Steady Aircraft Flight and Aircraft Performance

Steady Aircraft Flight and Aircraft Performance
Course Notes for AE 245
N. Harris McClamroch
Department of Aerospace Engineering
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2140
nhm@engin.umich.edu
January 3, 2006

c N. Harris McClamroch 2005
All Rights Reserved.

Contents
Preface viii
1 Aircraft Components and Subsystems 1
1.1 Aircraft subsystems for conventional fixed-wing aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aerodynamic control surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Aircraft propulsion systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Air data and flight instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Guidance, navigation and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Flight control computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Communication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Autonomous aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.10 Interconnection of flight subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics 10
2.1 Fundamental properties of air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Standard atmosphere model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Aerodynamics fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Wing theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Aircraft Kinematics and Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 27
i
3.1 Aircraft kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Aerodynamic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Aerodynamic moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Propulsion Systems 37
4.1 Steady thrust and power relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Turbojets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Propeller driven by internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Turboprop engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5 Throttle as a pilot input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5 Equations of Motion for Steady Flight 42
5.1 Aircraft forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Steady flight equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Steady longitudinal flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Aircraft Cruise in Steady Level Flight 47
6.1 Force and moment equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Steady level flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Solving for steady level flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4 Thrust vs speed curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Power vs speed curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.6 Aircraft with jet engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.7 Aircraft with propeller and internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.8 Optimal steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.9 Steady level flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7 Aircraft Steady Climbing Flight 62
7.1 Algebraic equations for steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
ii
7.2 Solving for steady climbing flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3 Steady climbing flight and pilot inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 Optimal steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.5 Steady climbing flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8 Aircraft Steady Gliding Flight 68
8.1 Steady gliding flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2 Solving for steady gliding flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.3 Optimal glide path angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.4 Altitude effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.5 Steady gliding flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 Aircraft Range and Endurance 72
9.1 Fuel consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2 Range of propeller aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.3 Endurance of propeller aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.4 Range of jet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.5 Endurance of jet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10 Aircraft Steady Turns 81
10.1 Turns by side-slipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.2 Banked level turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.3 Banked turns in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.4 Steady turning flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11 Aircraft Maneuvers Between Steady Flight Conditions 94
11.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.2 Change in the elevator deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.3 Change in the throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
iii
11.4 Change in bank angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.5 Simultaneous changes in elevator, throttle, and bank angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12 Executive Jet Aircraft 98
12.1 Steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2 Steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
12.3 Steady descending flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.4 Steady gliding flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.5 Steady level turning flight by banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.6 Steady turning flight in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.7 Steady turning flight in descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13 Single Engine Propeller Driven Aircraft 140
13.1 Steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
13.2 Steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3 Steady descending flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
13.4 Steady gliding flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.5 Steady level turning flight by banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
13.6 Steady turning flight in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
13.7 Steady turning flight in descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
A Standard Atmosphere 182
References 191
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List of Figures
1.1 Aircraft subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Control surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Standard Atmosphere in SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Flow over airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Wing cross section or Airfoil (NACA2411) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Wing geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Types of wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Types of wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 Aircraft kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1 Free body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.1 Thrust required for steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2 Power required for steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.3 Maximum thrust limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.4 Maximum power limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.5 Flight envelope (Max. speed limit , Min. speed limit by engine −·−·− , Stall limit
· · · ·) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1 Free body diagram of an aircraft in steady climbing flight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
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7.2 Flight envelope surface for steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.1 Free body diagram of an aircraft in steady gliding flight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.1 Free body diagram of an aircraft in a steady turn by banking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.2 Free body diagram of an aircraft in a steady banked turns in climb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.3 Flight envelope surface for steady turning flight in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.1 Executive jet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2 Maximum range flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.3 Maximum endurance flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
12.4 Thrust required for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
12.5 Thrust required for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.6 Flight envelope for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
12.7 Flight envelope surface for steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12.8 Thrust required for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.9 Thrust required for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.10Flight envelope for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.11Steady gliding flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.13Thrust required for steady turning flight (φ = 30 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.14Thrust required for steady turning flight (φ = 30 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.15Flight envelope for steady level turning flight (φ = 30 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.16Flight envelope surface for steady level turning flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.17Thrust required for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . . . 130
12.18Thrust required for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . . . 132
12.19Flight envelope for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . . . 134
12.20Flight envelope surface for steady turning flight in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.21Thrust required for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . 136
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12.22Thrust required for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . 138
12.23Flight envelope for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree) . . . . . 139
13.1 Single engine propeller driven aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
13.2 Maximum range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.3 Maximum endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.4 Power required for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.5 Power required for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
13.6 Flight envelope for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.7 Flight envelope boundary surface for steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
13.8 Power required for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13.9 Power required for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
13.10Flight envelope for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.11Steady gliding flight (maximizing gliding range) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.13Power required for steady level turning flight (φ = 25, degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.14Power required for steady level turning flight (φ = 25 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13.15Flight envelope for steady level turning flight (φ = 25 degree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
13.16Flight envelope surface for steady level turning flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
13.17Power required for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10, degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s) . . 172
13.18Power required for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s) . . 173
13.19Flight envelope for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s) . . 175
13.20Flight envelope surface for steady turning and climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
13.21Power required for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10, degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s) 178
13.22Power required for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s) 179
13.23Flight envelope for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s) 181
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Preface
These notes have been written explicitly for that part of the sophomore level University of Michigan course
Aerospace Engineering 245, “Aircraft and Space Flight Performance,” that treats steady aircraft flight and
flight performance.
There are a number of books that treat these same topics; see the reference list provided at the end.
Almost all of these references give extensive treatment to aerodynamics and propulsion issues. At the same
time, most do not provide a thorough development of aircraft kinematics nor a complete derivation of the
fundamental equations of steady flight based on free body diagrams and Newton’s laws. In addition, most of
the introductory books do not give a detailed analysis of steady flight and the performance issues that arise
from this steady flight analysis.
The purpose of these notes is to develop concepts associated with steady aircraft flight and aircraft per-
formance, emphasizing both the engineering and mathematical aspects. Careful derivations, and associated
assumptions used in these derivations, are emphasized. The basic steady flight relationships are obtained,
and standard performance issues are studied. The presentation also emphasizes the concept of steady flight
envelope that takes into account fundamental flight constraints associated with the aerodynamics, the propul-
sion system, and the structural limits of an aircraft. Another novel feature of the presentation is the extensive
emphasis on flight maneuvers and flight performance and how optimal performance can be obtained from
the basic flight equations and the flight constraints.
These features give a substantially different flavor than many of the familiar textbooks that treat some
of the same topics. The treatment of aerodynamics and propulsion here is limited only to the material that
is required for the subsequent development. The emphasis on the concepts of flight envelope, flight maneu-
verability, and flight performance provides an excellent background for further study of flight dynamics and
control. Another novel feature is that the basic steady flight concepts are illustrated through flight examples
of an executive jet and a small single engine propeller aircraft; these examples include computations and
performance graphs carried out using Matlab. In particular, these two examples are introduced and used to
illustrate application of the various steady flight and flight performance concepts that are introduced.
viii
The presentation is intended for sophomore level students, who have had a good background in calculus
and classical physics. There is no use of any material on differential equations, although the principles of
Newtonian physics at the first year university level are employed throughout.
Acknowledgement
This document has been developed with the help of Mr. Taeyoung Lee, who has contributed to the writing
of several sections and the development of the flight examples in Chapter 12 and 13. His contributions are
gratefully acknowledged.
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Chapter 1
Aircraft Components and Subsystems
This chapter deals with the fundamental physical components and properties of conventional, fixed wing
aircraft. This material is covered in detail in many textbooks; consequently, the treatment here is brief and
emphasis is given to those aspects of conventional aircraft that are most related to their flight characteristics.
1.1 Aircraft subsystems for conventional fixed-wing aircraft
Figure 1.1 illustrates a conventional fixed-wing aircraft that is the basic flight vehicle of interest in these
notes. The key physical components, or subsystems, that define the aircraft are the fuselage, the wings,
the horizontal tail, the vertical tail, and the engines. The fuselage provides working volume for passengers,
cargo, and aircraft subsystems that are internal to the aircraft. The fuselage is important in terms of achieving
particular flight missions, but it is not especially important from a flight performance perspective. The two
wings are crucial for flight, since their main purpose is the generation of lift. The aircraft illustrated in
Figure 1.1, and all aircraft considered here, are often referred to as fixed-wing aircraft, since the wings are
rigidly attached to the fuselage. This is in contrast with helicopters which generate lift using rotating blades.
Other important flight subsystems, illustrated in Figure 1.1, are the horizontal tail, the vertical tail, and
the engines. The horizontal and vertical tails are rigidly attached to the fuselage as indicated. The horizontal
tail provides longitudinal stability and control capability, while the vertical tail provides directional stability
and control capability. The engines are crucial flight subsystems, since they generate the thrust forces that
1
2 1.1. AIRCRAFT SUBSYSTEMS FOR CONVENTIONAL FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
Vertical tail:
provides directional Wings:
stability and control generate lift
Fuselage:
provides volume
Horizontal tail:
provides longitudinal
stability and control
Engines:
produce thrust
Figure 1.1: Aircraft subsystems

CHAPTER 1. AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS AND SUBSYSTEMS 3
Rudder
Aileron
Elevator
(Moving tail)
Figure 1.2: Control surfaces
act on the aircraft. Note that gliding flight, studied in Chapter 8, occurs if the engines are turned off so that
they do not generate thrust; equivalently, the engines could be missing.
This is the appropriate time to mention another important assumption that holds throughout the analysis
presented subsequently. This assumption is that the complete aircraft, consisting of the fuselage, the wings,
the horizontal and vertical tails, and all other flight subsystems, has a plane of mass symmetry that exactly
bisects the aircraft. This assumption is a consequence of the design of conventional fixed-wing aircraft
where, in particular, engines mounted on the wings are balanced to satisfy this mass symmetry assumption.
1.2 Aerodynamic control surfaces
Figure 1.2 illustrates three types of aerodynamic control surfaces. The three types of aerodynamic control
surfaces are the elevator, the ailerons, and the rudder. The elevator is one (or more than one) movable flap,
located on the trailing edge of the horizontal tail. Deflection of the elevator changes the air flow over the
horizontal tail in such a way that a pitching moment on the aircraft is generated. The ailerons consist of a
pair of movable flaps, located on the trailing edge of each wing; ailerons usually operate in differential mode
4 1.3. AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS
so that if one flap is deflected up the other flap is deflected down, or vice-versa. Differential deflection of the
ailerons changes the air flow over the wings in such a way that a roll moment on the aircraft is generated.
The rudder is one (or more than one) movable flap, located on the trailing edge of the vertical tail. Deflection
of the rudder changes the air flow over the vertical tail in such a way that a yawing moment on the aircraft
is generated.
These movable flaps are referred to as aerodynamic control surfaces; they generate moments on the
aircraft according to aerodynamic principles. The precise meanings of pitch, roll, and yaw moments are
described later. These moments are used to maneuver and control the flight of the aircraft.
Some modern aircraft have non-conventional elevators, ailerons, and rudders, as well as additional flaps
on the fuselage referred to as canards. Although many aerodynamic control surface designs are possible,
they all are intended to generate pitch, roll, and yaw moments. The subsequent development assumes the
use of conventional elevators, ailerons, and rudders.
1.3 Aircraft propulsion systems
The aircraft engine, together with associated fuel tanks and related hardware, is referred to as the propulsion
system. The purpose of the propulsion system is to generate a thrust force that propels the aircraft in flight.
Although engines and propulsion systems are extremely complicated, detailed knowledge of the engine
specifications is not required for the purpose of analyzing flight properties of the aircraft. Rather the key
feature for the study of steady flight is the maximum thrust (or the maximum power) that the engine can
produce, and the rate at which fuel is burned to produce a given thrust level (or power level).
From the earliest days of powered flight, an important propulsion system has consisted of an internal
combustion engine that causes rotation of a propeller. The blades of the propeller are designed so that they
generate a thrust force. Such propulsion systems remain in common use today, especially for low speed
aircraft for which cost and durability are primary. The important specifications for this type of propulsion
system are the maximum power that the internal combustion engine can produce, the rate of fuel burned to
provide a power level, and the efficiency of the propeller.

An important outcome of World War II was the development of jet engine technology. Such propul-
sion systems make possible high speed flight. Most jet engines consist of a compressor, a turbine and a
combustor, that are used to accelerate the flow of air through the engine, thereby producing a thrust force
on the aircraft. These turbojet engines are extremely complicated, but the important specifications are the
maximum thrust that the turbojet engine can produce and the rate of fuel burned to provide that thrust level.
Turboprop engines use turbine and jet engine technologies to turn a propeller that generates a thrust
force on the aircraft. These propulsion systems exhibit some of the features of conventional jet engines, but
the efficiency of the propeller is also important.
Finally, rocket engines have been used to generate propulsive thrust forces on certain experimental
aircraft. A rocket engine consists of fuel and an oxidizer that are stored internally; as the fuel is burned the
exhaust products are exhausted out of a nozzle to produce a thrust force on the aircraft. Rocket engines can
generate extremely large levels of thrust, but they have limited duration of operation.
Our focus here is on conventional propulsion systems: either a propeller driven by an internal combus-
tion engine or a turbojet engine. Many of the subsequent developments can be modified to handle other
types of propulsion systems.
We also make the conventional assumption that the propulsion system produces a thrust force vector
that has a fixed direction with respect to the aircraft. This property arises since the engines are fixed in the
aircraft, either on the wings or on the fuselage. The direction of the thrust vector is also assumed to lie in
the plane of mass symmetry of the aircraft. Finally, it is assumed that the engine can be throttled so that any
thrust level (or power level) between zero thrust (or zero power) and maximum thrust (or maximum power)
can be achieved using a throttle setting between 0 and 1.
In some modern fighter aircraft, the direction of the thrust vector, with respect to the aircraft, can be
adjusted within limits; this feature is referred to as thrust vectoring. The advantage of thrust vectoring
is that control moments due to the thrust can be generated; this extra control capability can add to the
maneuvering capability that can be achieved using conventional aerodynamic control surfaces. In certain
flight conditions, such as post stall, the aerodynamic control surfaces may be ineffective; in such cases thrust
vectoring is essential to maintain maneuvering capability. We do not explicitly treat thrust-vectored aircraft,
6 1.4. AIR DATA AND FLIGHT INSTRUMENTATION
although the methods that are subsequently developed can be modified to treat such cases.
1.4 Air data and flight instrumentation
Modern aircraft are complex vehicles that contain many instruments and devices that support flight. These
flight instruments make use of extensive electronics and are referred to as the aircraft avionics. Although
these instruments do not directly influence the flight performance of an aircraft, these are important to
measuring flight performances. A brief summary is given of avionics found on many aircraft.
• An altimeter provides a pressure measurement that approximately indicates the flight altitude above
sea level, based on properties of the standard atmospheric model (see Chapter 2).
• The airspeed indicator provides a measurement of the speed of the aircraft with respect to the sur-
rounding air.
• Engine gauges provide information about the engine status, including the engine speed and the engine
temperature.
• The tachometer measures either the speed of rotation of the propeller or the turbine speed in a jet
engine.
• An artificial horizon, based on gyroscopes, provides measurements of roll and pitch angles of the
aircraft (see Chapter 3); this provides the pilot with an Earth fixed reference.
• A turn bank indicator, also based on gyroscopes, provides measurements of the yaw angle of the
aircraft (see Chapter 3); this provides the pilot with an indication of the turn rate of the aircraft.
1.5 Guidance, navigation and control
Many aircraft also include avionics that are used for guidance, navigation and control functions. Several
types of instruments are common.

• Distance measuring equipment provides an estimate of the distance of the aircraft from a ground
station based on a signal received from the ground station.
• A magnetic compass is used to determine the heading of an aircraft relative to magnetic north.
• Gyroscopes are used to measure the angular velocity of the aircraft; they are often used as components
of more complicated instrument packages.
• Inertial navigation systems are a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes and associated electron-
ics that provide estimates of the heading and position of the aircraft; the estimates are obtained through
numerical integration of the accelerometer data.
• Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides extremely accu-
rate measurements of position, and perhaps attitude, of an aircraft. GPS operates by determining the
distances of the aircraft from several satellites, at exactly known positions, using signals broadcast by
those satellites; these distances are processed to estimate the position of the aircraft.
• Instrument landing systems are microwave-based or GPS-based systems that provide information to
the aircraft that is used for semi-automatic or automatic landing.
1.6 Flight control computer
Computer systems are now a common and essential part of many modern flight vehicles. Flight computa-
tions can be carried out by microprocessors that are a part of an integrated avionics package that performs
guidance, navigation and control functions. An identified flight control computer is often available that
carries out computations associated with a variety of high level planning problems, including routing and
automatic pilots. The flight control computer often provides an interface with the flight avionics and it is
responsible for flight data displays on the flight deck in the cockpit.
8 1.7. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1.7 Communication systems
Communication functions are important for many aircraft. As indicated previously, communications are
necessary to achieve navigation functions such as distance measurement, instrument landing, and global
positioning. A transponder is a radar-based system that provides positive identification of the aircraft to an
aircraft traffic controller. In addition, there are VHF voice radios and omni-directional radios that allow the
aircraft pilot to communicate directly with the ground and with other aircraft.
1.8 Pilot
The pilot is an important aircraft subsystem and a complete analysis of aircraft flight characteristics requires
attention to pilot operations. Depending on the type of aircraft, human pilots can have varying degrees of
flight authority. The most common situation is that the pilot directly controls the aircraft flight conditions
using manual flight control inputs. In more advanced aircraft, the flight conditions are controlled by the
pilot but with aid from automatic control systems, often refereed to as autopilots. In some of the most
advanced aircraft, autonomous operation is possible where the flight conditions are completely controlled
by the autopilots, with little or no involvement of a human.
Pilots operate aircraft according to operational protocols. These are extensive sets of rules that pilots
must follow to fly their aircraft within the common airspace. The two main flight protocols are visual flight
rules and instrument flight rules. Visual flight rules are most restrictive; they are required for general aviation
aircraft with minimal flight instruments. Instrument flight rules apply to aircraft that are suitably equipped
with flight instrumentation and flown by certified pilots.
In the subsequent development, it is sufficient to consider the pilot, or equivalently the autopilot, as pro-
viding control input commands that are used to keep the aircraft in a desired flight condition or to maneuver
the aircraft from one flight condition to another flight condition. There are four types of control inputs that
are studied. These are: the elevator, the ailerons, the rudder, and the throttle. All flight conditions and all
flight maneuvers can be obtained by appropriate adjustment of these four flight control inputs. Subsequently,
a complete analysis is developed that describes how a given flight condition is achieved by appropriate se-
lection of the values of the four flight control inputs. Flight maneuvers are also analyzed and expressed in
terms of the required changes for these four flight control inputs.
1.9 Autonomous aircraft
Some aircraft, such as small hobbyist aircraft, can be controlled through a remote operator; these are often
referred to as remote controlled or RC aircraft. In this case, the remote operator is effectively the pilot in the
sense that the operator flies the aircraft by adjusting the elevator, ailerons, rudder, and throttle.
It is now possible, within limited environments, to develop aircraft that fly with complete autonomy.
This requires the development of advanced computer systems, often based on advanced control and artificial
intelligence methods that can make automatic flight decisions without intervention from a human. This is
still a developing flight technology, but the fundamental flight principles described herein form the basis for
many of these new developments.
1.10 Interconnection of flight subsystems
The above flight subsystems have been described individually, but the complete aircraft should be viewed as
an interconnection of all of the subsystems. That is, the aircraft operation depends on all of the subsystems
working together. The concept of an system interconnection means that the outputs of one subsystem can
be viewed as inputs to other subsystems. This flight interconnection perspective is very powerful, and it is
essential to understand the complete operation of complex aircraft.

