ZX printer port.
days is only powered at low DC
voltages. Gone are the days BASIC, Visual Basic and Delphi I am about to purchase a
when most of what the hobbyist (the latter Robert Penfold has “proper” computer, with Win-
electronics magazines published been discussing in several of his dows 98 software so my grand-
was thermionic valve-based and recent Interface columns). daughter can use the Internet. I
as such often required voltages I have previously com- would also like to write pro-
well into the several hundreds. mented that QBasic and Quick- grams on it in Basic and, being
BASIC are no longer available a simple soul, imagined that I
None-the-less, Mr Field’s could get a CD-ROM to program
observations may provide excel- commercially, but that it is sup-
posedly possible to download the computer in Basic with at
lent food for thought for the ad- least all the functions of the ZX.
venturous amongst you should them from some private Internet
your local “tip” not prove to be a sites (details not known). How- I have made several en-
viable materials source (and it ever, we have recently been in- quiries with computer manufac-
has to be said that many are formed by Alan S. Raistrick via turers and Microsoft, but I have
prohibited from allowing the pub- E-mail that (unknown to us): not found anyone, so far, who
lic to acquire materials from their “…it is included on every can supply anything to meet
sites, especially electrical CD-ROM with Windows 95 and these requirements. Can you
goods). 98. Do a search on the CD- advise me of a suitable supplier.
QBASIC ETC ROM using Windows Explorer May I say how much I enjoy
Dear EPE, Tools/Find/Files or Folders and reading EPE each month and
there it is…” have been a regular subscriber
There is from time to time for many, many years.
discussion in EPE about what We invite all of you who use
can be used to replace GW and Win 95 and 98 to check your Peter Gardner
QBasic at a reasonable cost. I CD-ROMS on this point and to Pucklechurch, Bristol
have come across a product inundate us with replies (my Win
called Envelope Engine on the 95 CD-ROM does include QBa-
web. It was intended as a rival to sic). It is immensely important I refer the honorable gentle-
Visual Basic. Although the pro- that we get to the bottom of the man to the reply I gave a few
ject was abandoned the product apparent Basic problem. I for moments ago (to mimic Maggie
has been made available as one have tried getting into Visual – remember her?)
Freeware and can be down- Basic but have not yet got on
loaded as a self-extracting file too well with it – it does not PIC NOP TRICK
from: seem as instinctive as the other
many languages and dialects I Dear EPE,
www.winsite.com/info/pc/ use. Delphi I have not yet tried, I am new to the PIC game
win95/programr/envlpl4.exe though Robert has been encour- so my trick may well be old
It will only run on Win 95 or aging me to think about it. news. It concerns the OTP (One
later, but it is complete, is based Time Programmable) chips. In
on Basic, and its free. Thought MORE BASIC my case it was the
this might be of use to readers. PIC16C773SP. The trick is
Dear EPE, about multiple programming of
Bob Allan Several years ago I devel- those chips. Providing that your
via the Net oped a “machine” in my spare program size is less that half the
time and used the ZX Spectrum program memory size and you
(16K) computer to do all the cal- are not using interrupts and, with
Thanks Bob. We have to
culations and control the some exceptions, the configura-
comment, though, that whilst
“machine”. tion bits have been set correctly
individual readers may find this
I wrote a program (approx the first time, you can re-
program to be beneficial, as a
Readout
program the chip by overwriting vices, even though their unit
the programmed memory area cost can be lower. Thanks for the help!
with the NOP instruction and However, we recognize that Next time I will read the in-
shifting the entry point to a new some of you will be taking the stallation instructions more care-
location. OTP route and are using PICs fully! It’s working like a charm!
I guess there is no need to that are only available with that
Best regards and thanks for
explain that programming an structure. As a designer who
the Great Magazine, Hennie.
EPROM memory is about writing used EPROM memories until a
0s in specific bit positions and few years ago (until PICs en-
the NOP instruction is all 0s. So abled me to move away from There’s a public lesson here
all you have to do is insert 6502 microprocessor-based de- for a few other readers – I like to
enough NOP instructions at the signs), I can recommend Peter’s think that the instructions I write
beginning of your new program technique. are going to be followed! T’aint
to overwrite the old one. The always so – some of you don’t
With the EPROMs, although
cost obviously is a number of from time to time!
they can be erased using UV
clock cycles when the chip is
light, it was not necessarily con-
doing nothing (NOP) but only
venient to take time out to erase
when the program starts to run
them (as I recall it took 10 to 15
and the extra program memory
minutes a time). For each suc-
used which would have been
cessive change to EPROM
lost in any case.
code, I would start the new code
There is no need to type at an address just a few bytes
several hundred NOP instruc- beyond where the previous code
tions either. Just work out how version had ended, writing zeros
much space your faulty program into the foregoing addresses,
takes up and use the FILL direc- and making a note of the end
tive. Using the MPLAB dialect it address of the new code, so that
could look like this, assuming the process could be repeated.
the original faulty program size
was 0x200 (512 words): In this way it was possible to
make maximum use of the
;New ORG 0X00 FILL EPROM chip before having to
0,0x200 ;puts 0s (NOP) in the erase it. With some codes it was
first 512 program memory loca- possible to have many version
tions updates before the space ran
GOTO Start out.
;Old ORG 0X00
MISSING LINK
GOTO Start
Dear EPE,
Peter Malczyk
I experience “Unforeseen
Cape Town, South Africa
DOS Error 75” when I run tk.bat
of PIC Toolkit Mk2. It worked
The OTP PIC chips are not fine on previous attempts. Any
components that I have had oc- ideas?
casion to use. The repro-
Hennie R van Rensburg
grammable EEPROM PIC16x84
South Africa, via the Net
and PIC16F87x devices are far
too useful when developing a
design for publication and which To which I replied via E-
some readers may wish to ulti- mail: “Error 75 is path/file Ac-
mately amend to suit their own cess Error. Check that you are
particular needs. With the very not trying to access a non-
rare exception, it seems prefer- existent file or folder.” And Hen-
able for us to avoid OTP de- nie came back with:
with DAVID BARRINGTON “knob pot” came from Farnell
Electronic Components (code
350-655). Most of our
Some Component Suppliers for EPE Online Construc- component advertisers now
tional Articles carry stocks of general surface
mount devices. Note that the
Some Component Suppliers Web: LM3914N bargraph LED driver
for EPE Online Constructional www.magenta2000.co.uk IC is a standard 18-pin DIL
Articles Microchip format device.
Antex Web: www.microchip.com There are plenty of really
Web: www.antex.co.uk small plastic boxes around and
Rapid Electronics (UK)
readers should have no
Bull Electrical (UK) Tel: +44 (0) 1206-751166
problems in finding one to suit
Tel: +44 (0) 1273-203500 RF Solutions (UK) this project. We suggest you go
Email: sales@bull- Tel: +44 (0) 1273-488880 for one slightly larger than that
electrical.com Web: www.rfsolution.co.uk shown as the components are
Web: www.bullnet.co.uk certainly packed tightly in the
RS (Radio Spares) (UK)
CPC Preston (UK) Web: www.rswww.com prototype model. The small
Tel: +44 (0) 1772-654455 “hybrid” printed circuit board
Speak & Co. Ltd. (copper pads on component
EPE Online Store and Library Tel: +44 (0) 1873-811281 side) is available from the EPE
Web: www.epemag.com
Online Store (code 7000269).
Electromail (UK) Pocket g-Meter Probably the biggest
Tel: +44 (0) 1536-204555
It’s not everyday we have to problem constructors are going
Electrovalue (UK) find a source for such an up-to- to encounter is the one of
Tel: +44 (0) 1784-433604 date specialized chip as that soldering the surface mount
E-mail: used in the Pocket g-Meter components to the small PCB.
evalue@compuserve.com project. But thanks to the We suggest readers check out
ESR (UK) guidance of Bill Mooney, the Bill Mooney’s web site at
Tel: +44 (0) 191-2514363 designer, we have managed to www.billssmd.mcmail.com,
Fax: +44 (0) 191-2522296 crack it and come up with a where a host of information on
Email: sales@esr.co.uk “one-off” source. surface mount will be found,
Web: www.esr.co.uk The Analog Devices’ including details on soldering.