Chapter 2
Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics
Aircraft flight through the atmosphere depends on the physical properties of the atmosphere. These physical
properties of the atmosphere are characterized by the pressure, temperature, and density of air. Aircraft flight
requires relative motion of the aircraft with respect to the surrounding air; this relative motion gives rise to
aerodynamic forces and moments on the aircraft. It is essential to quantify the aerodynamic forces and
moments on an aircraft in flight to develop a theory of steady aircraft flight and aircraft performance. This
chapter treats the fundamental properties of air, both when it is stationary and when it has relative motion
with respect to an aircraft. The latter case is referred to as aerodynamics. This background is subsequently
used in Chapter 3 to develop mathematical models for the aerodynamic forces and moments that act on an
aircraft in flight.
2.1 Fundamental properties of air
There are three fundamental characteristics of air that are important from the point of view of flight of an
aircraft through the atmosphere. These are the pressure, temperature and density of the air. Conceptually,
the air pressure denotes the force per unit area exerted by an element of air. The temperature is a measure of
the thermal intensity of an element of air, and the density is mass per unit volume of an element of air. The
pressure, temperature, and density can be defined at any point in the atmosphere. The pressure, temperature,
and density can each vary as a function of location and as a function of time. The pressure, temperature, and
10
CHAPTER 2. FLUID MECHANICS AND AERODYNAMICS 11
density have real values and are examples of scalar fields. There are different scales and units that can be
used to measure each of these quantities. For example, the pressure can have the units of pounds per square
foot or newtons per square meter. The density can have the units of slugs per cubic foot or kilograms per
cubic meter. The temperature can be measured according to common relative temperature scales in degrees
F or degrees C. More importantly in fluid mechanics, the temperature can be measured according to the
absolute temperature scale in degrees K or degrees R.
The other important property of an element of air is its flow velocity. As usual, the velocity is a vector
that defines the magnitude, sometimes referred to as the speed, and direction of the flow. The velocity vector
has three components (or equivalently a magnitude and direction) that can vary as a function of location and
as a function of time. The flow velocity is an example of a vector field. If the air has zero velocity vector
at some location at some instant, that element of air is not in motion. If the flow velocity vector is nonzero
at some location and some instant, that element of air is in motion. Each component of a velocity field has
units such as foot per second or meter per second.
The ideal gas law is a general relation between the pressure, temperature, and density of an ideal gas,
such as air. It is often referred to as an equation of state. Let p denote the air pressure, T denote the absolute
temperature, and ρ denote the density of an element of air. Pressure, temperature and density of that element
of air are related by the ideal gas law:
p = ρRT, (2.1)
where R is a constant appropriate to air. The value for this constant depends on the units used for pressure,
temperature, and density of air. For example, for air:
R = 287 m2 /s2 K,
= 1716 ft2 /s2 R.
Since R is a constant, the ideal gas law shows that if the values of any two of the three pressure, temperature,
and density variables are known then the value of the third can be determined from the ideal gas law. It also
implies many other relationships. For example, if the temperature does not change, but the pressure is
increased (decreased) then the density must increased (decreased) accordingly.

12 2.2. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE MODEL
2.2 Standard atmosphere model
In this section, theoretical properties of the atmosphere are obtained. These properties demonstrate how the
pressure, temperature, and density in the atmosphere vary with altitude. By assuming that the atmosphere is
stationary (no motion) with respect to the Earth, we obtain the important notion of the standard atmospheric
model that is widely used in the study of aircraft flight. Properties of the standard atmospheric model are
derived from the ideal gas law and the hydrostatic equation. The equations are combined. The standard
atmospheric model is obtained using empirical data about the temperature variation with altitude and a
simple use of integral calculus.
Assume the atmosphere is stationary with respect to the Earth, that is the atmospheric velocity field is
identically zero. Let h denote the altitude measured from sea level; then the hydrostatic equation is
dp
= −ρg. (2.2)
dh
In this equation, g is the acceleration of gravity at sea level. Although the acceleration of gravity is
smaller at higher altitudes, this effect is quite small and is omitted in this analysis. The acceleration of
gravity at sea level is
g = 9.81 m/s2 (g = 32.2 ft/s2 ).
In physical terms, the hydrostatic equation is that the vertical pressure gradient is due solely to grav-
itational effects. The hydrostatic equation is easily derived by examination of the forces acting on a unit
element and using the fact that the sum of the vertical forces on the element must be zero since the air is
stationary.
We also use empirical results obtained from averaged atmospheric measurements to model the variation
of temperature in the atmosphere as it depends on altitude. The important part of the atmosphere for flight
can be naturally divided into several horizontal layers. The lowest atmospheric layer is the troposphere
where the temperature decreases linearly with altitude with an assumed temperature of 288.15 K = 15 o C
at sea level; this layer extends to an altitude of 11km. In the next layer, referred to as the tropopause,
the temperature does not change with altitude; the tropopause is the layer from 11km up to 20km. The
constant temperature in the tropopause is 216.65 K = −56.5 o C. The next highest layer, the stratosphere,
extends from 20km up to an altitude of 32km. In this region the temperature increases linearly with altitude.
Although it is possible to characterize the temperature variation above the stratosphere, it is not necessary
to consider this region for purposes of flight analysis. An analytical formula for this empirical temperature
variation in the troposphere is given by
T = 288.15 − 6.5h K (0 ≤ h ≤ 11 km), (2.3)
where h is expressed in km. In the tropopause the empirical atmospheric temperature variation is given by
T = 216.65 K (11 ≤ h ≤ 20 km). (2.4)
In the stratosphere, the empirical atmospheric temperature variation is given by
T = 216.65 + 1.0 (h − 20) K (20 ≤ h ≤ 32 km). (2.5)
The hydrostatic equation can be rewritten by substituting the expression for the density expressed in
terms of temperature and pressure from the ideal gas law (2.1) into (2.2). The resulting expression gives the
pressure gradient in terms of the pressure and temperature as
dp p
=− g. (2.6)
dh RT
In the troposphere, the temperature variation is linear with altitude. This allows integration of (2.6),
using the value for the sea level atmospheric pressure, to determine the analytical expression for the pressure
within the troposphere as

− g
T a0 R
p = p0 , (2.7)
T0
where p0 and T0 are the pressure and the temperature at sea level, respectively, and a0 is the gradient of the
temperature in the troposphere; p0 = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 , T0 = 288.15 K, a0 = −6.5 × 10−3 K/m.
This then allows determination of the atmospheric pressure at the boundary between the troposphere and the
tropopause. We then integrate equation (2.6), using the constant value for the atmospheric pressure in the
tropopause, to determine the analytical expression for the pressure in the tropopause as

g
p = p1 exp − (h − h1 ) , (2.8)
RT1
where p1 and h1 are the pressure and the altitude at the lowest altitude of the tropopause; p1 = 2.26319 ×
104 N/m2 , h1 = 11, 000 m, and T1 = 216.65 K. This allows determination of the atmospheric pressure
at the boundary between the tropopause and the stratosphere. Finally, we integrate equation (2.6), using
the value for the atmospheric pressure at the lowest altitude of the stratosphere, to determine the analytical
expression for the pressure in the stratosphere as

− g
T a2 R
p = p2 , (2.9)
T2
where p2 and T2 are the pressure and the temperature at the lowest altitude of the stratosphere, respectively,
and a2 is the gradient of temperature in the stratosphere; p2 = 5.4749 × 103 N/m2 , T2 = 216.65 K,
a2 = 1.0 × 10−3 K/m.
It is now possible to determine the variation of the atmospheric density from the expressions (2.3)-(2.9)
using the ideal gas law. This gives the density expression in the troposphere as
− g −1
T a0 R
ρ = ρ0 , (2.10)
T0
where ρ0 is the density at the sea level; ρ0 = 1.2250 kg/m3 . The density expression in the tropopause is
h g i
ρ = ρ1 exp − (h − h1 ) , (2.11)
RT
where ρ1 is the density at the lowest level of the tropopause; ρ1 = 3.6392 × 10−1 kg/m3 . The density
expression in the stratosphere is

− g
−1
T a2 R
ρ = ρ2 , (2.12)
T2
where ρ2 is the density at the lowest level of the stratosphere; ρ2 = 8.8035 × 10−2 kg/m3 . The above
expressions for the temperature, pressure and density of the atmosphere are given in graphical form in
Figure 2.1. Note that for altitudes exceeding 30 km, the pressure and density of the atmosphere are very
small which is why conventional aircraft flight is not possible at these high altitudes. The above expressions
are given in SI units; similar expressions can be obtained in terms of British units.
Tables for the standard atmospheric model are given in Appendix. These tables are convenient for our
subsequent flight analysis. A table is given for atmospheric temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of
sound that depends on the temperature in SI units. Another table is given using British units.
30 30 30
25 25 25
20 20 20
Altitude (km)
Altitude (km)
Altitude (km)
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
−60 −40 −20 0 20 0 5 10 15 0 0.5 1 1.5
Temperature (oC) Pressure (N/m2) x 10
4
Density (kg/m3)
(a) Temperature (b) Pressure (c) Density
Figure 2.1: Standard Atmosphere in SI units
It is important to keep in mind that the above describes an idealization of the atmosphere that is sta-
tionary. This ideal atmosphere is not intended to represent any real atmospheric properties at any specific
location near the Earth or at any particular instant. Rather, the standard atmosphere is a model that is widely
adopted and useful for analysis of aircraft flight.
The following Matlab function returns the temperature, pressure, and density at a specified altitude less
than or equal to 32 km. Be careful to use proper dimensions when calculating the properties of the standard
atmosphere.
StdAtpSI.m
function [T p rho]=StdAtpSI(h)
%US Standard Atmosphere in SI units
%Input : h altitute (km)
%Output : T temperature (K), p pressure (N/mˆ2), rho density (kg/mˆ3)
h1=11; h2=20; h3=32; a0=-6.5e-3; a2=1e-3; g=9.80665; mol=28.9644;

R0=8.31432; R=R0/mol*1e3;
T0=288.15; p0=1.01325e5; rho0=1.2250; T1=T0+a0*h1*1e3;

p1=p0*(T1/T0)ˆ(-g/a0/R); rho1=rho0*(T1/T0)ˆ(-g/a0/R-1); T2=T1;
p2=p1*exp(-g/R/T2*(h2-h1)*1e3); rho2=rho1*exp(-g/R/T2*(h2-h1)*1e3);
if h <= h1
disp(’Troposphere’);
T=T0+a0*h*1e3;
p=p0*(T/T0)ˆ(-g/a0/R);
rho=rho0*(T/T0)ˆ(-g/a0/R-1);
elseif h <= h2
disp(’Tropopause’);
T=T1;
p=p1*exp(-g/R/T*(h-h1)*1e3);
rho=rho1*exp(-g/R/T*(h-h1)*1e3);
elseif h <= h3
disp(’Stratosphere’);
T=T2+a2*(h-h2)*1e3;
p=p2*(T/T2)ˆ(-g/a2/R);
rho=rho2*(T/T2)ˆ(-g/a2/R-1);
else
disp(’Error: the altitute should be less then 32 km’);
end
You can generate Figure 2.1 using the following Matlab commands.
h=0:0.2:32;
for k=1:size(h,2)
[T(k) p(k) rho(k)]=StdAtpSI(h(k));
end
figure;
plot(T-273.15,h);
xlabel(’Temperature (ˆ{o}C)’);
ylabel(’Altitude (km)’);
grid on;
figure;
plot(p,h);
xlabel(’Pressure (N/mˆ2)’);
grid on;
figure; plot(rho,h);
xlabel(’Density (kg/mˆ3)’);
grid on;
The standard atmospheric data in British units can be obtained simply by using conversion factors.
A list of conversion factors can be found at http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/winddocs/cff/
factors.html.
StdAtpUS.m
(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow
Figure 2.2: Flow over airfoil
function [T p rho]=StdAtpUS(h)
%US Standard Atmosphere in US units
%Input : h altitute (ft)
%Output : T temperature (R), p pressure (lbf/ftˆ2), rho density (slug/ftˆ3)
[T p rho]=StdAtpSI(h*0.3048/1000);
T=1.8*T;
p=p*0.0208854342331501;
rho=rho*0.00194032033197972;
2.3 Aerodynamics fundamentals
The assumption in Section 2.2 is that the atmosphere is stationary, namely that the velocity field is identically
zero. In this section, air is assumed to be in motion with a nontrivial velocity field. Steady flow properties
are briefly summarized, where steady flow means that the velocity field may depend on location but is time
independent.
Figure 2.2 shows a photograph of the flow of air over a fixed air foil in a wind tunnel. The two dimen-
sional photograph illustrates the flow characteristics that are exposed by injection of smoke into the flow.
This defines streamlines that clearly separate the flow around the air foil. There is no flow across the stream-
lines. Equivalently, the velocity field must be tangent to the streamlines. We study some of the implications
that arise from Figure 2.2, assuming the flow is two-dimensional. For more complex three-dimensional
18 2.3. AERODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS
steady flows, stream tubes can be defined analogously to streamlines.
Incompressible flow means that the density field is constant. Conversely, if the density field is not
constant, the result is compressible flow. Incompressible flow is a reasonable approximation so long as the
velocity field is substantially smaller than the speed of sound in air. When the velocity field is sufficiently
high, compressible flow, for which the density is not constant, must be assumed. Most of our subsequent
analysis assumes incompressible flow. Typically, additional effects must be included for compressible flows.
We begin with the continuity equation, which is equivalent to conservation of mass. The continuity
equation can be written in a general form. For our purposes, it is sufficient to consider the steady flow of air
between two cross sections of a stream tube. Suppose the cross sectional area of a stream tube at the first
location is A1 and let V1 and ρ1 denote the speed of the flow and the air density at this location. Similarly, at
some other location, suppose the cross sectional area of the stream tube is A2 and the speed of the flow and
the air density at this location are V2 and ρ2 . The flow is assumed steady. The mass of air within the stream
tube between the two cross sections must remain constant, since there is no flow across the stream tube. It
follows that
ρ1 A 1 V 1 = ρ 2 A 2 V 2 . (2.13)
This is the continuity equation for steady flow.
If the flow is assumed to be incompressible, then the air densities are identical at the two cross sections
and the continuity equation for incompressible flow gives
A1 V 1 = A2 V 2 . (2.14)
This relation demonstrates the general property that if the cross sectional area is decreased, for example
by requiring that the flow go through a nozzle, then the flow velocity must increase. This is true also for
compressible flow, although the change in air density must be taken into account.
Flow over an aircraft wing, or flow over an airfoil in a wind tunnel, provides another illustration of the
continuity equations. As seen in Figure 2.2 (a), the stream tube is deformed by the presence of the wing.
Consequently, changes in the cross section of the stream tube correspond to changes in the velocity of the
flow.
Another fundamental physical principle is conservation of momentum for steady flow. Suppose that the
flow properties vary only along the axis of a stream tube. Conservation of momentum along that axis can be
shown to lead to the following equation
dp dV
= −ρV . (2.15)
dx dx
At the location denoted by x along the stream tube axis, p is the static pressure of the air, ρ is the air density,
and V is the speed of the flow. This equation relates the pressure gradient of the flow to the velocity gradient
of the flow. Note that the pressure gradient and the velocity gradient have opposite signs. Along the stream
tube, if the pressure increases (decreases) then the flow speed decreases (increases).
For incompressible flow, the above equation can be integrated along the axis of the stream tube to obtain
Bernoulli’s equation
1
p + ρV 2 = C. (2.16)
2
That is, sum of the static pressure p and the pressure term 12 ρV 2 is a constant along the axis of a stream tube.
The term
1
q = ρV 2 (2.17)
2
is referred to as the dynamic pressure. It has units of pressure and is a very important quantity in aircraft
flight. The dynamic pressure can be thought of as a pressure term that arises due to the motion of the air
through the stream tube.
Bernoulli’s equation is extremely useful. Using both continuity and Bernoulli’s equation for flow along
a stream tube, it can be shown that if the cross sectional area of the stream tube is decreased, as can be seen
in Figure 2.2 (a), then the flow velocity must increase and the static pressure must decrease.
Bernoulli’s equation also forms the theoretical basis for various flow instruments. For example, if one
knows the constant C then direct measurement of the static pressure at some location allows determination
of the flow velocity at that location; this assumes knowledge of the air density, such as might be obtained
from the standard atmospheric model. Such a device for measuring flow velocities is called a pitot tube.
20 2.3. AERODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS
Although the above expression for Bernoulli’s equation is given only for incompressible flow, it is pos-
sible to obtain a modified form of the equation for compressible flow. The key fact is that the dynamic
pressure is important for both compressible and incompressible flows.
We briefly describe the differences in the two photographs in Figure 2.2 (a) and (b). In Figure 2.2(a),
the streamlines (or stream tubes) are clearly defined and regular. This type of flow is referred to as laminar
flow. This is the kind of flow that is easiest to analyze. In Figure 2.2(b), the streamlines are clearly defined
and regular over the leading edge of the air foil, but as the flow proceeds over the trailing edge of the airfoil,
the streamlines become irregular, and the streamlines are no longer clearly defined. This latter type of flow
regime is said to be turbulent. Turbulent flow is quite difficult to model accurately. In our subsequent
development, the aerodynamics models employed are based on the assumption of laminar flow. However,
the onset of turbulence is important since it defines the aerodynamic limits of conventional aircraft flight.
The onset of turbulence is primarily influenced by the Reynolds number and the deflection of the streamlines,
due to the presence of the air foil, from its free stream flow direction.
More complex models of fluid flow that take into account non-steady three dimensional flow, as well as
thermodynamic effects, can be developed, and they are important for more advanced studies of aerodynam-
ics and non-steady aircraft flight. Such models are not required for the analysis of steady flow properties.
An important factor in determining whether compressibility effects of air are important is the Mach num-
ber of a flow. The Mach number is the ratio of the air speed to the speed of sound, or acoustic propagation
speed, in air. That is the Mach number M is
V
M= , (2.18)
a
where V is the air speed and a is the speed of sound. The speed of sound depends on the air temperature
according to
p
a= γRT , (2.19)
where γ = 1.4 is the specific heat of air, R is the universal gas constant given previously, and T is the
absolute temperature. The speed of sound depends on the air temperature, which depends on the altitude
according to the standard atmospheric model. Values of the speed of sound at different altitudes are tabulated
in the Appendix that contains data for the standard atmospheric model. Note that the Mach number is a
dimensionless quantity.
If the Mach number of air flow satisfies M < 0.4, the flow is effectively incompressible. If the Mach
number of air flow satisfies 0.4 < M < 0.85, compressibility effects may become important. If 0.85 < M
then compressibility effects are significant. If M < 0.85, the flow is said to be subsonic; if 0.85 < M < 1,
the flow is said to be transonic; if 1 < M < 5 the flow is said to be supersonic; if M > 5 the flow is said
to be hypersonic. Our subsequent development requires only the simplest subsonic aerodynamics models.
The general analysis approach described in these notes is, however, still applicable to transonic, supersonic
and even hypersonic flight if suitable aerodynamic models are utilized.
2.4 Wing theory
In Section 2.3, some fundamental physical properties of steady flow were presented, emphasizing the con-
cepts of flow along a stream tube. Many of the concepts introduced in Section 2.3 are directly applicable to
steady aircraft flight. In particular, steady aircraft flight corresponds to steady flow of air past the aircraft.
The wings and other aircraft components deform the stream tubes that define the flow past the aircraft. As
seen, this deformation of the stream tubes causes changes in the air speed and the static pressure of the flow
past the aircraft. The change in the static pressure is important, since the aerodynamic forces and moments
on the aircraft arise directly from these pressure variations. In particular, the total aerodynamic force on the
wing, or any other aircraft component, can be obtained by integrating the static pressure over the total wing
surface area.
The air speed of the aircraft, namely its speed with respect to the surrounding air, can be used to define
the Mach number of the aircraft. In this way, we can refer to aircraft in subsonic flight, supersonic flight,
or hypersonic flight. We subsequently only treat the case of subsonic aircraft flight. Note that the Mach
number of the aircraft is only a crude indicator of the Mach number of the flow of air past the aircraft at
different locations.
In our analysis of flight, the aerodynamic forces that act on an aircraft in flight are fundamental. Mod-
22 2.4. WING THEORY
Mean camber line

Leading Edge
Chord line
Camber, e
Trailing Edge
α
Chord, c
Figure 2.3: Wing cross section or Airfoil (NACA2411)
eling of these aerodynamic forces is essential to an understanding of the principles of flight. The most
important aerodynamic forces act on the aircraft wing, which is typically designed to generate aerodynamic
forces.
Hence we begin by considering the equivalent situation of a fixed aircraft, or aircraft wing, with air
flowing past the wing. This allows the development of the basic physics of wing theory required for our
subsequent analysis. A fixed wing in a moving flow field is exactly the situation encountered in a wind
tunnel, which is the explanation for the importance of wind tunnels in experimental studies of aerodynamics.
In fact, the photographs in Figure 2.2 are two-dimensional exposures that show the flow of smoke particles
injected into the flow past a stationary wing in a wind tunnel.
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 show some of the geometric features of a conventional aircraft wing. The most
important wing parameters are the wing span, the camber, the mean wing chord, and the wing surface area.
There are many types of aircraft wings; see Figure 2.5 for illustrations of many different wing designs.
Each design has its strengths and weaknesses, but we need not go into these details here since each of these
designs is characterized by the same basic fundamental aerodynamics properties. The specific wing design
Span, b
b
Semi-span, 2
Mean chord, c
Chord, c
Figure 2.4: Wing geometry
influences the values of parameters that appear in the aerodynamics models that we present, but the basic
wing theory principles apply to all types of wings.
As seen previously, from Bernoulli’s equation, the dynamic pressure on the wing has a strong influence
on the static pressure field, and hence the dynamic pressure influences the aerodynamic forces that are
exerted on the wing by the air flow. Although the pressure distribution varies over the wing, the magnitude
of the net aerodynamic force vector on the wing is proportional to the product of the free stream dynamic
pressure and the wing surface area. The free stream dynamic pressure is determined by the steady flow
before it is influenced by the presence of the wing.
It is convenient to decompose the aerodynamic force vector into two vectors: one that is along the free
24 2.4. WING THEORY
(a) High wing (b) Mid wing
(c) Low wing (d) Parasol wing
(e) Dihedral (f) Cathedral
(g) Gull (h) Flat / Monoplane
(i) Biplane (j) Triplane
Figure 2.5: Types of wing

(a) Swept back (b) Tapered
(c) Elliptic (d) Rectangular
(e) Swept forward (f) Delta
Figure 2.5: Types of wing

26 2.4. WING THEORY
stream velocity vector of the flow past the wing and the other that is perpendicular to the free stream velocity
vector and lies in the plane of symmetry of the wing (that is of the aircraft). The first aerodynamic force
component is commonly referred to as the drag force vector and the second aerodynamic force component
is referred to as the lift force vector. For aircraft (or wings) with a plane of mass symmetry, it is sufficient to
focus only on the drag and lift forces. These aerodynamic forces also give rise to an aerodynamic moment
vector with respect to the center of mass of the aircraft. This aerodynamic moment has a magnitude that is
proportional to the dynamic pressure and the wing surface. It is convenient to decompose the aerodynamic
moment into components referred to as the roll moment, the pitch moment, and the yaw moment. Detailed
mathematical models for these aerodynamic forces and moments that act on an aircraft in flight are given in
Chapter 3.
Chapter 3
Aircraft Kinematics and Aerodynamic
Forces and Moments
This chapter uses the background material in Chapter 2 to develop formal mathematical models for the
aerodynamic forces and moments that act on an aircraft in flight. The aerodynamics forces and moments
depend on the relative velocity of air as it flows past the aircraft in flight. As is standard, we assume that the
atmosphere is stationary. Hence the relative velocity of the air with respect to the aircraft is the negative of
the relative velocity of the aircraft with respect to the atmosphere. This leads to consideration of the velocity
vector of the aircraft with respect to the stationary atmosphere and the associated kinematics of the aircraft.
3.1 Aircraft kinematics
An aircraft can be considered to be a rigid body with constant mass. A rigid body is a body that does not
have any relative motion between any of its mass elements. In fact, real aircraft do contain moving parts,
including elevator, ailerons, rudder, as well as engine components, and possibly occupants. For the purposes
of steady flight analysis over relatively short time periods (order of minutes), it is reasonable to assume
that an aircraft is a rigid body with constant mass. For the purposes of steady flight over relatively long
time periods (more than twenty minutes), as considered in Chapter 9, the mass of the aircraft is assumed to
27
28 3.1. AIRCRAFT KINEMATICS
change slowly as fuel is burned.
In this section, several different Euclidean coordinate frames are introduced. These coordinate frames
are defined by the location of their origin and by three mutually orthogonal (perpendicular) coordinate axes.
The coordinate axes are ordered (by referring to them as the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis) so that if
the positive x-axis is rotated about the positive z-axis, it coincides with the positive y-axis after a 90 degree
rotation; this is referred to as a right hand coordinate frame.
The first coordinate frame of interest is a coordinate frame that is fixed with respect to the Earth (assumed
flat); the center of the coordinate frame is often located at sea level but this is not essential. The x-axis and the
y-axis are often assumed to lie in a horizontal plane and the z-axis is assumed to be vertical; for convenience
the positive z-axis is assumed to point downward. This coordinate frame is referred to as the ground frame
or the Earth-fixed frame. It is an important frame, since aircraft motion with respect to this coordinate frame
defines aircraft motion with respect to the Earth. In scientific terms, this is an important coordinate frame
since it is an inertial frame, that is Newton’s laws are valid in this coordinate frame.
Assuming the aircraft mass is constant (or only slowly varying), the center of mass of the aircraft is
defined as usual for a rigid body. The next coordinate frame of interest is a coordinate frame that is fixed to
the aircraft and moves with the aircraft; the center of the coordinate frame is usually located at the center of
mass of the aircraft. The positive x-axis is often assumed to lie in the direction of the nose of the aircraft,
the y-axis is often assumed to lie in the direction of the right wing, and the positive z-axis is assumed to be
perpendicular to the plane formed by the x-axis and the y-axis pointing to the bottom of the aircraft. These
body-fixed axes are selected so that the x and z axes describe the plane of mass symmetry of the aircraft.
This coordinate frame is referred to as the body-fixed frame or the aircraft-fixed frame. It is an important
frame, since this coordinate frame represents the perspective of instruments or humans in the aircraft. This
coordinate frame is, in general, not an inertial frame.
Other coordinate frames can be introduced, but for the present these two coordinate frames are sufficient.
They are each a Euclidean, right-hand, coordinate frame. Any vector can be expressed in terms of unit
vectors in either of these coordinate frames. The subsequent development studies the aircraft velocity vector
and shows how this velocity vector can be represented in terms of components in the ground frame and
CHAPTER 3. AIRCRAFT KINEMATICS AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS 29
in terms of components in the aircraft-fixed frame; further knowledge of the components in one of the
coordinate frames allows determination of components of the velocity vector in the other coordinate frame.
This subject is referred to as aircraft kinematics.
We begin by describing the general motion that an aircraft, as a rigid body, can have. The most general
type of motion is in three dimensions. There are three degrees of freedom that describe the translational
motion of the aircraft and three degrees of freedom that describe the rotational motion of the aircraft. The
three translational degrees of freedom are consistent with the fact that the translational velocity vector of
the aircraft has three components with respect one of the coordinate frames. The three rotational degrees of
freedom are consistent with the fact that the angular velocity vector of the aircraft has three components with
respect to one of the coordinate frames. Since we subsequently study steady flight, there are special cases
where the steady flight is such that the aircraft remains in a fixed vertical plane; this is steady longitudinal
flight. There are also special cases where the aircraft remains in a fixed horizontal plane; this is a steady level
turn. In these special cases, the aircraft motion in a fixed plane is described by three degrees of freedom,
namely two translational degrees of freedom and one rotational degrees of freedom.
An aircraft in longitudinal flight is shown in Figure 3.1; the aircraft fixed frame and the earth fixed frame
(with origin translated to the center of mass of the aircraft) are illustrated.
The pitch angle θ is the angle between the aircraft-fixed x axis and the ground-fixed x axis. If θ = 0, the
axes of the aircraft coordinate frame and the axes of the ground coordinate frame are coincide.
Define Vx and Vz to be the velocity components of the aircraft, expressed in the ground coordinate
frame; Vx is referred to as the horizontal or ground speed of the aircraft and −Vz is referred to as the rate of
climb of the aircraft.
Define u and w to be the velocity components of the aircraft, expressed in the aircraft fixed frame. The
magnitude of the aircraft velocity vector with respect to the stationary atmosphere (the air speed), in terms
of aircraft fixed velocity components, is
p
V = u2 + w 2 ; (3.1)
the magnitude of the aircraft velocity vector with respect to the stationary atmosphere, in terms of ground
xB
− Vz
V
α
θ
γ
Vx xI
zB
zI
Figure 3.1: Aircraft kinematics
fixed velocity components, is

p
V = Vx2 + Vz2 . (3.2)
The angle of attack is the angle between the velocity vector of the aircraft and the aircraft-fixed x axis;
the angle of attack satisfies
w
tan α = . (3.3)
u
The flight path angle γ is the angle between the velocity vector of the aircraft and the ground fixed x
axis; the flight path angle satisfies
−Vz
sin γ = p . (3.4)
Vx2 + Vz2
Note that a positive flight path angle means that the aircraft is climbing. A negative flight path angle
means that the aircraft is descending. A zero flight path angle means that the aircraft is in level flight.
The aircraft kinematics relate the components of the velocity vector of the aircraft, expressed in the
ground-fixed coordinate frame, to the components of the velocity vector of the aircraft, expressed in the
aircraft fixed coordinate frame.
The kinematics equations are obtained from Figure 3.1 as
Vx = u cos θ + w sin θ, (3.5)
Vz = −u sin θ + w cos θ, (3.6)
or equivalently
u = Vx cos θ − Vz sin θ, (3.7)
w = Vx sin θ + Vz cos θ. (3.8)
The pitch angle, angle of attack and flight path angle satisfy the equation
θ = α + γ. (3.9)
Longitudinal flight often occurs with small flight path angle, small angle of attack, and small pitch angle.
The small angle assumption means that the angle, when expressed in terms of radian measure, is much less
than 1.0. In this case, the above equations can be simplified by using the small angle approximation that the
sin of the angle is the angle and the cosine of an angle is 1.0. This gives the approximate relations
w
α= , (3.10)
u
Vz
γ=− (3.11)
V
and
Vx = u + wθ, (3.12)
Vz = −uθ + w (3.13)
or equivalently,
u = Vx − Vz θ, (3.14)
w = V x θ + Vz . (3.15)
The previous analysis treated the kinematics of steady longitudinal flight. Here, a brief analysis is
given of steady three-dimensional flight; this case is important in considering steady turns, as studied in
Chapter 10. Steady turning flight can occur if the velocity vector of the aircraft does not lie in the plane of
mass symmetry of the aircraft. If this component of the velocity vector, expressed in the aircraft fixed frame,
is denoted by v, and referred to as the side slip velocity, then the sideslip angle β is defined by
v
sin β = . (3.16)
V
For small side slip velocity, the side slip angle, expressed in radian measure, is
v
β= . (3.17)
V
For most conventional aircraft flight, even turning flight, it is desired to maintain the side slip velocity
near zero or equivalently to maintain the side slip angle near zero. Coordinated flight occurs when the
side slip angle is exactly zero. Most engines are designed to operate efficiently in coordinated flight. The
subsequent development, even for the analysis of steady turning flight in Chapter 10, assumes coordinated
flight.
As discussed in detail in Chapter 10, steady turning flight can be achieved by banking the aircraft. The
angle between the plane of mass symmetry of the aircraft and the vertical plane is referred to as the bank
angle or roll angle; this angle is often denoted as φ. A third angle ψ, called the yaw angle, represents the
angle between the ground-fixed x axis and the projection of the aircraft-fixed x axis onto the horizontal plane.
The bank angle, the pitch angle, and the yaw angle define the three-dimensional attitude of the aircraft.
In three-dimensional flight, the velocity vector of the aircraft can be expressed in terms of components
expressed in either the ground-fixed frame or the aircraft-fixed frame. The two important angles that define
the direction of the aircraft velocity vector in the ground fixed frame are the flight path angle γ and the
heading angle. The heading angle, denoted by ν, is the angle that the projection of the velocity vector onto
the horizontal plane makes with the ground-fixed x axis.
It is possible to derive kinematics relations for steady three-dimensional flight; that is the three compo-
nents of the velocity vector of the aircraft, in the ground-fixed frame, can be expressed in terms of the three
components of the velocity vector of the aircraft, in the aircraft-fixed frame; these expressions also involve
the attitude angles of the aircraft. We do not provide these equations, although they are easy to obtain. We
do mention that the heading angle is the sum of the yaw angle and the side slip angle.
3.2 Aerodynamic forces
In this section, we develop expressions for the lift and drag forces on an aircraft in steady longitudinal flight.
We assume steady flight through a stationary atmosphere; that is there is no wind. Thus, the magnitude of the
aircraft velocity vector is identical with the air speed past the aircraft. The lift and drag forces are primarily
due to the flow of air over the surface of the wing. This allows us to introduce lift and drag coefficients
according to the wing geometry, but it should be kept in mind that the lift force and drag force are the total
lift and total drag on the aircraft.
The density of air, at a given flight altitude, is denoted by ρ; V is the airspeed of the aircraft, S is the
wing surface area, c is the mean wing chord, and b is the wing span.
The magnitude of the lift force vector on the aircraft is given by
1
L = ρV 2 SCL , (3.18)
2
where 12 ρV 2 is the aircraft dynamic pressure. The direction of the lift force vector is perpendicular to the
velocity vector of the aircraft and it lies in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft. In this expression, CL is
the dimensionless lift coefficient. The lift coefficient has a strong dependence on the aircraft angle of attack
according to
CL = CL0 + CLα α. (3.19)
This linear dependence on the angle of attack is a good approximation, so long as the flight condition is such
that the aircraft wing is not close to stall.
The magnitude of the drag force vector on the aircraft is given by
1
D = ρV 2 SCD , (3.20)
2
where 12 ρV 2 is the aircraft dynamic pressure. The direction of the drag force vector is opposite to the velocity
vector of the aircraft. In this expression, CD is the dimensionless drag coefficient. The drag coefficient has
34 3.3. AERODYNAMIC MOMENTS
a strong dependence on the angle of attack and a weak dependence on the elevator deflection according to
CL2
CD = CD0 + . (3.21)
πeAR
This drag polar expression indicates that there are two sources for the drag force. The second term indicates
that there is a part of the drag that is due to the fact that the wing generates lift; this is often referred to as
a the induced drag term. The first term above indicates that there is a part of the drag that is independent
b
of the lift; this is due to aircraft friction and viscous flow effects. In the above, AR = S is the wing aspect
ratio, e is the Oswald efficiency factor, and CD0 is the zero-lift drag coefficient, that is the drag coefficient
when the lift coefficient is zero.
The lift and drag coefficient also depend on the characteristics of the flow over the wings through the
Reynolds number and the Mach number; this dependence is important at near supersonic speeds but is not
explicitly studied here.
The above expressions are valid only within a specific range of flight conditions. The main constraint
that must be considered is the fact that there is a maximum lift coefficient defined by the constraint
CL ≤ CLmax . (3.22)
This is often referred to as the stall constraint; it is equivalent to a constraint on the angle of attack.
3.3 Aerodynamic moments
Due to the flow of air past an aircraft in flight, aerodynamic forces give rise to moments about the aircraft
fixed x, y, and z axes. These aerodynamic moments are referred to as the roll moment, the pitch moment,
and the yaw moment.
The roll moment, the pitch moment, and the yaw moment are each expressed as a product of the dynamic
pressure, wing surface area, a moment arm, and a roll moment coefficient, a pitch moment coefficient, and
a yaw moment coefficient, respectively.
The purpose of the ailerons, operated in differential mode as described in Chapter 1, is to generate a
roll moment. The purpose of the elevator is to generate a pitch moment, and the purpose of the rudder is to
generate a yaw moment.

The aerodynamic roll moment is
1
L = ρV 2 SbCL , (3.23)
2
where CL denotes the dimensionless roll moment coefficient. The roll moment coefficient depends strongly
on the side slip angle β and the ailerons deflection δa , and it depends weakly on the rudder deflection δr .
The roll moment coefficient is most commonly described by
CL = CLβ β + CLδa δa + CLδr δr (3.24)
which indicates a linear dependence on the side slip angle, the ailerons deflection and the rudder deflection.
This linear dependence is a good approximation, so long as the flight condition is such that the aircraft
ailerons are not close to stall and they remain within their range limits. The aerodynamic roll moment
vector acts along the aircraft fixed x axis.
Steady flight with zero aerodynamic roll moment occurs when L = 0, that is when the roll moment
coefficient CL = 0. The ailerons and rudder should be adjusted to satisfy
0 = CLβ β + CLδa δa + CLδr δr (3.25)
to achieve zero roll moment for flight with side slip angle β.
The pitching moment on the aircraft is given by
1
M = ρV 2 ScCM ,
2
where CM denotes the dimensionless pitch moment coefficient. The pitch moment coefficient depends
strongly on the angle of attack and the elevator deflection δe . The pitch moment coefficient is most com-
monly described by
CM = CM0 + CMα α + CMδe δe (3.26)
which indicates a linear dependence on the angle of attack and the elevator deflection. This linear depen-
dence is a good approximation, so long as the flight condition is such that the aircraft elevator is not close
36 3.3. AERODYNAMIC MOMENTS
to stall and it remains within its range limits. The aerodynamic pitch moment acts along the aircraft fixed y
axis.
Steady flight with zero pitching moment occurs when M = 0, that is when the pitching moment coeffi-
cient CM = 0. The elevator should be adjusted to satisfy
−CM0 − CMα α
δe = (3.27)
CMδe
to achieve zero pitching moment at an aircraft angle of attack α.
The aerodynamic yaw moment N is given by
1
N = ρV 2 SbCN , (3.28)
2
where CN denotes the dimensionless yaw moment coefficient. The yaw moment coefficient depends strongly
on the side slip angle β and the rudder deflection δr , and it depends weakly on the ailerons deflection δa .
The yaw moment coefficient is most commonly described by
CN = CNβ β + CNδa δa + CNδr δr (3.29)
which indicates a linear dependence on the side slip angle, the ailerons deflection and the rudder deflection.
This linear dependence is a good approximation, so long as the flight condition is such that the aircraft
rudder is not close to stall and it remain within its range limits. The aerodynamic yaw moment vector acts
along the aircraft fixed z axis.
Steady flight with zero aerodynamic yaw moment occurs when N = 0, that is when the yaw moment
coefficient CN = 0. The ailerons and rudder should be adjusted to satisfy
0 = CNβ β + CNδa δa + CNδr δr
to achieve zero roll moment for flight at side slip angle β.
The roll, pitch, and yaw moment coefficients also depend weakly on the characteristics of the flow over
the aerodynamic control surfaces through the Reynolds number and the Mach number; this dependence is
not explicitly studied here.
It should be kept in mind that the aerodynamics expressions are only valid within a certain range of
flight conditions. In the subsequent analysis, we assume these conditions are satisfied.
Chapter 4
Propulsion Systems
This chapter summarizes the basic properties of aircraft propulsion systems that directly impact the aircraft
flight characteristics. From this perspective, it is not necessary to go into the detailed physics of aircraft
engines and propulsion systems. It is sufficient to consider general categories of aircraft engines and propul-
sion systems and to characterize each of these categories in terms of the steady thrust force and power that
the engines produce and the rate at which they burn fuel.
4.1 Steady thrust and power relations
In our analysis of steady flight, it is assumed that the propulsion system produces a constant level of thrust
or power. The thrust T produced and the power P produced by an engine are related by
P = T V. (4.1)
Here V is the flow speed of air through the engine, which is assumed to be identical to the air speed of the
aircraft. Equivalently, the thrust produced by an engine is given by
P
T = . (4.2)
V
If the unit of air speed is m/sec and the unit of thrust is newton, then the units of power is newton−m/sec.
Alternatively, if the units of air speed is ft/sec and the units of thrust is lb, then the units of power is
37
38 4.2. TURBOJETS
ft−lb/sec. In the latter set of units, it is common to express engine power in terms of horsepower where
1 hp = 550 ft−lb/sec.
4.2 Turbojets
Many modern aircraft have a propulsion system based on jet engine technology that operates in combination
with a turbine. It is not necessary to go into detail about the operation of jet engines; it suffices to describe
the overall properties of typical jet engines.
A jet engine produces a thrust force along a direction that is fixed in the aircraft in the aircraft plane of
mass symmetry. Jet engines are typically rated in terms of the maximum thrust that they can produce at sea
level.
For a given flight condition, the actual thrust that a jet engine produces depends on the product of the
throttle setting, the ratio of the air density at sea level to the air density at the flight altitude, and the maximum
s
rated thrust of the engine. If Tmax denotes the rated maximum thrust that an engine can produce at sea level,
then the actual thrust T that the engine produces at an altitude is given by
m
ρ s
T =σ Tmax . (4.3)
ρs
Here σ denotes the throttle setting, which is assumed to denote a value between 0 and 1; a throttle setting
of zero corresponds to engine off while a throttle setting of 1 corresponds to maximum thrust of the turbojet
engine at that altitude. In the above expression

ρ
ρs
is the ratio of the air density at the flight altitude to the air density at the sea level. Recall that the air density
depends on the altitude according to the standard atmospheric model. The constant m > 0 in (4.3) is a
characteristic of the turbojet engine.
It is easy to determine the power produced by a jet engine as

m
ρ s
P =σ Tmax V. (4.4)
ρs
CHAPTER 4. PROPULSION SYSTEMS 39
Another important property is the fuel consumed by a jet engine. The rate of fuel usage, the weight of fuel
burned per unit time, is proportional to the thrust produced by the engine according to
dW
= −cT. (4.5)
dt
Here c is the specific fuel consumption rate for a jet engine. The negative sign appears in the above expres-
sion since the rate of fuel burned per unit time should be negative.
The rate of fuel usage for a jet engine can also be expressed in terms of the throttle, the air density ratio,
and the rated thrust produced by the engine as

m
dW ρ s
= −c σ Tmax . (4.6)
dt ρs
An ideal jet engine is described by the above thrust, power, and fuel usage formulas. The rated engine thrust
at sea level and the fuel specific consumption rate are viewed as constants, independent of throttle, altitude
and air speed. For many jet engines, the ideal engine is a good approximation. In some cases, non-ideal jet
engines are described in graphical form by providing tables or graphs that describe how the thrust produced
by the engine depends on throttle, altitude and air speed.
4.3 Propeller driven by internal combustion engine
Many general aviation aircraft are propelled by an internal combustion engine that rotates a shaft to turn a
propeller. The propeller produces a thrust force along a direction that is fixed in the aircraft in the aircraft
plane of mass symmetry. Internal combustion engines are typically rated in terms of the maximum power
that they can produce at sea level.
For a given flight condition, the actual power that an internal combustion engine produces depends on
the product of the throttle setting, the ratio of the air density at sea level to the air density at the flight altitude,
s
and the maximum rated power of the engine. If Pmax denotes the rated maximum power that an engine can
produce at sea level, then the actual power P that the engine produces at an altitude is given by
m
ρ s
P =σ Pmax . (4.7)
ρs
40 4.3. PROPELLER DRIVEN BY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Here σ denotes the throttle setting, which is assumed to denote a value between 0 and 1; throttle setting of
zero corresponds to engine off while throttle setting of 1 corresponds to maximum power at that altitude.
Also

ρ
ρs
is the ratio of the air density at the flight altitude to the air density at the sea level. Recall that the air density
depends on the altitude according to the standard atmospheric model.
The power available for flight is the power generated by the engine multiplied by the efficiency η of the
propeller. Thus, the available power is

m
ρ s
P = ησ Pmax . (4.8)
ρs
It is easy to determine the thrust on the aircraft produced by a propeller driven by an internal combustion
engine as
m s
ρ Pmax
T = ησ . (4.9)
ρs V
Another important property is the fuel consumed by an internal combustion engine. The rate of fuel usage,
the weight of fuel burned per unit time, is proportional to the power produced by the engine according to
dW
= −cP. (4.10)
dt
Here c is the specific fuel consumption rate for the engine. The negative sign appears in the above expression
since the rate of fuel burned per unit time should be negative.
The rate of fuel usage can also be expressed in terms of the throttle, the air density ratio, and the rated
power produced by the engine as

m
dW ρ s
= −c σ Pmax . (4.11)
dt ρs
An ideal internal combustion engine is described by the above thrust, power, and fuel usage formulas.
The rated engine power at sea level, its fuel specific consumption rate, and the propeller efficiency are viewed
as constants, independent of throttle, altitude and air speed. For many internal combustion engines, the ideal
CHAPTER 4. PROPULSION SYSTEMS 41
engine and propeller models are good approximations. In some cases, non-ideal engines and propellers are
described in graphical form by providing tables or graphs that describe how the power produced by the
engine that is available for flight depends on throttle, altitude and air speed.
4.4 Turboprop engines
Turboprop engines use a turbine to turn a propeller that produces the thrust on the aircraft. Consequently,
these engines combine some of the features of turbojet engines and internal combustion engines but with a
propeller.
It is most common to describe turboprop engine performance using tables or graphs that express thrust
or power produced by the engine in terms of throttle, altitude and air speed.
4.5 Throttle as a pilot input
The pilot of an aircraft typically controls the thrust or power that the engine provides for flight by adjustment
of the throttle setting. In particular, the pilot is only able to select the throttle setting between 0 and 1.
Depending on the type of engine, this means that the pilot has limits on the thrust or power that can be used
to carry out a maneuver or to change the flight conditions.
In order to conserve fuel, most pilots would prefer to carry out flight maneuvers using only the aerody-
namic control surfaces, without changes in the throttle, if this is possible. As will be seen in the subsequent
chapters, some flight maneuvers can be accomplished without using the throttle; however, some flight ma-
neuvers require the use of the throttle.