Farnell (UK) ADXL105JQC surface mount
Tel: +44 (0) 113-263-6311 micromachined sensor chip is PIC-Gen Frequency
Web: www.farnell.com available from Thame Generator/Counter
Components Ltd, Dept EPE, Several components need
Gothic Crellon (UK) Thame Park Road, Thame, highlighting when purchasing
Tel: +44 (0) 1743-788878 Oxfordshire, OX9 3UQ, UK (Tel: parts for the PIC-Gen
Greenweld (UK) +44 (0) 1844-261188 or Web: Frequency Generator/Counter
Fax: +44 (0) 1992-613020 www.impact.uk.memec.com). project. This applies particularly
Email: greenweld@aol.com It will cost you around 16.14 UK to the ICs.
Web: pounds plus a postage and
handling charge of about 4.50 Both the Maxim MAX660
www.greenweld.co.uk
pounds. Another possibility is voltage converter and the
Maplin (UK) Avnet Macro Direct (Tel: +44 (0) MAX038 function generator
Web: www.maplin.co.uk 1628-606000 or chips were ordered through
Magenta Electronics (UK) www.avnetmacro.co.uk), Electromail, the RS mail order
Tel: +44 (0) 1283-565435 although they were not so outlet. The MAX660 carries the
Email: forthcoming with information. order code of 265-055 and the
sales@magenta2000.co.uk MAX0388 code 810-396. For
The miniature ceramic those interested, Maxim’s web
Shop Talk
site is at: www.maxim-ic.com. Camera Shutter Timer are called for in this month's
The MAX660 converter is This month’s Starter Project installment of the Teach-In 2000
claimed to have a greater output is a low-cost Camera Shutter series. For details of special
load capability than similar Timer and we cannot picture any packs readers should contact:
devices and should be the only component buying problems.
one used in this project. Also, ESR Electronic
If you decide to use a Components – Hardware/Tools
the author advises that the HC phototransistor and wish to use
versions of the 74xx4040 (IC6) and Components Pack.
the 3mm SFH309 type listed,
and the 74xx132 (IC7) should this came from Maplin, code Magenta Electronics –
be the only ones used in this CY86T. However, the circuit has Multimeter and components, Kit
circuit. The standard CMOS been designed to work equally 879.
4040 counter is too slow and as well with most photodiodes or FML Electronics (Tel: +44
although the LS132 voltage phototransistors. (0) 1677-425840) – Basic
converter version should work it component sets.
has not been tried in the model. Judging from photos of the
prototype, the 50uA moving coil N. R. Bardwell (Tel: +44 (0)
The neat plastic case, with meter is one from the 2××5 class 114 255-2886) – Digital
plastic removable front and rear range. Another one with similar Multimeter special offer.
panels, is from a new range characteristics and dimensions,
introduced by RS and available 51mm (2in.) by 45mm (1.75in.),
from the first mentioned is the MU38 series. Both types
company, code 239-7413. Multi- should be widely stocked.
turn potentiometers are “off-the-
shelf” items and the most If you use a different case to
popular range seems to be from the one shown, such as an all--
around 10-turns to about 20- plastic type, keep in mind that
turns. you will need plenty of space on
the front panel for the controls
The alphanumeric 2-line 16- and meter.
character per line liquid crystal
display module used in the
prototype was originally Atmospheric Electricity
purchased from Magenta Detector – Part 2
Electronics. This comes We have received no further
complete with a connector and feedback regarding the
is one we would recommend. availability or any alternatives to
Other component suppliers will the Siemens B6429 series of
no doubt be able to offer toroid ferrite ring cores called for
something similar. in the Atmospheric Electricity
For those readers unable to Detector. These were
program their own PICs, a purchased from ElectroValve
ready-programmed PIC16F877- (evalve@compuserve.com) –
4P can be purchased from quote full code
Magenta (see above) for the B64290K618X830 when
inclusive price of 10 UK pounds ordering.
(overseas readers add 1 pound The choice of meters is left
for postage). Software for the to the individual constructor, but
PIC-Gen is available for free most of our component
download from the EPE Online suppliers should be able to help.
Library. The software is written Also note the author advises
in TASM. that switches S3 and S4 must
The printed circuit board is be rated at least 250V AC.
available from the EPE Online
Store (code 7000268). Teach-In 2000
No additional components