Chapter 5
Equations of Motion for Steady Flight
In this chapter, the basic relationships for aircraft steady flight are specified. These relationships are ex-
pressed in terms of mathematical equations that are derived by examining all of the forces that act on the
aircraft.
Steady flight occurs if the aircraft center of mass moves along a straight line in a fixed vertical plane; this
type of steady flight is referred to as steady longitudinal flight. In this case, at any instant of time the sum
of all of the vector forces acting on the aircraft is zero, and the aircraft acceleration is zero. Consequently,
the aircraft velocity vector with respect to the ground fixed frame is constant. Steady longitudinal flight also
requires that the sum of all the vector moments acting about the center of mass of the aircraft is zero.
Steady flight can also occur if the aircraft center of mass moves along a circular arc in a fixed horizontal
plane; this type of steady flight is referred to as steady level, turning flight. In this case, at any instant of
time the sum of all of the vector forces has a constant magnitude and is directed inward towards the center
of the circular arc; the aircraft acceleration also has constant magnitude and is directed inward towards the
center of the circular arc. Consequently, the aircraft velocity vector with respect to the ground fixed frame
has constant magnitude and is tangent to the circular arc. The sum of all of the vector moments acting about
the center of mass of the aircraft is zero.
In the most general type of steady flight in three dimensions, the aircraft moves along a helical path
whose helical axis is vertical. This involves a combination of longitudinal flight and turning flight.
42
CHAPTER 5. EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR STEADY FLIGHT 43
The basic approach in studying these steady flight conditions consists of construction of a free-body
diagram of the aircraft that shows all of the forces acting on the aircraft. It is convenient to show on the
free-body diagram the aircraft attitude and the velocity vector of the center of mass of the aircraft. Such
diagrams are helpful in correctly describing the direction of each force vector. These diagrams form the
basis for developing the steady flight equations of motion based on Newton’s laws.
All three types of steady flight are analyzed. Since it is simplest, we begin by studying steady longitudi-
nal flight. This Chapter provides background for Chapter 6 that treats steady level flight and Chapter 7 that
treats steady climbing flight. Steady turning flight is studied in Chapter 10.
5.1 Aircraft forces and moments
The forces and moments that act on an aircraft are summarized in this section. There are three types of
aircraft forces: aerodynamic forces, a propulsive force, and a gravitational force.
Recall that the aerodynamic forces are the lift force and the drag force. As described previously, the lift
force has magnitude given by
1
L = ρV 2 SCL (5.1)
2
that depends on the dynamic pressure and the lift coefficient. The lift force vector acts perpendicular to the
velocity vector in the aircraft plane of symmetry.
Recall also that the drag force has magnitude given by
1
D = ρV 2 SCD (5.2)
2
that depends on the dynamic pressure and the drag coefficient. The drag force vector acts opposite to the
velocity vector.
Assuming there is a propulsive system in the aircraft, there is a propulsive force T that acts on the
aircraft. As described in Chapter 4, the propulsive force depends on the type of engine, the throttle setting,
the altitude, and the air speed. The propulsive force vector acts along a direction that is fixed with respect to
the aircraft-fixed coordinate frame.

44 5.2. STEADY FLIGHT EQUATIONS
Finally, there is a gravitational force. It is convenient to assume that the Earth is flat for the purposes
of the present development. The magnitude of the gravity force is given by mg, where m is the mass of
the aircraft and g is the constant acceleration of gravity. It is also convenient, at this point, to make the
approximation that the mass m of the aircraft is constant. This is a good approximation for time periods of
the order of minutes, but it is not a good approximation for longer time periods. The gravity force vector
acts in the downward direction that is fixed with respect to the ground-fixed coordinate frame.
The aerodynamic roll, pitch and yaw moments are described as follows. The aerodynamic roll moment
has magnitude given by
1
L = ρV 2 SbCL (5.3)
2
that depends on the dynamic pressure and the roll moment coefficient. The roll moment vector acts along
the roll axis of the aircraft. The aerodynamic pitch moment has magnitude given by
1
M = ρV 2 ScCM (5.4)
2
that depends on the dynamic pressure and the pitch moment coefficient. The pitch moment vector acts along
the pitch axis of the aircraft. The aerodynamic yaw moment has magnitude given by
1
N = ρV 2 SbCN (5.5)
2
that depends on the dynamic pressure and the yaw moment coefficient. The yaw moment vector acts along
the yaw axis of the aircraft.
5.2 Steady flight equations
All steady flight conditions can be expressed by algebraic equations that arise from the vector form of
Newton’s laws
L + D + T + mg = ma. (5.6)
Here the overbars denote the force vectors associated with the lift, drag, thrust, and gravity, m denotes the
scalar mass of the aircraft, and a denotes the vector acceleration of the center of mass of the aircraft. This
CHAPTER 5. EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR STEADY FLIGHT 45
equation should be expressed in terms of the ground-fixed coordinate frame for which Newton’s law are
valid.
Steady flight also requires that the sum of the moment vectors about the center of mass of the aircraft
be zero. The aerodynamic moments have been described in Chapter 3. There may be a pitch moment due
to the thrust force if the thrust force vector has a nonzero moment arm to the center of mass of the aircraft.
Throughout the development here, this moment arm is assumed to be zero so that there is no net moment on
the aircraft due to the thrust. This assumption is made for simplicity; if the assumption is not valid it is easy
to modify the subsequent development to incorporate a pitch moment due to the thrust. Finally, it is noted
that the weight of the aircraft, the force due to gravity, does not give a moment since the weight acts through
the center of mass. In summary, steady flight requires that the sum of the moment vectors about the center
of mass of the aircraft is zero. This gives the conditions that each of the aerodynamic moments is zero, that
is
L = M = N = 0, (5.7)
or equivalently that the roll moment coefficient, the pitch moment coefficient, and the yaw moment coeffi-
cient are zero. That is
CL = CM = CN = 0. (5.8)
5.3 Steady longitudinal flight
Steady longitudinal flight is steady flight in a fixed vertical flight. In this case, the acceleration vector is zero.
Hence the aircraft velocity vector is constant. Assuming steady longitudinal flight, the forces on the aircraft
are shown in the free body diagram of Figure 5.1. This free body diagram assumes flight at a constant angle
of attack α, constant flight path angle γ, and constant air speed V . These angles are indicated in Figure 5.1.
The free body diagram can be used to obtain two scalar force equations: one equation comes from the
sum of the forces along the velocity vector being zero; the other equation comes from the sum of the forces
46 5.3. STEADY LONGITUDINAL FLIGHT
xB
L
T
V
α
θ
γ
xI
D
mg
zB
zI
Figure 5.1: Free body diagrams
normal to the velocity vector being zero. These equations are
T cos α − D − W sin γ = 0, (5.9)
T sin α + L − W cos γ = 0. (5.10)
In Chapter 6, these fundamental equations are simplified and then studied in detail for the special case
of steady level flight where the flight path angle γ = 0. In Chapter 7, these equations are simplified and
studied in the case of a nonzero flight path angle.
This approach to deriving the equations of motion, using a free body diagram, is applied to steady
turning flight in Chapter 10. Since turning flight involves three-dimensional flight, it is somewhat more
complicated. Nevertheless, the free body diagram showing the force vectors that act on the aircraft provide
the basic conceptual approach. The details are described in Chapter 10.
Chapter 6
Aircraft Cruise in Steady Level Flight
In this chapter, the equations for steady level flight are derived and studied in detail. This mathematical
approach provides a framework for developing a good understanding of the basic principles of steady level
flight and the various physical characteristics of the aircraft that support steady level flight. The mathemati-
cal approach also provides a precise way to quantify aircraft steady flight characteristics, flight performance,
and how performance depends on important aircraft parameters.
6.1 Force and moment equations
The conditions for steady longitudinal flight were obtained in Chapter 5. Here those conditions are spe-
cialized to the case where the longitudinal flight is horizontal, that is the velocity vector is horizontal or,
equivalently, the flight path angle γ = 0. The resulting three algebraic equations for steady level flight are
given by
L = W + T sin α, (6.1)
D = T cos α, (6.2)
M = 0. (6.3)
We now follow standard convention to make the approximation that the thrust is much smaller than the lift
and the angle of attack is a small angle in radian measure. The first approximation is justified for most con-
47
48 6.2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT CONDITIONS
ventional fixed wing aircraft; typical aircraft parameter data is given later that illustrates the reasonableness
of this approximation. The assumption that the angle of attack is small is consistent with the use of the
linear aerodynamics approximations introduced in Chapter 3. These approximations imply that the above
equations can be written in the form
L = W, (6.4)
D = T, (6.5)
M = 0. (6.6)
These three equations provide the basis for studying steady level flight in a fixed horizontal plane. They
provide the conceptually simple relationships for steady level flight:
• the lift must equal the weight of the aircraft,
• the drag must equal the thrust,
• the aerodynamic pitching moment must be zero.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that these equations are only approximations to the exact, but more
complicated, steady level fight equations. Equations (6.4)–(6.6) are used in our subsequent analysis.
6.2 Steady level flight conditions
Additional equations that describe the lift force, the drag force, and the pitching moment are repeated as
1
L = ρV 2 SCL , (6.7)
2
1
D = ρV 2 SCD , (6.8)
2
1 2
M = ρV ScCM . (6.9)
2
The drag polar expression that relates the drag coefficient to the lift coefficient is given by
CL2
CD = CD0 + . (6.10)
πeAR
CHAPTER 6. AIRCRAFT CRUISE IN STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT 49
Equations (6.4)–(6.10) form the fundamental equations for steady level flight; these equations are now
analyzed to ascertain the basic properties of an aircraft in steady level flight.
It is convenient to study equations (6.4), (6.5), (6.7), (6.8), and (6.10). These are five algebraic equations.
The following perspective provides insight into these five equations. The five equations involve the following
six flight variables:
• the lift force L,
• the drag force D,
• the thrust T ,
• the air speed V ,
• the lift coefficient CL ,
• the drag coefficient CD .
Our objective is to determine the relations between these six variables using the conditions for steady level
flight. In mathematical terms, we seek to determine the relations between these six flight variables that
satisfy the five algebraic equations (6.4), (6.5), (6.7), (6.8), and (6.10). These algebraic equations also
involve important flight parameters:
• the aircraft weight W ,
• the aircraft wing surface S,
1
• the aircraft aerodynamic parameters CD0 and K = πeAR ,
• the density of air ρ.
Note that the air density parameter depends on the flight altitude according to the standard atmospheric
model.
In summary, we make a clear distinction between the flight parameters and the flight variables. This
perspective is consistent with the viewpoint that the flight parameters are given constants that characterize
50 6.2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT CONDITIONS
a given aircraft in flight at a given altitude, while the flight variables are constants that must be selected to
satisfy the five algebraic equations for steady level flight. In this way, good insight can be obtained into the
conditions required for steady level flight. Flight performance issues can also be assessed.
For any set of flight variables corresponding to steady level flight, the pitching moment must be zero and
the pitching moment coefficient (6.9) must be zero, that is
0 = CM0 + CMα α + CMδe δe . (6.11)
In addition, the lift coefficient can be expressed in terms of the angle of attack as
CL = CL0 + CLα α. (6.12)
If the lift coefficient is known as a consequence of the steady flight analysis, and the aerodynamic parameters
in (6.11) and (6.12) are known, then equations (6.11) and (6.12) can be used to determine the values of the
additional flight variables, namely the angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe .
The above algebraic equations follow directly from the basic aerodynamics relationships and the free
body diagram. Solutions of these algebraic equations describe all possible steady flight conditions. Con-
versely, any set of flight variables that satisfy these algebraic equations corresponds to a steady level flight
condition.
There are additional limitations on the flight variables that must also be taken into account. These
limitations arise from physical considerations on the validity of the above equations. The two main limits
that are analyzed here are due to the aerodynamics stall limit, expressed by a constraint on the maximum
possible lift coefficient expressed as
CL ≤ CLmax (6.13)
and a limit on the thrust that the engine can provide for steady level flight. The thrust limit depends on the
type of engine that provides the thrust; the thrust limits are considered later.
6.3 Solving for steady level flight conditions
The five algebraic flight equations for steady level flight, namely (6.4), (6.5), (6.7), (6.8), and (6.10) are
expressed in terms of six flight variables. It should be emphasized that these algebraic equations are not
linear algebraic equations, so general statements cannot be made about existence or uniqueness of solutions
of these equations; the equations must be analyzed directly.
Motivated by the fact that there are five equations and six variables, it is reasonable to select a fixed
value for one of the flight variables and then to solve the five equations for the other five flight variables. In
this way, it is possible to express the five flight variables in terms of the prior selected flight variable. This
is exactly the procedure that is followed in the subsequent development.
6.4 Thrust vs speed curves
We first consider the conditions for steady level flight supposing that V is a given air speed. Substituting the
lift expression (6.7) into equation (6.4) it is easy to solve for the lift coefficient as
2W
CL = . (6.14)
ρV 2 S
The drag polar expression (6.10) gives the expression for the drag coefficient as
4KW 2
CD = CD0 + , (6.15)
ρ2 V 4 S 2
1
where K is a dimensionless quantity defined as K = πeAR . Consequently, the drag for steady level flight at
air speed V is obtained from (6.8) as
1 2KW 2
D = ρV 2 SCD0 + . (6.16)
2 ρV 2 S
The thrust required to maintain steady level flight is given by (6.5) as
1 2KW 2
T = ρV 2 SCD0 + . (6.17)
2 ρV 2 S
This equation gives the thrust required for steady level flight as it depends on the air speed V and the flight
parameters. Note that there are two terms in the expression (6.17) for the required thrust. The first term on
52 6.4. THRUST VS SPEED CURVES
16000
14000
12000
Thrust required (lbf) 10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 6.1: Thrust required for steady level flight
the right of (6.17) describes the part of the drag that is due to aerodynamic friction and is independent of the
lift; this drag term increases as the air speed increases. The second term on the right of (6.17) is the drag that
is induced by the lift; this drag term decreases as the air speed increases. Thus the total thrust required to
maintain steady level flight is the sum of both drag terms. A typical plot of the thrust for steady level flight
as a function of the air speed is shown in Figure 6.1.
Since steady level flight is an example of longitudinal flight, it is clear that the rolling moment and the
yawing moment must be zero; this implies that the ailerons deflection and the rudder deflection must be
zero.
It is also possible to determine expressions for the aircraft angle of attack and the elevator deflection. In
particular, equations (6.11) and (6.12) can be used, where the lift coefficient in (6.12) is given by (6.14), to
solve for the angle of attack and the elevator deflection that correspond to steady level flight at air speed V .
Explicit formulas are not given for these expressions, but these computations are illustrated in examples.
The throttle setting is easily determined from the above expressions, but this is deferred until Sections
6.6 and 6.7 since the results depend on the type of propulsion system that generates the thrust on the aircraft.
Finally, it is important to check that the computed variables for the flight condition are physically feasi-
ble. In particular, the aircraft should not stall. The stall constraint can be expressed as a maximum value for
the lift coefficient. The lift coefficient given by expression (6.14) should not exceed the aerodynamics stall
limit given by (6.13). This expression can be written as an inequality for the air speed given by
V ≥ Vstall , (6.18)
where the stall speed is

s
2W
Vstall = . (6.19)
ρSCLmax
Consequently, the stall constraint provides a minimum value for the air speed, given by (6.19), and a maxi-
mum value for the angle of attack.
In addition, the propulsion system should be able to provide the thrust required for steady level flight
given by (6.17). The details of this latter constraint depend on the type of propulsion system and are exam-
ined in Sections 6.6 and 6.7. If the physical constraints are satisfied, then this steady level flight condition is
said to fall within the steady level flight envelope.
6.5 Power vs speed curves
The development is Section 6.4 emphasizes the thrust required for steady level flight. It is also possible to
characterize the power required for steady level flight using the basic relationship between thrust and power.
In steady level flight, the power required is the product of the thrust required and the air speed of the aircraft.
Hence, (6.17) can be multiplied by the air speed to obtain the expression for the power required for steady
level flight
1 2KW 2
P = ρV 3 SCD0 + . (6.20)
2 ρV S
Note that there are two terms in the expression (6.20) for the required power. The first term on the right
of (6.20) describes the part of the power required to overcome the drag that is due to aerodynamic friction
and is independent of the lift; this term increases as the air speed increases. The second term on the right of
(6.20) is the power required to overcome the drag that is induced by the lift; this term decreases as the air
54 6.6. AIRCRAFT WITH JET ENGINES
4
x 10
15
Power required (lbf ft/s)

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 6.2: Power required for steady level flight
speed increases. Thus the total power required to maintain steady level flight is the sum of both terms. A
typical plot of the power for steady level flight as a function of the air speed is shown in Figure 6.2.
Equations (6.17) and (6.20) are simply different ways of expressing what the propulsion system needs
to provide to maintain steady level flight at a given air speed. Since jet engines are rated in terms of the
maximum thrust that they provide, it is natural to use (6.17) in the analysis of steady flight conditions for
aircraft with jet engines. Since internal combustion engines driving propellers are rated in terms of the
maximum power that they provide, it is natural to use (6.20) in the analysis of steady flight conditions for
aircraft with internal combustion engines and propellers.
6.6 Aircraft with jet engines
In this section, we consider steady level flight conditions, taking into account that the propulsion system is
a jet engine. The material in either Section 6.4 or 6.5 could be used, but it is natural to build on the material
in Section 6.4 that characterizes the thrust required for steady level flight.
The main point is that the jet engine can provide a maximum rated thrust; and the thrust required for
16000
14000
Thrust required / available (lbf)

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 6.3: Maximum thrust limit
steady level flight must not exceed this maximum thrust in order that the flight condition be in the steady
level flight envelope. The maximum rated thrust is usually provided as a sea level value. Recall that the
maximum thrust that the engine can provide decreases with altitude according to equation (4.3), where the
air density ρ depends on the altitude according to the standard atmospheric model. In mathematical form,
the thrust required given by expression (6.17) must satisfy

m
s ρ
T ≤ Tmax . (6.21)
ρs
Assuming this condition is satisfied, the throttle setting required for steady level flight at air speed V is given
by
m
ρs

T
σ= s
. (6.22)
Tmax ρ
so that the throttle σ has value between 0 and 1.
The maximum thrust hat the jet engine can provide limits the possible air speeds for which the air-
craft can maintain steady level flight. In particular, at full throttle, setting the thrust required equal to the
maximum thrust that the engine can provide leads to the equation
m
1 2 2KW 2 s ρ
ρV SCD0 + 2
= Tmax . (6.23)
2 ρV S ρs
56 6.6. AIRCRAFT WITH JET ENGINES
As shown in Figure 6.3 this equation typically has two positive solutions. The high-speed solution denotes
the maximum possible air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum possible air
speed of the aircraft. Equation (6.23) can be solved analytically or graphically to obtain these two solutions.
Steady level flight at an air speed higher than this high-speed solution is not possible, since the required
thrust would exceed the maximum thrust that the jet engine can deliver. Steady level flight at an air speed
slower than this low speed solution is not possible, since the required thrust would also exceed the maximum
thrust that the jet engine can deliver. Two important qualifications must be made about the maximum air
speed and the minimum air speed obtained from this analysis. In some cases, the computed maximum air
speed may be near to or exceed the speed of sound; if this case occurs, the computed maximum air speed is
inaccurate since supersonic aerodynamics factors, not taken into account in our analysis, become important.
In particular, the drag polar expression must be modified to take into account supersonic drag effects. This
can be done, but we do not study this topic. Next, the computed minimum air speed may be less than the
stall air speed as given in (6.19). In other words, the minimum possible air speed of an aircraft must satisfy
both the stall constraint and the maximum thrust constraint provided by the jet engine.
The above analysis is based on steady flight analysis at a fixed altitude. It is possible to assess the way
steady level flight conditions depend on the altitude. Note that as the altitude increases the maximum thrust
provided by the jet engine decreases; this implies that the maximum air speed due to the jet engine limit
tends to decrease and the minimum air speed due to the jet engine limit tends to increase. The air speed
at the stall limit also tends to increase. These facts mean that there is a maximum altitude, referred to as
the flight ceiling, at which steady level flight can be maintained. The flight condition at the flight ceiling is
characterized by the fact that the minimum thrust required for steady level flight, given by (6.31), is exactly
equal to the maximum thrust that the engine can produce at this altitude. This leads to the mathematical
equation
m
p s ρ
2W KCD0 = Tmax . (6.24)
ρs
which can be viewed as an equation for the flight ceiling. Since this equation involves the density depen-
dence on altitude, according to the standard atmospheric model, it cannot generally be solved analytically.
It can, however, be solved numerically; this is illustrated in the flight examples in Chapter 12 and 13.
6.7 Aircraft with propeller and internal combustion engine
In this section, we consider steady level flight, taking into account that the propulsion system consists of a
propeller driven by an internal combustion engine. The material in either Section 6.4 or 6.5 could be used,
but it is natural to build on the material in Section 6.5 that characterizes the power required for steady level
flight.
The main point is that the internal combustion engine can provide a maximum rated power; and the
power required for steady level flight must not exceed this maximum power in order that the flight condition
be in the steady level flight envelope. The maximum rated power for an internal combustion engine is
usually provided as a sea level value. Recall that the maximum power that the engine can provide decreases
with altitude according to equation (4.7), where the air density ρ depends on the altitude according to the
standard atmospheric model. In mathematical form, the power required given by expression (6.20) must
satisfy
m
s ρ
P ≤ ηPmax , (6.25)
ρs
where η is the efficiency of the propeller. Assuming this condition is satisfied, the throttle setting σ required
for steady level flight at air speed V is given by

m
ρs

P
σ= s
(6.26)
ηPmax ρ
so that the throttle has value between 0 and 1.
The maximum power that an internal combustion engine can provide limits the possible air speeds for
which the aircraft can maintain steady level flight. In particular, at full throttle, setting the power required
equal to the maximum power that the engine can provide leads to the equation
m
1 3 2KW 2 s ρ
ρV SCD0 + = ηPmax . (6.27)
2 ρV S ρs
As shown in Figure 6.4 this equation typically has two positive solutions. The high-speed solution denotes
the maximum possible air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum possible air
58 6.7. AIRCRAFT WITH PROPELLER AND INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
4
x 10
15
Power required / available (lbf ft/s)

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 6.4: Maximum power limit
speed of the aircraft. Equation (6.27) can be solved numerically or graphically to obtain these two solutions.
Steady level flight at an air speed higher than this high-speed solution is not possible, since the required
power would exceed the maximum power that the internal combustion engine can deliver. Steady level
flight at an air speed slower than this low speed solution is not possible, since the required power would also
exceed the maximum power that the internal combustion engine can deliver. Two important qualifications
must be made about the maximum air speed and the minimum air speed obtained from this analysis. It
may happen that the computed maximum air speed may be near to or exceed the speed of sound; if this
occurs, the computed maximum air speed is inaccurate since supersonic aerodynamics factors, not taken
into account in our analysis, become important. In particular, the drag polar expression must be modified
to take into account supersonic drag effects. This can be done, but we do not study this topic. Next, the
computed minimum air speed may be less than the stall air speed as given in (6.19). In other words, the
minimum possible air speed of an aircraft must satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum power
constraint provided by the internal combustion engine.
The above analysis is based on steady flight analysis at a fixed altitude. It is possible to assess the way
steady level flight conditions depend on the altitude. Note that as the altitude increases the maximum power
provided by the internal combustion engine decreases; this implies that the maximum air speed due to the
internal combustion engine limit tends to decrease and the minimum air speed due to the internal combustion
engine limit tends to increase. The air speed at the stall limit also tends to increase. These facts mean that
there is a maximum altitude, referred to as the flight ceiling, at which steady level flight can be maintained.
The flight condition at the flight ceiling is characterized by the fact that the minimum power required for
steady level flight, given by (6.34), is exactly equal to the maximum power that the engine can produce at
this altitude. This leads to the mathematical equation

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
s
3K 3 CD0 = ηPmax . (6.28)
3 ρS ρs
which can be viewed as an equation for the flight ceiling. Since this equation involves the density depen-
dence on altitude, according to the standard atmospheric model, it cannot generally be solved analytically.
It can, however, be solved numerically; this is illustrated in the flight examples that follow.
6.8 Optimal steady level flight
Figure 6.1 shows the characteristic feature that the thrust vs speed curve has a minimum. This minimum
value can be obtained using the methods of calculus: at the minimum the curve has zero slope, that is the
derivative of the thrust with respect to the air speed is zero. In mathematical terms
dT 4KW 2
= ρV SCD0 − = 0. (6.29)
dV ρV 3 S
The solution of this equation is given by

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t , (6.30)
ρS CD0
which is the air speed for which the thrust required for steady level flight, or equivalently the aerodynamic
drag for steady level flight, is a minimum. The minimum value of the thrust, or equivalently the drag, is
obtained by substituting the expression (6.30) into (6.17) to obtain

p
Tmin = 2W KCD0 . (6.31)
60 6.9. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT ENVELOPE
Figure 6.2 shows the characteristic feature that the power vs speed curve has a minimum. This minimum
value can be obtained using the methods of calculus: at the minimum the curve has zero slope, that is the
derivative of the power with respect to the air speed is zero. In mathematical terms
dP 3 2KW 2
= ρV 2 SCD0 − = 0. (6.32)
dV 2 ρV 2 S
The solution of this equation is given by

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t , (6.33)
ρS 3CD0
which is the air speed for which the power required for steady level flight is a minimum. The minimum
value of the power is obtained by substituting the expression (6.33) into (6.20) to obtain
s
4 2W 3
q
Pmin = 3K 3 CD0 . (6.34)
3 ρS
6.9 Steady level flight envelope
Reference has been made to the steady level flight envelope in the previous sections. A flight condition
is said to be physically feasible, or to lie within the steady level flight envelope, if the important physical
constraints on steady level flight are satisfied. The two important constraints considered in this analysis are
the stall constraint and the thrust, or power, constraint. These are the most important physical constraints
that limit the steady level flight envelope.
It is possible to provide a graphical representation of the steady level flight envelope using the analysis
developed in the previous sections of this chapter. It is most convenient to represent the steady level flight
envelope as a set in the altitude vs speed plane. In particular, specific values of altitude and air speed lie
in the steady level flight envelope if both the stall constraint and the thrust constraint, or power constraint,
are satisfied. Since the prior analysis allows computation of the thrust required, or the power required, and
the lift coefficient for steady level flight, these constraints can easily be checked. Examples of two steady
level flight envelopes are shown in Figure 6.5. The boundary of the steady level flight envelope is defined by
curves that are obtained by making the thrust constraint, or power constraint, active and by making the stall
4
x 10
4 x 10
4.5 6
4
5
3.5
3 4
Altitude (ft)
Altitude (ft)
2.5
3
2
1.5 2
1
1
0.5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Velocity (ft/s) Velocity (ft/s)
(a) Propeller aircraft (b) Jet aircraft
Figure 6.5: Flight envelope (Max. speed limit , Min. speed limit by engine −·−·− , Stall limit · · · ·)
constraint active. Note that the flight ceiling is the maximum altitude of all flight conditions that lie within
the steady level flight envelope.

Chapter 7
Aircraft Steady Climbing Flight
This chapter treats aircraft that are in a steady climbing flight condition or a steady descending flight con-
dition. The two flight conditions are studied in a unified way, since steady climbing flight corresponds to a
positive flight path angle while steady descending flight corresponds to a negative flight path angle. Steady
climbing flight is also referred to as steady longitudinal flight since the aircraft remains in a fixed vertical
plane.
Algebraic equations for steady level climbing flight are derived in Section 7.1 from a free body diagram
that shows the forces acting on the aircraft. These algebraic equations describe relations between the flight
variables expressed in terms of flight parameters. In Section 7.2 expressions for the rate of climb of the
aircraft and for the flight path angle are obtained.
7.1 Algebraic equations for steady climbing flight
Consider the free body diagram in Figure 7.1 that shows the forces acting on an aircraft in steady climbing
flight. The aircraft has a velocity vector that makes an angle γ, the flight path angle, with the horizontal;
the magnitude of the aircraft velocity vector is the air speed V . The lift force on the aircraft acts normal to
the velocity vector and the drag force on the aircraft acts opposite to the velocity vector. The thrust vector,
with magnitude T , acts along the body fixed x axis of the aircraft; that is the angle between the thrust vector
and the velocity vector is the aircraft angle of attack α.
62
CHAPTER 7. AIRCRAFT STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT 63
xB
T V
α θ
γ
xI
mg
zB
zI
Figure 7.1: Free body diagram of an aircraft in steady climbing flight.
The algebraic equations for steady climbing or descending flight are now obtained. Since steady climb-
ing or descending flight implies zero acceleration of the aircraft, the sum of the force vectors on the aircraft
is zero. The sum of the forces along the velocity vector are given by
T cos α − D − W sin γ = 0, (7.1)
and the sum of the forces normal to the velocity vector are given by
T sin α + L − W cos γ = 0. (7.2)
As mentioned previously, steady climbing flight corresponds to a positive flight path angle, while steady
descending flight corresponds to a negative flight path angle. The above algebraic equations for steady
longitudinal flight include both cases.
Finally, steady climbing or descending flight also requires that the pitch moment
M =0 (7.3)
64 7.2. SOLVING FOR STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT CONDITIONS
and that the rolling moment and the yawing moment are also zero. Since the side slip angle is zero in steady
longitudinal flight, the rolling moment is zero if there is no deflection of the ailerons. Similarly, the yawing
moment is zero if there is no rudder deflection.
7.2 Solving for steady climbing flight conditions
The climb rate is defined as
Vclimb = V sin γ. (7.4)
Using (7.1) and assuming that the angle of attack is small, the rate of climb for steady climbing or descending
flight can be expressed in terms of the thrust and the drag as
(T − D)V
Vclimb = . (7.5)
W
This right hand side of this expression can be interpreted as the excess power divided by the aircraft weight,
where the excess power is the difference between the power produced by the engine for flight and the power
required to overcome the drag. Substituting the expression for the drag expressed in terms of the air speed,
obtain the climb rate expression
TV 1 ρV 3 SCD0 2KW
Vclimb = − − . (7.6)
W 2 W ρV S
This equation can be rewritten to express the thrust required for steady climbing or descending flight in
terms of the climb rate and air speed of the aircraft, namely
2KW 2

Vclimb 1
T =W + ρV 2 SCD0 + . (7.7)
V 2 ρV 2 S
Assuming that the flight path angle is small, the flight path angle can be expressed in terms of the thrust
and drag as
T −D
γ= (7.8)
W
The right hand side of this expression can be interpreted as the excess thrust divided by the aircraft weight,
where the excess thrust is the difference between the thrust produced by the engine for flight and the drag
on the aircraft. Substituting the expression for the drag expressed in terms of the air speed, obtain the flight
path angle expression
T 1 ρV 2 SCD0 2KW
γ= − − . (7.9)
W 2 W ρV 2 S
This equation can be rewritten to express the thrust required for steady climbing or descending flight in
terms of the flight path angle and the air speed, namely
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + . (7.10)
2 ρV 2 S
7.3 Steady climbing flight and pilot inputs
Consider a steady climbing or descending flight condition corresponding to specific values of the climb
rate (or equivalently the flight path angle), the air speed, and the thrust (or equivalently the power). The
steady flight conditions also determine values of the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient according to the
development in Section 6.4 and 6.5. This allows determination of the pilot inputs as follows.
The throttle setting is determined from the thrust provided by the engine or by the power provided by
the engine depending on the type of propulsion system. Knowledge of the value of the lift coefficient and
the fact that the pitching moment should be zero allow determination of the angle of attack and the elevator
deflection. Since the flight is longitudinal, the ailerons and the rudder should have zero deflection to maintain
zero rolling moment and zero yawing moment.
7.4 Optimal steady climbing flight
Consider an ideal jet aircraft, assuming a given thrust value is provided by the jet engine. The flight path
angle is the excess thrust, the thrust provided by the engine minus the drag, divided by the weight of the
aircraft. It follows that the maximum flight path angle occurs when the thrust provided by the jet engine is
maximum, that is full throttle, and the drag is a minimum. As seen in the previous analysis, the drag is a
66 7.5. STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT ENVELOPE
minimum when the air speed is given by

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t . (7.11)
ρS CD0
Consequently, the maximum flight path angle is given by

m
Ts

ρ
= max
p
γclimb − 2 KCD0 . (7.12)
W ρs
Consider an aircraft with an ideal internal combustion engine driving a propeller. Assume a given power
level is provided by the engine. The rate of climb is the excess power, the power provided by the engine and
propeller minus the power required to overcome the drag, divided by the weight of the aircraft. It follows
that the maximum climb rate occurs when the power provided by the engine and propeller are maximum,
that is full throttle, and the power required to overcome the drag is a minimum. As seen in the previous
analysis, the power required to overcome the drag is a minimum when the air speed is given by
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t . (7.13)
ρS 3CD0
Consequently, the maximum climb rate is given by

m s
s

ηPmax ρ 4 2W
q
Vclimb = − 3K 3 CD0 . (7.14)
W ρs 3 ρS
7.5 Steady climbing flight envelope
Here we describe the steady climbing flight envelope. A flight condition is said to be physically feasible,
or to lie within the steady climbing flight envelope, if the important physical constraints on steady climbing
flight are satisfied. The two important constraints considered in this analysis are the stall constraint and the
thrust, or power, constraint from the propulsion system. These physical constraints define the limits of the
steady climbing flight envelope.
It is possible to provide a graphical representation of the steady climbing flight envelope using the
analysis developed in this Chapter. It is most convenient to represent the steady climbing flight envelope
as a set in the three dimensional altitude, air speed, and climb rate parameter space. Alternatively, the
4
x 10 4
x 10
8
10
6 8
h (ft)
4 6
h (ft)
4
2
2
0 0
20 5
600 3000
0 400 0 2000
200 1000
Vclimb (ft/s) −20 0 −5 0
V (ft/s) γ (deg) V (ft/s)
(a) Propeller aircraft (b) Jet aircraft
Figure 7.2: Flight envelope surface for steady climbing flight
steady climbing flight envelope is a set of feasible flight conditions in the three-dimensional altitude, air
speed, and flight path angle parameter space. In particular, specific values of altitude, air speed, and rate of
climb (or flight path angle) lie in the steady climbing flight envelope if the stall constraint and the engine
thrust constraint, or engine power constraint, are satisfied. Since the prior analysis in this Chapter provides
the basis for computation of the thrust required, or the power required, and the lift coefficient for steady
climbing flight, these constraints can easily be checked. The boundary of the steady climbing flight envelope
is defined by surfaces that are obtained by making the thrust constraint, or power constraint, active and by
making the stall constraint active.
It is natural to represent cross sections of the steady climbing flight envelope for fixed value of the climb
rate (or flight path angle). Each such cross section can be represented in the altitude vs air speed plane. In
fact the steady level flight envelope is a cross section of the steady climbing flight envelope for the special
case of zero climb rate (or zero flight path angle). Similarly, cross sections of the steady climbing flight
envelope can be represented for any positive or negative value of the rate of climb (or flight path angle).
Chapter 8
Aircraft Steady Gliding Flight
In this chapter, we study steady gliding flight. Here gliding flight refers to the fact that there is no thrust
acting on the aircraft. This topic is of interest for aircraft gliders that do not contain an engine and for
aircraft that contain an engine that is not operating. Conditions for steady gliding flight are derived; they are
expressed in several different mathematical forms, and gliding flight performance is assessed.
8.1 Steady gliding flight conditions
An aircraft is assumed to be in steady gliding flight in a fixed vertical plane. Figure 8.1 gives the free-body-
diagram that illustrates all of the forces that act on the aircraft. The aircraft is assumed to have a velocity
vector with magnitude V that makes an angle γglide , referred to as the glide path angle, with the horizontal.
Note that the glide angle is the negative of the flight path angle. As shown, in this case the only forces that
act on the aircraft are the lift force, the drag force, and the weight of the aircraft.
Since the aircraft is in steady gliding flight in a fixed vertical plane, it is not accelerating. That is, the
velocity vector of the aircraft is constant in direction and magnitude. Based on Figure 8.1 the net force
vector on the aircraft is zero. This leads to the two algebraic equations
−D + W sin γglide = 0, (8.1)
L − W cos γglide = 0. (8.2)
68
CHAPTER 8. AIRCRAFT STEADY GLIDING FLIGHT 69
D
xI
θ
α
γglide
mg
zB V xB
zI
Figure 8.1: Free body diagram of an aircraft in steady gliding flight.
The algebraic equations for steady gliding flight can be expressed in several different, but equivalent,
forms. In particular, we can express the glide angle in terms of the aircraft air speed and the aircraft parame-
ters. We can also express the aircraft air speed in terms of the glide path angle and the aircraft parameters.
8.2 Solving for steady gliding flight conditions
Assuming the glide path angle is small,
D
γglide = . (8.3)
W
Following the prior development and using the expression for the drag in terms of the air speed, we obtain
the glide path angle for steady gliding flight, expressed in terms of the air speed, as
1 ρV 2 SCD0 2KW
γglide = + . (8.4)
2 W ρV 2 S
The right hand side is always positive, so that the glide path angle is always positive. That is, steady
gliding flight always corresponds to steady descending flight. This is a natural consequence of the fact that
there is no thrust force on the aircraft.

70 8.3. OPTIMAL GLIDE PATH ANGLE
8.3 Optimal glide path angle
An important measure of steady glide performance is the minimal possible glide path angle. The minimal
possible glide path angle is obtained by equating the derivative of the glide path angle with respect to the
aircraft air speed to zero.

dγglide ρV SCD0 4KW
= − = 0. (8.5)
dV W ρV 3 S
This provides a single algebraic equation that can be solved to obtain an expression for the air speed at which
the glide path angle is minimal. It is clear that the minimum glide path angle corresponds to minimum drag.
Therefore, the expression for the aircraft air speed corresponding to the minimal glide path angle is given by
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t . (8.6)
ρS CD0
The minimum glide path angle is obtained by substituting this aircraft air speed into the expression for
the glide path angle. After simplification, the minimal glide path angle is given by
p
γglidemin = 2 KCD0 . (8.7)
The minimal glide path angle depends only on the aircraft aerodynamics parameters.
8.4 Altitude effects
It is clear that the minimal glide path angle does not depend on the altitude. However, the aircraft air speed
required to achieve the minimal glide path angle does depend on the altitude, as seen from the expression for
the aircraft air speed corresponding to the minimal glide path angle. In particular, the required air speed is
inversely related to the square root of the air density, which depends on the altitude according to the standard
atmospheric model.
8.5 Steady gliding flight envelope
Here we describe the steady gliding flight envelope. A flight condition is said to be physically feasible, or
to lie within the steady gliding flight envelope, if the important physical constraints on steady gliding flight
CHAPTER 8. AIRCRAFT STEADY GLIDING FLIGHT 71
are satisfied. The only important constraint considered in this analysis is the stall constraint. This physical
constraint defines the limits of the steady gliding flight envelope.
It is possible to provide a graphical representation of the steady gliding flight envelope using the analysis
developed in this Chapter. It is most convenient to represent the steady climbing flight envelope as a set in the
three dimensional altitude, air speed, and glide path angle parameter space. Alternatively, the steady gliding
flight envelope is a set of feasible flight conditions in the three-dimensional altitude, air speed, and descent
rate parameter space. In particular, specific values of altitude, air speed, and descent rate (or glide path
angle) lie in the steady gliding flight envelope if the stall constraint is satisfied. Since the prior analysis in
this Chapter provides the basis for computation of the lift coefficient for steady gliding flight, this constraint
can easily be checked. The boundary of the steady gliding flight envelope is defined by surfaces that are
obtained by making the stall constraint active.
It is natural to represent cross sections of the steady gliding flight envelope for fixed value of the descent
(or glide path angle). Each such cross section can be represented in the altitude vs air speed plane. One
interesting cross section of the steady gliding flight envelope corresponds to the minimum glide path angle.
Other cross sections of the steady gliding flight envelope can be represented for a glide path angle that
exceeds the minimum value.