Epemag 2000-07

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Epemag 2000-07

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Volume 2 Issue 7

g-METER - by Bill Mooney 510

PIC-GEN FREQUENCY GENERATOR/COUNTER - by John Becker 518

INGENUITY UNLIMITED - hosted by Alan Winstanley 528

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY DETECTOR - Part 2 - by Keith Garwell 532

SERIES AND FEATURES

Practically Speaking - by Robert Penfold 541

NET WORK - THE INTERNET PAGE surfed by Alan Winstanley 545

PICO DrDAQ REVIEWED - by Robert Penfold 547

NEW TECHNOLOGY UPDATE - by Ian Poole 552

TEACH-IN 2000 - Part 9 - Transistors - by John Becker 554

REGULARS AND SERVICES

READOUT - John Becker addresses general points arising. 573

EPE Online, July 2000 - www.epemag.com - 580

now produced without the aid of Fig.1. The basic integrator

is extremely high at DC and low

Fig.4. Camera Shutter Timer stripboard component layout, inter-

Uses a space-age chip to tell you how much g-force

a tiny polysilicon micromachined +250mV 0mV –250mV

Analog Devices is of this Inertia resulting SENSOR AMPLIFIER

type and from the mass of the +

therefore causes the OUTPUT

detected; real space-age stuff!

Fig.3. Complete circuit diagram for the Pocket g-Meter.

PAGE 367 As featured in March ’97 issue. 4 spare

MOSFET MkII VARIABLE BENCH EPE ULTRASONIC PEsT SCARER

Another super PIC project from Magenta. Supplied with PCB,

PhizzyB ALL PARTS FOR SERIES INCLUDING PCBs,

Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2000 329

tive AC field detector with a vice may be used to detect hid-

Fig.1. Circuit diagram for the Multi-Purpose AC Detector/Touch Switch.

Versatile Car Interior

Musical Chip Amplifier –

my own experience with SCSI, I

Fig.4. Circuit diagram for an 8-bit Narrow SCSI Active Termi-

Fig.5 (right). Connection de-

Fig.11. Details of the sug-

Close up details of the constructed power supply board.

center of this is a “socket” made require alternative lengths of

AUTHOR’S WEB SITE

338 Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2000

Fig.1a. Internal logic diagram

According to the old proverb

FRIED SPAM message appears below: ject header very closely, an

Pico Technology is a many purposes, such as the interface or a printer.

intended for use with a standard

Some of DrDAQ’s possible experiments.

Like many other areas of alternative. However they need SUPERCAP

Fig.9.3. Symbol for an npn

behavior. PANEL 9.2 – BIPOLAR gain could be,

AMPLIFIER When you experiment with

TEACH-IN 2000 – EXPERIMENTAL 9

flowing through the emitter-base ponent positions have been

Fig.9.11 Symbol for a pnp

to match this layout and perform

3G AND UMTS MOBILES

important. 5) Never send open letters ad-

You might also like