Chapter 9
Aircraft Range and Endurance
In this Chapter, aircraft range and aircraft endurance are studied. The aircraft range is the distance that
an aircraft covers in steady level flight using a fixed amount of fuel. The aircraft endurance is the time
that an aircraft remains in steady level flight using a fixed amount of fuel. These performance metrics
are determined as a function of important aircraft flight parameters and the steady level flight conditions.
Formulas for range and endurance are determined for aircraft powered by a propeller driven by an ideal
internal combustion engine and for aircraft powered by an ideal jet engine. Flight conditions for maximum
aircraft range are determined, and flight conditions for maximum aircraft endurance are determined.
These are important performance metrics for many categories of aircraft. The results developed in this
Chapter are relatively simple, but they are important for flight analysis and for design of fixed-wing aircraft.
9.1 Fuel consumption
Aircraft range and endurance are limited by the amount of fuel that an aircraft can carry and by the rate
at which fuel is burned by the engine. The rate at which fuel is burned depends on the type of engine.
Here, range and endurance formulas are obtained in this Chapter for two engine categories: an ideal internal
combustion engine which rotates a propeller thereby producing thrust on the aircraft and an ideal jet engine
that produces a thrust on the aircraft.
For an ideal internal combustion engine that drives a propeller, the rate at which fuel is burned is pro-
72
CHAPTER 9. AIRCRAFT RANGE AND ENDURANCE 73
portional to the power that the engine produces. As before, let W denote the total weight of the aircraft,
including the fuel. Then the rate at which fuel is burned is given by
dW
= −cP, (9.1)
dt
where P denotes the power produced by the engine and c is the fuel specific consumption rate. This con-
sumption rate is an important positive engine parameter. It denotes the rate at which fuel is burned per unit
of power produced by the engine. For an ideal internal combustion engine this fuel specific consumption
rate is assumed to be a constant parameter independent of the flight conditions of the aircraft.
For an ideal jet engine, the rate at which fuel is burned is proportional to the thrust that the engine
produces. Let W denote the total weight of the aircraft, including the fuel. Then the rate at which fuel is
burned is given by
dW
= −cT, (9.2)
dt
where T denotes the thrust produced by the engine and c is the fuel specific consumption rate. This con-
sumption rate is an important positive engine parameter. It denotes the rate at which fuel is burned per unit
of thrust produced by the engine. For an ideal jet engine this fuel specific consumption rate is assumed to
be a constant parameter independent of the flight conditions of the aircraft.
9.2 Range of propeller aircraft
The aircraft range is the distance that an aircraft can cover using a fixed amount of fuel. We assume that the
aircraft cruises in a steady level flight condition as described Chapter 6. We also follow standard convention
to make the approximation that the thrust is much smaller than the lift and the angle of attack is a small
angle in radian measure. The resulting equations of motion are the same as equations (6.4), (6.5), and (6.6):
L = W, (9.3)
D = T, (9.4)
M = 0. (9.5)
74 9.2. RANGE OF PROPELLER AIRCRAFT
We can rewrite (9.1) as
dW
dt = − . (9.6)
cP
Multiply the above equation by the velocity of the aircraft V to obtain
V dW
V dt = − . (9.7)
cP
ds
Since V = dt , the incremental distance traveled ds in time dt is
V dW
ds = − . (9.8)
cP
Therefore, the total distance traveled by the aircraft, which is the range R, is obtained by integrating the
above equation from the initial time, when the fuel tank is full, to the final time, when the fuel tank is empty.
Z Wf
V dW
R=− , (9.9)
Wi cP
where Wi is the initial weight of the aircraft including fuel, and Wf is the final weight of the aircraft when
all of the fuel is burned. Clearly, Wi > Wf , and the weight of fuel is equal to Wi − Wf .
Equation (9.9) is a general expression for the range of a propeller aircraft driven by an ideal internal
combustion engine. Now, we derive a more explicit equation using steady level flight assumptions.
The required power is equal to the thrust multiplied by the velocity, P = T V . Since T = D from the
steady level flight assumption, (9.4), the power provided by the engine is
1
P = DV, (9.10)
η
where η is the propeller efficiency.
Substituting (9.10) into (9.9),

Z Wf
η
R=− dW.
Wi cD
L
Using the steady level flight assumption, (9.3), we multiply the above equation by W = 1 to obtain
Z Wf
η L dW
R=− .
Wi cD W
L CL
We assume that the lift to drag ratio D = CD is constant throughout the flight. Then, the range for an ideal
piston aircraft with propeller is given by
η CL Wf dW
Z
R=− ,
c CD Wi W
η CL Wi
= ln . (9.11)
c CD Wf
Equation (9.11) is known as the Breguet range formula. It gives a simple expression for the range of a
propeller aircraft in steady level flight.
Consider the conditions to maximize the range. From (9.11), we see that the following conditions
maximize the aircraft range;
• maximum propeller efficiency η.
• minimum fuel specific consumption rate c.
• maximum fuel to aircraft weight ratio.
CL
• maximum lift to drag ratio CD .
The first three conditions are common sense. The last condition gives the flight condition for which the
range of a propeller aircraft driven by an internal combustion engine is maximized; this occurs when the lift
to drag ratio is maximized. The range is directly proportional to the lift to drag ratio.
9.3 Endurance of propeller aircraft
The aircraft endurance is the time that an aircraft remains in steady level flight on a tank of fuel. The
procedure to derive an endurance equation is similar to that used to obtain the range equation (9.11) in the
previous section.
dW
dt = − .
cP
76 9.3. ENDURANCE OF PROPELLER AIRCRAFT
The total time that the airplane remains in steady flight, which is the endurance E, is obtained by integrating
the above equation from the initial time when the fuel tank is full to the final time when the fuel tank is
empty.
Z Wf
dW
E=− , (9.12)
Wi cP
all of the fuel is burned. Substituting (9.10) into (9.12),

Z Wf
η
E=− dW,
Wi cDV
L
Using the steady level flight assumption, (9.3), we multiply the above equation by W = 1 and integrate to
obtain
Z Wf
η L dW
E=− ,
Wi cDVW
Z Wf
η CL dW
=− . (9.13)
Wi c CD V W
At a steady level flight condition, the weight of the aircraft is equal to the lift. Hence,
W = L,
1
= ρV 2 SCL .
2
Then, we can express the velocity V in terms of CL and W as
s
2W
V = . (9.14)
ρCL S
Substituting the above equation into (9.13), we obtain
Z Wf 3 r
η CL2 ρS dW
E=− . (9.15)
Wi c CD 2 W 32
Here we assume that CL , CD , ρ are constant during the flight. Then, the endurance for an ideal aircraft
powered by a propeller is
3 r
η CL2 ρS Wf dW
Z
E=− ,
c CD 2 Wi W 32
3 " #
η CL2 p 1 1
= 2ρS p −√ . (9.16)
c CD Wf Wi
From (9.16), we see that the following conditions maximize the aircraft endurance:
• maximum propeller efficiency η.

3
CL2
• maximum CD .
• maximum density of air ρ.
The first three conditions are identical with the maximum range conditions. The endurance of a propeller
3
CL2
aircraft driven by an internal combustion engine is maximized when the aerodynamic coefficients ratio CD
is maximized. The endurance also depends on the density of air. If an aircraft flies at a lower altitude, in
which the air density is higher, then its endurance is increased.
9.4 Range of jet aircraft
The range of a jet aircraft can be derived by integrating the equation (9.2) assuming the aircraft cruises in a
steady level flight condition.
For an ideal jet engine, the fuel consumption rate is proportional to the thrust that the engine generates.
dW
dt = − .
cT
Multiply the above equation by the velocity of the aircraft to obtain
V dW
V dt = − .
cT
ds
Since V = dt , it follows that
V dW
ds = − .
cT
Therefore, the total distance traveled by the aircraft, which is the range R, is obtained by integrating the
above equation from the initial time when the fuel tank is full to the final time when the fuel tank is empty.
Z Wf
V dW
R=− , (9.17)
Wi cT
78 9.4. RANGE OF JET AIRCRAFT
all of the fuel is burned. Clearly, Wi > Wf , and the weight of fuel is equal to Wi − Wf .
Equation (9.17) is a general expression for the range of a jet aircraft. Now, we derive a more explicit
equation for range using the steady level flight assumptions.
Since T = D from the steady level flight assumption,

Z Wf
V dW
R=− .
Wi cD
L
Using (9.3), we multiply the above equation by W = 1 to obtain
Z Wf
1 L V dW
R=− .
Wi cD W
We substitute (9.14) into the above equation to express the velocity V in terms of CL and W . Then
1
Wf
r
2 CL2 dW
Z
1
R=− √ .
Wi c ρS CD W
Here we assume that CL , CD , ρ are constant throught the flight. Then, the range for a jet aircraft is given by
1 Z
2 CL2 Wf dW
r
1
R=− √ ,
c ρS CD Wi W
r 1
2 2 CL2 p
h p i
= Wi − Wf . (9.18)
c ρS CD
Consider the conditions to maximize the range. From (9.18), the range is maximized if the following
conditions hold;

1
CL2
• maximum CD .
• minimum density of air ρ.

1
CL2
The range of a jet aircraft is maximized when the aerodynamic coefficients ratio CD is maximized. The
range is also increased by steady level flight at higher altitude.

9.5 Endurance of jet aircraft
The aircraft endurance is the time that an aircraft remains in steady level flight on a tank of fuel. We assume
that the aircraft cruises in a steady level flight condition as discussed before. The procedure to derive an
endurance equation is similar to that used in the previous sections.
For an ideal jet engine, the fuel consumption rate is proportional to the thrust that the engine generates.
dW
dt = − .
cT
The total time that the airplane remain in steady flight, which is the endurance E, is obtained by integrating
the above equation from the initial time when the fuel tank is full to the final time when the fuel tank is
empty.
Z E Z Wf
dW
E= dt = − , (9.19)
0 Wi cT
all of the fuel is burned. From the steady level flight assumption that give T = D, the endurance is
Z Wf
1
E=− dW.
Wi cD
L
Using the steady level flight assumption, (9.3), we multiply the above equation by W = 1 to obtain
Z Wf
1 L dW
E=− . (9.20)
Wi cD W
L CL
Here we assume that the lift to drag ratio D = CD is constant throughout the flight. The endurance for an
ideal jet aircraft is given by
1 CL Wf dW
Z
E=− ,
c CD Wi W
1 CL Wi
= ln . (9.21)
c CD Wf
From (9.21), we see that the following conditions maximize the endurance of a jet aircraft;

80 9.5. ENDURANCE OF JET AIRCRAFT
CL
• maximum lift to drag ratio CD .
In this Chapter, we have derived explicit equations for range and endurance of both a propeller aircraft
and a jet aircraft. The expressions give simple formulas for range and endurance of an aircraft. The physical
meaning of those expressions indicates which properties of the aircraft have a major effect on range and
endurance.
However, we should use caution when using these equations, keeping in mind the various assumptions.
We assume that the aircraft is in steady level flight condition, and its angle of attack is small. We also assume
that CL , CD , ρ, η, and the fuel consumption rate c are constant throughout the flight. We should check that
the flight condition is in the flight envelope and is compatible with the assumptions made to derive those
equations.
Chapter 10
Aircraft Steady Turns
This chapter treats aircraft steady turns. A brief description is given of steady turns by side-slipping, and
the disadvantages of this method of accomplishing a steady turn are indicated. Then, the more common and
efficient method for turning an aircraft, achieved by banking the aircraft, is described. Banked turns in a
constant horizontal plane are first studied; then banked turns during a steady climb are studied. The various
flight conditions are analyzed, and turning flight performance is assessed.
10.1 Turns by side-slipping
One method for achieving a steady turn for an aircraft is to maintain a constant side slip angle. This means
that the velocity vector of the aircraft does not lie in the plane of mass symmetry of the aircraft. This velocity
component of the aircraft along its body fixed y axis results in a steady turn. This method for achieving a
steady turn relies on using the thrust to turn and hence it is relatively ineffective. Side-slipping turns are
utilized primarily by missiles.
10.2 Banked level turns
A more effective method for achieving a steady turn is by banking the aircraft. A banked turn is achieved by
using the lift vector. For most conventional aircraft, the lift force is much larger than the thrust that can be
81
82 10.2. BANKED LEVEL TURNS
xI , xB
T
L
V L sin φ
T xI , xB yB yI
yB
D φ
yI D
mg
zI
zB
(a) 3D view (b) Top view
L cos φ L
yB
D T V
yI
xB , xI
φ
mg mg
zB
zI zB
zI
(c) Side view (d) Back view
Figure 10.1: Free body diagram of an aircraft in a steady turn by banking.
produced by the propulsion system, so this results in an effective turn strategy. In this section, we analyze a
steady level turn; in the subsequent section we analyze a steady climbing turn.
Figure 10.1 shows several views of a free body diagram of an aircraft performing a steady level turn by
banking. The center of mass of the aircraft is assumed to move in a circular arc, with constant air speed,
constant bank angle, constant turn radius, and constant thrust, so that the aircraft has a constant centrifugal
acceleration that is always directed towards the center of the circular arc. We also assume coordinated flight,
that is the side slip angle is zero. The notation is the same as in previous chapters; R denotes the constant
CHAPTER 10. AIRCRAFT STEADY TURNS 83
radius of the turn. The free body diagram in Figure 10.1 gives the following three equations
T − D = 0, (10.1)
L cos φ − W = 0, (10.2)
W V2
L sin φ = . (10.3)
g R
As previously, the simplifying assumption is made that the thrust vector is along the velocity vector. The
first equation (10.1) is that the thrust minus drag is zero since there is no acceleration component along the
velocity vector. The second equation (10.2) is that the vertical component of the lift force minus the weight
is zero since there is no acceleration component in the vertical direction. The third equation (10.3) is that
the radial or centrifugal component of the lift force equals the mass of the aircraft multiplied by the radial
component of acceleration. These three equations form the basis for our subsequent analysis of steady level
turning flight.
Divide equation (10.3) by equation (10.2) to obtain the kinematics relation
V2
tan φ = . (10.4)
gR
Alternatively, the air speed for steady level flight can be expressed in terms of the turn radius and the bank
angle as
p
V = gR tan φ (10.5)
and the turn radius for steady level flight can be expressed in terms of the air speed and bank angle as
V2
R= . (10.6)
g tan φ
The angular turn rate ω can be written as
V
ω= ,
R
g tan φ
ω= . (10.7)
V
84 10.2. BANKED LEVEL TURNS
The period T, the time to make one revolution on the circular arc, is given by
2π
T= ,
ω
2πV
T= . (10.8)
g tan φ
The flight conditions for a steady level turn are now examined. Expressing the lift in terms of the dynamic
pressure and the lift coefficient and using equation (10.2), the required lift coefficient for steady level turning
flight is
2W
CL = 2S
. (10.9)
ρV cos φ
Consequently, the required drag coefficient for steady level turning flight is
2
2W
CD = CD0 + K 2
. (10.10)
ρV S cos φ
The drag on the aircraft imposed by steady level turning flight is
1 2KW 2
D = ρV 2 SCD0 + . (10.11)
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
Hence the required thrust for steady level turning flight, expressed in terms of the air speed and bank angle,
is
1 2KW 2
T = ρV 2 SCD0 + . (10.12)
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
The required power for steady level turning flight, expressed in terms of the air speed and bank angle, is
1 2KW 2
P = ρV 3 SCD0 + . (10.13)
2 ρV S cos2 φ
The angle of attack and the elevator deflection can be determined based on knowledge of the value of the
lift coefficient computed from equation (10.9) and knowledge that the pitching moment coefficient must
be zero for steady level turning flight. The throttle setting is easily determined from the above analysis,
dependent on the type of propulsion system. Since the bank angle is to be maintained constant throughout
the maneuver, there should be no deflection of the ailerons and no deflection of the rudder.
For steady turning flight, the load factor is defined as

L
n= . (10.14)
W
Using equation (10.2), it is seen that the load factor is directly related to the bank angle as
n = sec φ. (10.15)
Note that steady level flight, without turning, corresponds to a load factor of 1, while a steady level banked
turn requires a load factor greater than 1. For a bank angle φ = 60 degree, the load factor is n = 2; such a
turn is referred to as a ”2g” turn. Using the previous results, it is possible to express the bank angle in terms
of the load factor as

p
tan φ = n2 − 1. (10.16)
The turn radius can be expressed in terms of the air speed and load factor as
V2
R= √ . (10.17)
g n2 − 1
The angular turn rate can be expressed in terms of the air speed and load factor as
√
g n2 − 1
ω= (10.18)
V
and the period can be expressed in terms of the air speed and load factor as
2πV
T= √ . (10.19)
g n2 − 1
Another convenient expression for the turn radius can be developed. Using equation (10.3), the turn radius
can be expressed as
WV 2
R= ,
Lg sin φ
2 1 W
R= . (10.20)
ρgCL sin φ S
By using the relation between the bank angle and the load factor, the turn radius can also be written as
2 n W
R= √ . (10.21)
ρgCL n2 − 1 S
This expression shows how the turn radius depends on the lift coefficient, the load factor and the ratio W/S,
which is an important aircraft parameter referred to as the wing loading.

86 10.3. BANKED TURNS IN CLIMB
xI
xB
zB
yI
yB
L
xB
L D
V
T xI
γ
yB
D yI
mg
zB
zI
(a) 3D view (b) Top view
L cos γ
L cos φ xB
yB
V xB
T
γ yI
xI
D
φ
mg
mg
zB
zB
zI zI
(c) Side view (d) Back view
Figure 10.2: Free body diagram of an aircraft in a steady banked turns in climb.
10.3 Banked turns in climb
The results of the previous section are now generalized to treat a steady banked turn that does not necessarily
occur in a fixed horizontal plane; that is the aircraft can be simultaneously turning and climbing or descend-
ing. As in Section 10.2, a banked turn is achieved by using the lift vector, which results in an effective turn
strategy. In this section, we analyze a steady turn while the aircraft is also climbing or descending.
Figure 10.2 shows several views of a free body diagram of an aircraft performing a steady turn by
banking while the aircraft is climbing. The center of mass of the aircraft moves along a helical curve, with
constant air speed, constant bank angle, constant flight path angle, constant turn radius, and constant thrust,
so that the aircraft has a constant centrifugal acceleration that is always directed towards the vertical axis
of the helical curve. We also assume coordinated flight, that is the side slip angle is zero. The free body
diagram, as shown in Figure 10.2 shows several views of a free body diagram of an aircraft performing a
steady turn by banking while the aircraft is climbing. The free body diagram, as shown in Figure 10.2, is
somewhat more complicated since the aircraft is in a steady climb. Figure 10.2 should be carefully examined
to see that the free body diagrams provide the following three equations
T − D − W sin γ = 0, (10.22)
L cos φ − W cos γ = 0, (10.23)

W V2
L cos γ sin φ = . (10.24)
g R cos2 γ
As previously, the simplifying assumption is made that the thrust vector is along the velocity vector. The
first equation (10.22) is that the sum of the force components along the velocity vector is zero since there
is no acceleration component along the velocity vector. The second equation (10.23) is that the vertical
projection of the sum of the force components is zero since there is no acceleration component in this
direction. The third equation (10.24) is that the radial or centrifugal component of the lift force, projected
onto the horizontal plane, equals the mass of the aircraft multiplied by the radial component of acceleration,
projected onto the horizontal plane. These three equations form the basis for our subsequent analysis of
steady turning and climbing flight.
A positive flight path angle corresponds to a steady turn while climbing; a negative flight path angle
corresponds to a steady turn while descending. The case of steady level flight, for which the flight path
angle is zero, reduces to the case studied in Section 10.2. The subsequent development holds for any flight
path angle, be it positive, negative, or zero.
As in Chapter 7, the flight path angle is assumed to be a small angle in radian measure, so that we use the
small angle approximations. Since the bank angle can be relatively large for many turning maneuvers, this
approximation is not made for the terms involving the bank angle. Using the flight path angle approximation,
88 10.3. BANKED TURNS IN CLIMB
the above equations can be expressed as
T − D − W γ = 0, (10.25)
L cos φ − W = 0, (10.26)
W V2
L sin φ = . (10.27)
g R
These equations are considerable simplified, and we can carry out a rather complete analysis of steady
turning and climbing flight based on these equations.
Divide the equation (10.27) by equation (10.26) to obtain the kinematics relation
V2
tan φ = . (10.28)
gR
Alternatively, the air speed for steady climbing flight can be expressed in terms of the turn radius and the
bank angle as
p
V = gR tan φ, (10.29)
and the turn radius for steady climbing flight can be expressed in terms of the air speed and bank angle as
V2
R= . (10.30)
g tan φ
The angular turn rate can be written as
V
ω= ,
R
g tan φ
ω= . (10.31)
V
The period, the time to make one revolution on the helical curve, is given by
2π
T= ,
ω
2πV
T= . (10.32)
g tan φ
Equations (10.28)-(10.32) are exactly the same as for a steady level turn. In other words, based on the
assumption of a small flight path angle the above expressions are not influenced by the fact that the aircraft
is climbing.
The flight conditions for a steady climbing turn are now examined. Expressing the lift in terms of
the dynamic pressure and lift coefficient and using equation (10.26), the required lift coefficient for steady
turning and climbing flight is
2W
CL = . (10.33)
ρV 2 S cos φ
Consequently, the required drag coefficient for steady turning and climbing flight is
2
2W
CD = CD0 + K 2
. (10.34)
ρV S cos φ
The drag on the aircraft imposed by steady turning and climbing flight is
1 2KW 2
D = ρV 2 SCD0 + . (10.35)
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
Hence the required thrust for steady turning flight in climb, expressed in terms of the air speed, bank angle,
and flight path angle, is obtained using equation (10.25) as
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + . (10.36)
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
The first term on the right represents the part of the thrust required to climb, the second term on the right
represents the part of the thrust required to balance the lift independent part of the drag, and the third term
on the right represents the part of the thrust required to balance the lift dependent part of the drag; this third
term depends on the bank angle through the effect it has on the lift.
The required power for steady turning and climbing flight, expressed in terms of the air speed, bank
angle, and flight path angle, is
1 2KW 2
P = W V γ + ρV 3 SCD0 + . (10.37)
2 ρV S cos2 φ
The first term on the right represents the part of the power required to climb, the second term on the right
represents the part of the power required to overcome the lift independent part of the drag, and the third term
on the right represents the part of the power required to overcome the lift dependent part of the drag; this
third term depends on the bank angle through the effect it has on the lift.
90 10.4. STEADY TURNING FLIGHT ENVELOPE
The angle of attack and the elevator deflection can be determined based on knowledge of the value of the
lift coefficient computed from equation (10.33) and knowledge that the pitching moment coefficient must be
zero for steady turning and climbing flight. The throttle setting is easily determined from the above analysis,
dependent on the type of propulsion system. Since the bank angle is to be maintained constant throughout
the maneuver, there should be no deflection of the ailerons and no deflection of the rudder.
L
Using the definition of load factor, n = W, it is seen that the load factor depends only on the bank angle
as n = sec φ; it does not depend on the flight path angle. That is, the load factor is not influenced by the
fact that the aircraft is climbing. This means that the formulas given in Section 10.2 for the turn radius, the
angular turn rate, and the period of the turn, expressed in terms of the load factor, are all the same when the
aircraft is climbing. The fact that the aircraft is climbing or descending does not influence the turn radius,
the angular turn rate, or the period of the turn. It should be emphasized that this is not exactly true, but it
follows from the assumption that the flight path angle is small.
Due to its importance, we repeat the expression for the turn radius
2 n W
R= √ , (10.38)
ρgCL n2 − 1 S
showing that the turn radius depends on the lift coefficient, the load factor and the wing loading W/S,
emphasizing that this expression also holds for steady turning and climbing flight.
Finally, we mention that steady turning and climbing flight is the most general type of steady flight.
In particular, the most general form of steady flight corresponds to motion of the center of mass along a
helical curve with a vertical axis. Such motions are of great practical importance. Steady flight is sometimes
referred to as trimmed flight. Many aircraft, excluding fighter or acrobatic aircraft, almost always fly along
helical flight segments, or helical flight segments appropriately patched together.
10.4 Steady turning flight envelope
In this section, constraints that define the steady turning and climbing flight envelope are identified. This,
of course, is the most general notion of a steady flight envelope consisting of all possible steady flight
conditions that satisfy all flight constraints.

4 4
x 10 x 10
2.5 10
2 8
1.5 6
h (ft)
h (ft)
1 4
0.5 2
0 0
60 5
40 800 3000
600 0 2000
20 400
200 1000
φ (deg) 0 0 γ (deg) −5 0
V (ft/s) V (ft/s)
(a) γ = 3 degree (b) φ = 15 degree
Figure 10.3: Flight envelope surface for steady turning flight in climb
As previously, two important flight constraints are the stall limit that imposes a maximum lift coefficient
and an engine limit that defines the maximum thrust or power that the engine can provide. In addition to
these, it is important to add another constraint, namely the constraint that the load factor must not exceed a
specified design value:
n ≤ nmax , (10.39)
where nmax is the maximum load factor. This constraint is equivalent to a constraint on the bank angle or a
constraint on the lift force. The bank angle should not exceed sec−1 (nmax ); the lift force should not exceed
nmax W . Since the lift is generated primarily by air flow over the wing, this constraint arises primarily from
the maximum structural load, namely the maximum lift, that the wing is designed to handle. A typical value
for the maximum load factor for general aviation or commercial aircraft is nmax = 2.5; a typical value
for the maximum load factor for a fighter or acrobatic aircraft is nmax = 4. This constraint is especially
important for turning flight, since this type of steady flight can lead to large load factors. It was not necessary
to include this load factor constraint in our prior analysis of the steady level flight envelope or the steady
climbing flight envelope, since those cases correspond to a load factor of 1.
It is possible to provide a graphical representation of the steady turning and climbing flight envelope
using the analysis developed in this Chapter. It is most convenient to represent the steady climbing flight
envelope as a set in the four dimensional altitude, air speed, flight path angle, and bank angle parameter
92 10.4. STEADY TURNING FLIGHT ENVELOPE
space. Alternatively, the steady turning and climbing flight envelope could be represented in other forms,
for example as a set of feasible flight conditions in the four-dimensional altitude, air speed, rate of climb, and
load factor parameter space. In particular, specific values of altitude, air speed, flight path angle, and bank
angle lie in the steady turning and climbing flight envelope if the stall constraint, the engine thrust constraint
(or engine power constraint) and the load factor constraint are satisfied. Since the prior analysis in this
Chapter provides the basis for computation of the thrust required, or the power required, the lift coefficient,
and the load factor for steady turning and climbing flight, these constraints can easily be checked. The
boundary of the steady turning and climbing flight envelope is defined by surfaces that are obtained by
making the thrust constraint (or power constraint) active, by making the stall constraint active, or by making
the load factor constraint active.
It is not easy to visualize sets in a four-dimensional space, even making use of modern computational
tools. It is natural to represent cross sections of the steady turning and climbing flight envelope for fixed
value of the flight path angle and bank angle. Each such cross section can be represented in the altitude vs
air speed plane. In fact the steady level flight envelope is a cross section of the steady turning and climbing
flight envelope for the special case of zero flight path angle and zero bank angle. Similarly, cross sections of
the steady turning and climbing flight envelope can be represented for any positive or negative value of the
flight path angle and for any positive or negative value of the bank angle.
An important performance measure for steady turning and climbing flight is the minimum possible turn
radius; this provides one measure of the maneuverability of the aircraft. Good maneuverability of an aircraft
means it should be able to perform turns with small turn radius. The minimum turn radius is easily analyzed
using equation (10.38). This equation show that the minimum turn radius is achieved when the lift coefficient
is a maximum and when the load factor is a maximum. That is, the minimum turn radius corresponds to a
flight condition that is on the verge of stall with a maximum bank angle; of course, the engine constraints
must also be checked to make sure this flight condition falls within the flight envelope.
Another observation can be made about the minimum turn radius, using equation (10.38). All other
factors being equal, aircraft with a small wing loading ratio are more maneuverable than aircraft with larger
wing loading ratio. The wing loading W/S is an important design parameter for highly maneuverable
aircraft.
Chapter 11
Aircraft Maneuvers Between Steady Flight
Conditions via Pilot Inputs
The steady flight results developed in the previous chapters are now examined from the perspective of a pilot
who wants to maneuver the aircraft from an initial steady flight condition to a final steady flight condition.
The previous results are used to determine how the pilot should adjust the pilot inputs, namely the elevator,
ailerons, rudder and throttle (engine thrust or power) to achieve the desired maneuver.
Background on flight maneuvers and a dynamic stability assumption are given in Section 11.1. Several
relatively simple maneuvers are first studied. In Section 11.2, a maneuver defined by a change in the elevator,
with no other changes in the pilot inputs, is studied. In Section 11.3, a maneuver defined by a change in
the throttle, with no other changes in the pilot inputs, is studied. In Section 11.4, a maneuver defined by
a change in the ailerons that leads to a constant change in the bank angle, with no other changes in the
pilot inputs, is studied. Finally, a maneuver defined by simultaneous changes in the elevator, the throttle,
and the ailerons is studied in Section 11.5. A change in pilot inputs means that the inputs are changed
from values associated with an initial flight condition to values associated with a final flight condition and
then the inputs are maintained constant at these final values. This change is typically assumed to occur
instantaneously, although this assumption is not crucial.
94
CHAPTER 11. AIRCRAFT MANEUVERS BETWEEN STEADY FLIGHT CONDITIONS 95
11.1 Assumptions
It is important to provide some background and to make some assumptions before beginning to define
how such maneuvers can be carried out. A compete analysis of aircraft maneuvers requires consideration
of the flight dynamics of the aircraft; this is true since the fundamental flight variables are not constant
during a maneuver: the aircraft is accelerating. To analyze the flight dynamics associated with a given
flight maneuver requires the development of differential equations that implicitly describe non-steady or
accelerating flight.
It is possible to avoid the use of differential equations if we assume that the flight dynamics have a
stability property that guarantees that the flight variables, although not constant in time, tend asymptotically
towards constant values that are associated with the final flight conditions defined by the flight maneuver.
This dynamic stability assumptions means that it is only necessary to determine the constant values of the
flight variables that define this final flight conditions; this can be achieved using the steady flight analysis
developed in the prior chapters. This dynamic stability assumption is made in the following development.
11.2 Change in the elevator deflection
In this section, maneuvers defined by a change in the elevator are studied, assuming that initially the aircraft
is in steady longitudinal flight. Since the final elevator deflection is known, it is possible to determine the
resulting value of the aircraft angle of attack using the condition that the pitching moment is zero. This then
allows determination of the lift coefficient. Once the lift coefficient is known, the aircraft air speed can be
determined from the steady longitudinal flight equations. Since there is no change in the aircraft thrust (or
power), the flight path angle can be determined. In summary, a change in the elevator deflection only results
in a change in the angle of attack, the flight path angle, and the air speed of the aircraft, as well as a change
in the lift and drag on the aircraft. Since the aircraft is initially in steady longitudinal flight, the bank angle
remains zero and the aircraft remains flying in the fixed vertical plane throughout the maneuver.
This approach to determining the steady longitudinal flight conditions that arise from a change in the
elevator makes use of the equations derived previously for steady longitudinal flight. Once the new flight
96 11.3. CHANGE IN THE THROTTLE
condition consistent with the maneuver is determined, it must be checked that this flight condition lies in
the flight envelope for steady longitudinal flight, that is that the resulting lift coefficient is less than the lift
coefficient at stall; if this condition is not satisfied then there is no steady flight and in fact the aircraft would
be in a dynamic stall condition. Since there is no change in the throttle, the engine is guaranteed to remain
within its operating range.
11.3 Change in the throttle
In this section, maneuvers defined by a change in the throttle are studied, assuming that initially the aircraft is
in steady longitudinal flight. Since there is no change in the elevator there is no change in the aircraft angle
of attack. Thus there is no change in the lift coefficient. Hence, the steady longitudinal flight equations
guarantee that there is no change in the aircraft air speed. Since the final throttle setting is known, this
determines the thrust (if the aircraft is powered by a jet engine) or the power (if an internal combustion
engine and propeller power the aircraft). In either case, knowledge of the air speed and the thrust or power
delivered by the engine allows determination of the flight path angle. In summary, a change in the throttle
does not result in a change in the angle of attack, but it does result in a change the flight path angle and the
air speed of the aircraft, as well as a change in the lift and drag on the aircraft. Since the aircraft is initially
in steady longitudinal flight, the bank angle remains zero and the aircraft remains flying in the fixed vertical
plane throughout the maneuver.
This approach to determining the steady longitudinal flight conditions that arise from a change in the
throttle makes use of the equations derived previously for steady longitudinal flight. Once the new flight
condition consistent with the maneuver is determined, it must be checked that this flight condition lies in the
flight envelope for steady longitudinal flight, that is the resulting lift coefficient is less than the lift coefficient
at stall; if this condition is not satisfied then there is no steady flight and the aircraft would be in a dynamic
stall condition. If the maneuver is defined by a step change in the throttle where the final throttle setting is
between 0 and 1, then the engine is guaranteed to remain within its operating range.
CHAPTER 11. AIRCRAFT MANEUVERS BETWEEN STEADY FLIGHT CONDITIONS 97
11.4 Change in bank angle
In this section, the ailerons are assumed to be moved as follows: they are not initially deflected, they are then
deflected for some short period of time, and finally brought back to zero deflection and maintained at zero
deflection thereafter. Assuming the aircraft is initially in steady longitudinal flight, this maneuver causes a
change in the bank angle of the aircraft from zero to some final constant value. Since there is no change in
the elevator there is no change in the aircraft angle of attack. Thus there is no change in the lift coefficient.
Hence, the steady longitudinal flight equations determine the final aircraft air speed. Knowledge of the air
speed and the thrust or power delivered by the engine allows determination of the flight path angle. The turn
radius can then be determined. In summary, a change in the bank angle results in a change in the flight path
angle, the air speed of the aircraft, and the turn radius, as well as a change in the lift and drag on the aircraft.
This approach to determining the steady turning flight condition that arises from a change in the bank
angle makes use of the equations derived previously for steady turning flight. Once the new flight condition
consistent with the maneuver is determined, it must be checked that this flight condition lies in the flight
envelope for steady turning flight, that is the resulting lift coefficient is less than the lift coefficient at stall;
if this condition is not satisfied then there is no steady flight and the aircraft would be in a dynamic stall
condition. The bank angle should also satisfy the load factor constraint for steady turning flight.
11.5 Simultaneous changes in elevator, throttle, and bank angle
The above descriptions illustrate the approach for determining a new steady flight condition if only a single
pilot input is changed. If two or more pilot inputs are changed simultaneously, the equations derived in
Chapter 10 can be used to determine the new steady flight conditions, namely the angle of attack, the flight
path angle, the air speed, and the turn radius, as well as the lift and drag.
As indicated previously, the maneuver results in a new steady flight condition only if the new steady
flight condition lies in the flight envelope.

Chapter 12
Executive Jet Aircraft
This is an example of an executive jet aircraft capable of carrying up to eight passengers plus crew and
cargo. The aircraft is fictitious in the sense that it does not represent any specific existing aircraft. The
specific aircraft data is consistent with typical aircraft of this type.
The weight of the aircraft, with a full fuel tank, is 73, 000 lbs. The wing surface area is 950 ft2 ; the
aspect ratio is 5.9. The aerodynamic drag polar is given by
CD = 0.015 + 0.05CL2 .
The lift coefficient, in terms of the angle of attack, is
CL = 0.02 + 0.12α,
where the angle of attack is measured in degrees. The maximum lift coefficient at stall is 2.8. The pitching
moment coefficient, in terms of the angle of attack and the elevator deflection, is given by
CM = 0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe ,
where the angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe are measured in degrees.
The jet aircraft is powered by two jet engines, each of which can provide a maximum sea-level thrust of
6, 250 lbs at sea level. The engines are configured in the aircraft so that they do not generate any pitching
98
CHAPTER 12. EXECUTIVE JET AIRCRAFT 99
Figure 12.1: Executive jet aircraft
moment on the aircraft. The thrust depends on the flight altitude according to
0.6
ρ
T =σ × 12, 500 lbf,
2.3769 × 10−3
where σ is the throttle setting and ρ is the air density in slug/ft3 of the flight altitude. The maximum fuel
that can be carried in the aircraft is 28, 000 lbs. The specific fuel consumption rate for the jet engines is
0.69 lb fuel/hr/lb.
This data for the jet aircraft is used to analyze steady flight properties of the aircraft and to determine
various performance measures of the aircraft. The development closely follows that the concepts introduced
in the prior chapters.
12.1 Steady level flight
The executive jet aircraft is in steady level flight at an altitude of 10, 000 ft. We have W = 73, 000 lbs,
S = 950 ft2 , and from the drag polar expression, CD0 = 0.015, and K = 0.05. From the standard
atmospheric table, ρ = 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 .

100 12.1. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
Thrust required: Suppose that V = 500 ft/s. The thrust required is given by (6.17);
1 2KW 2
T = ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S
1 slug ft2
= × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × −3
× 2 2
× ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 950 ft2
= 4.4049 × 103 lbf,
where we use the fact that 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 . We can calculate the required thrust for various air speeds.
The thrust required curve, Figure 6.1 is generated by the following Matlab commands.
V=linspace(150,1000,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
rho=1.7553e-3;
T=1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S
plot(V,T);
xlabel(’Velocity (ft/s)’);
ylabel(’Thrust required (lbf)’);
grid on;
Minimum required thrust: The air speed to achieve minimum required thrust is given by (6.30);
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
= t
slug 2
= 399.81 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 −3
3 × 950ft
0.015
ft
2W
At this air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 0.5477 and CM = 0. Then, we can
determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) by solving
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
to give α = 4.3977, δe = 1.9699 degree.

The minimum thrust is given by (6.31);

p
Tmin = 2W KCD0 ,
√
= 2 × 73000 lbf × 0.05 × 0.015 = 3.9984 × 103 lbf.
s
The corresponding throttle can be found by (6.22). We have Tmax = 12, 500 lbf, m = 0.6, ρs = 2.3769 ×
10−3 slug/ft3 , and ρ = 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 . Then

s m
T ρ
σ= s ,
Tmax ρ
0.6
3.9984 × 103 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.3837.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed is found by solving (6.23). Multiplying (6.23) by
V 2 , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial.

m
1 4 s ρ 2 2KW 2
ρSCD0 V − Tmax V + = 0.
2 ρs ρS
This equation can be solved numerically by Matlab roots command.
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 -Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
It returns two positive values of V = 895.19, 178.57 ft/s. The high-speed solution denotes the maximum
air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of the aircraft. At the given
altitude, the aircraft speed is 1077.39 ft/s. So, the corresponding Mach number is 0.83. We can also solve
(6.23) by graphical methods as shown in Figure 6.3 using Matlab ginput command.
2W
At the maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 0.1093 and CM = 0.
Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12)
to give α = 0.7438 δe = −0.3790 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed is given by (6.19). We have CLmax = 2.8. Then,
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= −3
= 176.83 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × 2.8
We calculated that the minimum air speed due to the thrust limit as 178.57 ft/s. The minimum air speed
of an aircraft must satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum thrust constraint provided by the jet
engine. In this case, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is larger than the stall speed, so
the maximum thrust constraint is active. Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the minimum air
speed due to the thrust constraint, namely 178.57 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given
2W
by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 2.7458 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and
the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 22.72 degree, δe = 13.75 degree.
Steady level flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax can be found by solving (6.24) numerically. The
Matlab function fsolve solves a nonlinear equation of a form by a numerical method. To use this, we
define a function whose value is equal to zero at the solution. Equation (6.24) can be written as
m
p s ρ
2W KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function, eqnFC as follows.
eqnFC.m
function error=eqnFC(h)
%Input: altitude (ft)
%Output: Error of (6.24)
W=73000;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
[Ts ps rhos]=StdAtpUS(0);
[Th ph rhoh]=StdAtpUS(h);
error=2*W*sqrt(K*CD0)-Tsmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
Here we use the Matlab function StdAtpUS defined in Chapter 2. The following Matlab command
returns the altitude such that the value of eqnFC is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@eqnFC,10000)
where 10000 is an initial guess of hmax . After a few iterations, we obtain the flight ceiling of 50, 361.36 ft.
We can provide a graphical representation of the steady level flight envelope using the previous analysis.
By following the same procedure described above, we can find the maximum air speed, and the minimum
air speed due to the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we define a Matlab
function SLF that returns the maximum air speed and the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint,
and the stall speed for a specified altitude.
function [Vmax VminTC Vstall]=SLF(h);

%Input: altitude h (ft)
%Output: Maximum air speed Vmax (ft/s)
% Minimum air speed by the thrust constraint VminTC (ft/s)
% Stall speed Vstall (ft/s);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.8;
[T p rho]=StdAtpUS(h);
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 -Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S]));

Vmax=tmp(4);
VminTC=tmp(3);
Vstall=sqrt(2*W/rho/S/CLmax);
Then, we can generate the steady level flight envelope by calling SLF function for various altitudes. Fig-
ure 6.5 (b) is generated by the following Matlab commands.
h=linspace(0,50361,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=SLF(h(k));
end
Vmin=max(VminTC,Vstall);
area([Vmin Vmax(end:-1:1)],[h h(end:-1:1)],...
’FaceColor’,[0.8 1 1],’LineStyle’,’none’);
hold on;
plot(Vmax,h,VminTC,h,Vstall,h);
grid on;
xlim([0 1200]);
ylabel(’Altitude (ft)’);
Maximum range: Suppose that the jet aircraft is flying at an altitude of 35, 000 ft while maximizing the
1
CL2
range. From the results of Section 9.4, the range of a jet aircraft is maximized when CD is maximized.
1
CL2
Substituting the expression for the drag polar into CD , we obtain
1 1
CL2 CL2
= .
CD CD0 + KCL2
1
CL2
Maximization of CD is achieved by setting
 1

2
 = − 1 −C
2
d  CL D0 + 3KCL
= 0,
dCL CD0 + KCL2 1
2 C 2 C + KC 2 2
L D0 L
to obtain
CD0 = 3KCL2 .
1
CL2
The second derivative can be shown to be negative ensuring that the above condition maximizes CD . Then,
1
CL2
the corresponding values of CL , CD and CD are given by
r
CD0
CL∗ = = 0.3162,
3K
∗ 4
CD = CD0 = 0.0200,
 1 ∗ 3
!1
2 4
C
 L = 3 1
3 = 28.1171.
CD 4 3KCD 0
Using (6.4), the air speed can be written as a function of the aircraft weight as
s
2W
V = ,
ρSCL
v s
u
u 2W 3K
=t .
ρS CD0
The angle of attack and the elevator deflection angle can be found from (6.11) and (6.12). They are constant
during the flight since CL is constant. The thrust is obtained from (6.5) as
r
KCD0
T = 4W .
3
Using (6.22), the throttle setting is given by

r m
ρs

KCD0 1
σ = 4W s
.
3 Tmax ρ
The variations of air speed and throttle are obtained using the following Matlab function.
S=950; CD0=0.015; K=0.05; Tsmax=12500; m=0.6; h=35000;
Wi=73000;
Wf=Wi-28000;
W=linspace(Wi,Wf,200);
V=sqrt(2*W/rho/S*sqrt(3*K/CD0));
sigma=4*W*sqrt(K*CD0/3)/(Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm);
figure;
plot(W,V);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
ylabel(’V (ft/s)’);
xlabel(’W (lbf)’);
figure;
plot(W,sigma);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
ylabel(’\sigma’);
The results are shown in Figure 12.2.

1
0.69 CL2
We have c = 0.69 /hr = 3600 /s, S = 950 ft2 , Wi = 73000 lbf, Wf = 45000 lbf, and CD = 28.1170.
The air density is 7.3654 × 10−4 slug ft/s3 at the altitude of 35000 ft. The maximum aircraft range is given
from (9.18).
r 1
2 2 CL2 hp p i
R= Wi − Wf ,
c ρS CD
s
2 × 3600 2 h√ √ i
= s× × 28.1170 × 73000 lbf − 45000 lbf ,
0.69 7.3654 × 10−4 slug ft/s2 × 950 ft2
= 2.8796 × 107 , ft = 5.4538 × 103 miles.

850 0.75
800 0.7
0.65
750
V (ft/s)
0.6
σ
700
0.55
650
0.5
600 0.45
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
W (lbf) 4 W (lbf) 4
x 10 x 10
(a) Variation of air speed (b) Variation of throttle
Figure 12.2: Maximum range flight
Maximum endurance: Suppose that the jet aircraft is flying at an altitude of 35, 000 ft while maximiz-
CL
ing endurance. From the results of Section 9.5, the endurance of a jet aircraft is maximized when CD is
CL
maximized. Substituting the expression of the drag polar into CD , we obtain
CL CL
= .
CD CD0 + KCL2
CL
The condition for maximizing CD is
CD0 − KCL2

d CL
= 2 = 0,
dCL CD0 + KCL2 CD0 + KCL2
which gives
CD0 = KCL2 .
CL
The second derivative is negative ensuring that the above condition maximizes CD . Then, the corresponding
CL
values of CL , CD and CD are given by
r
CD0
CL∗ = = 0.5477,
K
∗
CD = 2CD0 = 0.0300,
s
CL ∗ 1

1
= = 18.2574.
CD 2 KCD0
Using (6.4), the air speed can be written as a function of the aircraft weight as
s
2W
V = ,
ρSCL
v s
u
u 2W K
=t .
ρS CD0
during the flight since CL is constant. The thrust is obtained from (6.5)
p
T = 2W KCD0 .
Using (6.22), the throttle is given by

m
ρs

p 1
σ = 2W KCD0 s
.
Tmax ρ
The variations of air speed and throttle as the weight of the aircraft changes are obtained by the following
Matlab function.
S=950; CD0=0.015; K=0.05; Tsmax=12500; m=0.6; h=35000;
Wi=73000;
Wf=Wi-28000;
V=sqrt(2*W/rho/S*sqrt(K/CD0));
sigma=2*W*sqrt(K*CD0)/(Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm);
figure;
plot(W,V);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
figure;
plot(W,sigma);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
108 12.2. STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT
620 0.7
600 0.65
580 0.6
560 0.55
V (ft/s)
σ
540 0.5
520 0.45
500 0.4
480 0.35
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
W (lbf) 4 W (lbf) 4
x 10 x 10
Figure 12.3: Maximum endurance flight
0.69 CL
We have c = 0.69 /hr = 3600 /s, S = 950 ft2 , Wi = 73000 lbf, Wf = 45000 lbf, and CD = 18.2574.
The maximum endurance is given from (9.21).
1 CL Wi
E= ln ,
cje CD Wf
3600 s 73
= × 18.2574 × ln = 4.6085 × 104 s = 12 hr 48 min 4.6 s.
0.69 45
12.2 Steady climbing flight
First we assume that the executive jet aircraft is in steady climbing flight with a flight path angle of 3 degree
at an altitude of 10, 000 ft.

4
x 10
1.3
1.2
Thrust required (lbf)

1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.4: Thrust required for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree)
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S
3π 1 slug ft2
= 73000 lbf × + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
180 2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × −3
× 2 2
× ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 950 ft2
= 8.2272 × 103 lbf,
where we use the fact that 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 . We can calculate the required thrust for varying velocity V .
The thrust required curve, Figure 12.4 is generated by the following Matlab command.
V=linspace(150,1000,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
[T p rho]=StdAtpUS(10000);
gamma=3*pi/180;
T=W*gamma+1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S;
plot(V,T);
grid on;
Minimum required thrust: The air speed to achieve minimum required thrust is given by (6.30);
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
= t
slug 2
= 399.81 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 −3
3 × 950ft
0.015
ft
2W
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
to give α = 4.3977 δe = 1.9699 degree.
The minimum thrust is given by

p
Tmin = W γ + 2W KCD0 ,
3π √
= 73000 lbf × + 2 × 73000 lbf × 0.05 × 0.015 = 7.8206 × 103 lbf.
180
s

s m
T ρ
σ= s ,
Tmax ρ
0.6
7.8206 × 103 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.7505.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed for 3 degree flight path angle is found by solving
the following equation.

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + s
= Tmax .
2 ρV 2 S ρs
Multiplying the above equation by V 2 , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial.
m
2KW 2

1 4 s ρ 2
ρSCD0 V + W γ − Tmax V + = 0.
2 ρs ρS
This equation can be solved numerically using the Matlab roots command.
4
x 10
1.3
1.2

1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.5: Thrust required for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree)
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of the aircraft. At the given
altitude, the speed of sound is 1077.39 ft/s. So, the corresponding Mach number is 0.64. The maximum
air speed is not close to the speed of sound. We could also solve the above equation graphically using
Figure 12.5.
2W
= 0.1848 and CM = 0.
to give α = 1.3736 δe = 0.0259 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for 3 degree flight path angle is given by (6.19). We have CLmax =
2.8. Then,
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 176.83 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × 2.8
The minimum air speed due to the thrust limit is 232.26 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an aircraft must
satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum thrust constraint provided by the jet engine. In this case,
the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is larger than the stall speed, so the maximum thrust
constraint is active. Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the minimum air speed due to the
thrust constraint, namely 232.26 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14);
2W
CL = ρV 2 S
= 1.6231 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator
deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 13.36 degree, δe = 7.73 degree.
Steady climbing flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for 3 degree flight path angle can be found by
solving the following equation numerically.

m
p s ρ
W γ + 2W KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We use the Matlab function fsolve to solve a nonlinear equation.
Define a Matlab function eqnFCC whose value is equal to zero at the solution.
eqnFCC.m
function error=eqnFCC(h,gamma)
W=73000;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
error=W*gamma+2*W*sqrt(K*CD0)-Tsmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
Here we use the Matlab function StdAtpUS defined in Chapter 2. The following Matlab command returns
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCC is equal to zero.

hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCC(h,3*pi/180),10000)
We can provide a graphical representation of the steady climbing flight envelope using the previous
analysis. By following the same procedure described above, we can find the maximum air speed, and the
minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we define a
Matlab function SCF that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint,

4
x 10
2.5
Altitude (ft)
1.5
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.6: Flight envelope for steady climbing flight (γ = 3 degree)
function [Vmax VminTC Vstall]=SCF(h,gamma);

%Input: altitude h (ft) flight path angle gamma (rad)
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S]));

Vmax=tmp(4);
VminTC=tmp(3);
Then, we can generate the steady climbing flight envelope by calling the SCF function for various altitudes.
Figure 12.6 is generated by the following Matlab commands.
gamma=3*pi/180;
h=linspace(0,24400,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=SCF(h(k),gamma);
end
4
x 10
10
h (ft)
4
0
5
3000
0 2000
1000
γ (deg) −5 0
V (ft/s)
Figure 12.7: Flight envelope surface for steady climbing flight
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 1200]);
We can also generate a steady climbing flight surface that defines the boundary of the steady climbing
flight envelope, by calling SCF function for various altitudes and flight path angles. Figure 12.7 is generated
by the following Matlab commands. Figure 12.6 is a cross section of Figure 12.7.
gamma=linspace(-2*pi/180,5*pi/180,40);
for i=1:size(gamma,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCC(h,gamma(i)),10000);
h(i,:)=linspace(0,floor(hmax(i)),40);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=SCF(h(i,j),gamma(i));
end
end
surf(Vmax,gamma*180/pi,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
hold on;
surf(Vmin,gamma*180/pi,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
ylabel(’\gamma (deg)’);
zlabel(’h (ft)’);
xlabel(’V (ft/s)’);
12.3 Steady descending flight
Now we assume that the flight path angle is −2 degree; the aircraft is in steady descending flight, and we
repeat the previous analysis.
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S
2π 1 slug ft2
= −73000 lbf × + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
180 2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × −3
× 2 2
× ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 950 ft2
= 1.8567 × 103 lbf,
where we use the fact that 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 . We can calculate the required thrust for varying air speed V .
The thrust required curve, Figure 12.8 is generated by the following Matlab commands.
V=linspace(145,1100,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
gamma=-2*pi/180;
T=W*gamma+1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S;
plot(V,T);
grid on;
116 12.3. STEADY DESCENDING FLIGHT
14000
12000
10000

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
200 400 600 800 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.8: Thrust required for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree)
Minimum required thrust: The air speed to achieve minimum required thrust, in steady descending
flight, is given by (6.30);

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
= t
slug 2
= 399.81 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 −3 × 950ft 0.015
ft3
2W
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
The minimum thrust for this steady descending flight is given by
p
Tmin = W γ + 2W KCD0 ,
2π √
= −73000 lbf × + 2 × 73000 lbf × 0.05 × 0.015 = 1.4502 × 103 lbf.
180
s

m
ρs

T
σ= s
,
Tmax ρ
0.6
1.4502 × 102 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.1392.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed is found by solving the following equation.
m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= Tmax .
2 ρV 2 S ρs
Multiplying the above equation by V 2 , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial.
m
2KW 2

1 4 s ρ 2
2 ρs ρS
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
air speed of the aircraft in descent; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of the aircraft. At
the given altitude, the speed of sound is 1077.39 ft/s. The corresponding Mach number is 0.93. In this case,
the maximum air speed is close to the speed of sound. In this flight region, compressibility effects are very
important. The assumed drag coefficient model is not accurate.

2W
= 0.08654 and CM = 0.
to give α = 0.5545 δe = −0.5007 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for this steady descending flight is given by (6.19). We have
CLmax = 2.8. Then,

s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 176.83 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × 2.8
14000
12000

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
200 400 600 800 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.9: Thrust required for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree)
The minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is 158.92 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an aircraft must
satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum thrust constraint provided by the jet engine. In this case,
the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is less than the stall speed, so the stall constraint is active.
Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the stall speed, namely 176.63 ft/s. At the minimum air
2W
speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 2.8 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine
the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 23.17 degree,
δe = 14.04 degree.
Steady descending flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax in steady descent with flight path angle of
−2 degree can be found by solving the following equation numerically.

m
p s ρ
W γ + 2W KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. Here we use the previously defined Matlab function eqnFCC and the
command
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCC(h,-2*pi/180),10000)
We provide a graphical representation of the steady descending flight envelope using the previous analy-
sis. By following the same procedure described above, we can find the maximum air speed, and the min-
4
x 10
9
Altitude (ft)
5
0
500 1000 1500 2000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.10: Flight envelope for steady descending flight (γ = −2 degree)
imum air speed due to the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we use the
previously defined Matlab function SCF that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to
the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude. Then, we can generate the steady descending
flight envelope, Figure 12.10, by following the same procedure. Note that the inaccuracy of the drag model
invalidates the high speed past of this flight envelope.
12.4 Steady gliding flight
Minimum glide path angle: The minimum glide path angle is given by (8.7). It only depends on the
aerodynamic parameters. The minimum glide path angle is

p
γglidemin = 2 KCD0 ,
√
= 2 0.05 × 0.015 = 0.0548 rad = 3.1382 degree.
The corresponding air speed is given by (8.6).

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS CD0
which is a function of the altitude. Figure 12.11 shows the variations of the air speed due to change in
altitude.
120 12.4. STEADY GLIDING FLIGHT
4
x 10
3.5
2.5
h (ft)
2
1.5
0.5
350 400 450 500 550 600 650
V (ft/s)
Figure 12.11: Steady gliding flight
The following Matlab commands are used to generated Figure 12.11.

h=linspace(35000,5000,100);
for k=1:size(h,2);
[T p rho(k)]=StdAtpUS(h(k));
V(k)=sqrt(2*W/rho(k)/S*sqrt(K/CD0));
end
plot(V,h);
ylabel(’h (ft)’);
Assuming that the glide path angle is small, we have L = W from (8.2). Then, the lift coefficient is
given by
2W
CL = ,
ρV 2 S
r r
CD0 0.015
= = = 0.5477.
K 0.05
Since CM = 0, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11)
and (6.12) to give α = 4.3977 degree, δe = 1.9699 degree.
Steady gliding flight: Suppose that the jet aircraft has a constant glide path angle of γglide = 9 degree.
The air speed is obtained by multiplying (8.4) by V 2 to obtain the 4-th degree polynomial equation.
ρSCD0 4 2KW
V − γglide V 2 + = 0.
2W ρS
4
x 10
3.5
2.5
h (ft)
2
1.5
0.5
0 500 1000 1500
V (ft/s)
The above equation gives two real values of V . Figure 12.12 shows the variations of the air speed as the
altitude changes. We can check that the smaller air speed is less than the stall limit speed, so it is not a
feasible solution. The high speed solution is valid only for attitudes for which the drag model is accurate.
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
gamma=9*pi/180;
h=linspace(35000,5000,100);
for k=1:size(h,2);
[T p rho]=StdAtpUS(h(k));
tmp=sort(roots([rho*S*CD0/2/W 0 -gamma 0 2*K*W/rho/S]));
V1(k)=tmp(3);
V2(k)=tmp(4);
end
figure;
plot(V1,h,’r:’,V2,h,’b-’);
ylim([5000 35000]);
Assuming that the glide path angle is small, we have L = W from (8.2). Substituting this equation into
122 12.5. STEADY LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT BY BANKING
(8.3),
D
γglide = ,
L
CD CD0 + KCL2
= = .
CL CL
Multiplying the above equation by CL , we obtain the 2nd order polynomial.
KCL2 − γglide CL + CD0 = 0,
which gives CL = 0.0986 or CL = 3.0430. The second solution is greater than the stall limit. So, we
choose CL = 0.0986. We can find the air speed from

s
2W
V = .
ρCL S
and (6.12) to give α = 0.6549 degree, δe = −0.4361 degree.
12.5 Steady level turning flight by banking
We assume that the executive jet aircraft is in steady level turning flight with bank angle φ = 30 degree at
an altitude of 10, 000 ft.
Thrust required: Suppose that the air speed V = 500 ft/s. The thrust required is given by (10.12);
1 2KW 2
T = ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
1 slug ft2
= × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1 4
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × × × × ,
1.7553 × 10−3 slug 5002 ft2 950 ft2 3
= 4.8310 × 103 lbf.
We can calculate the required thrust for various air speeds. The thrust required curve, Figure 12.13 is
generated by the following Matlab commands.

12000
11000
10000

9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.13: Thrust required for steady turning flight (φ = 30 degree)
V=linspace(150,1000,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
phi=30*pi/180;
T=1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S/cos(phi)ˆ2;
plot(V,T);
grid on;
Minimum required thrust: This minimum required thrust for steady level turning flight can be obtained
using the methods of calculus: at the minimum the curve has zero slope, that is the derivative of the thrust
with respect to the air speed is zero. Differentiating (10.12), we obtain,
dT 4KW 2
= ρV SCD0 − = 0.
dV ρV 3 S cos2 φ
Then, the air speed to achieve minimum required thrust is given by

v s
u
u 2W K
V = t , (12.1)
ρS cos φ CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
= t √ = 429.63 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 950ft2 × 3 0.015
slug
ft 2
2W
At this air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.9); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 0.5477 and CM = 0. Then, we
can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) by solving
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
Substituting (12.1) into (10.12), the minimum thrust is given by
2W p
Tmin = KCD0 , (12.2)
cos φ
2 × 73000 lbf √
= √ × 0.05 × 0.015 = 4.6169 × 103 lbf.
3
2
s
The corresponding throttle setting can be found by (6.22). We have Tmax = 12, 500 lbf, m = 0.6, ρs =
2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3 , and ρ = 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 . Then

m
ρs

T
σ= s
,
Tmax ρ
0.6
4.6169 × 103 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.4430.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed for steady level turning flight is found by solving
the following equation.

m
2KW 2

1 2 s ρ
ρV SCD0 + = Tmax .
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ ρs
Multiplying the above equation by V 2 , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial equation
2KW 2

1 ρm
ρSCD0 V 4 − Tmax
s
V 2
+ = 0.
2 ρs ρS cos2 φ
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 -Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
There are two positive solutions V = 888.90, 207.65 ft/s. The high-speed solution denotes the maximum
air speed of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of the aircraft in a steady
12000
11000

10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.14: Thrust required for steady turning flight (φ = 30 degree)
level turn with 30, degree bank angle. At the given altitude, the speed of sound is 1077.39 ft/s. So, the
corresponding Mach number is 0.82.

2W
At the maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.9); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 0.1280 and
CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11)
and (6.12) to give α = 0.8996 δe = −0.2788 degree. The throttle σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for steady turning flight is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= √ = 190.02 ft/s.
3
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × 2 × 2.8
The minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is 207.65 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an aircraft
must satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum thrust constraint provided by the jet engine. In this
case, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is larger than the stall speed, so the maximum
thrust constraint is active. Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the minimum air speed due to
the thrust constraint, namely 207.65 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.9);
2W
CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 2.3446 and CM = 0. Then, we determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator
deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 19.37 degree, δe = 11.59 degree.

Steady turning flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for a steady level turn with 30 degree bank angle
can be found by solving the following equation numerically.

m
2W p s ρ
KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
cos φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function eqnFCT whose value is equal to zero at
the solution.
eqnFCT.m
function error=eqnFCT(h,phi)
W=73000;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
error=2*W/cos(phi)*sqrt(K*CD0)-Tsmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCT is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCT(h,30*pi/180),10000)
where 10000 is an initial guess of hmax . After a few iterations, we obtain the flight ceiling for a steady level
turn with 30 degree bank angle of 45, 373.47 ft.
We provide a graphical representation of the steady level turning flight envelope using the previous
analysis. By following the same procedure describe above, we can find the maximum air speed, and the
minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we define a
Matlab function STF that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint,
function [Vmax VminTC Vstall]=STF(h,phi);

%Input: altitude h (ft) roll angle phi (rad)
W=73000;
4
x 10
5
Altitude (ft)
3
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.15: Flight envelope for steady level turning flight (φ = 30 degree)
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 -Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2]));

Vmax=tmp(4);
VminTC=tmp(3);
Vstall=sqrt(2*W/rho/S/cos(phi)/CLmax);
Then, we can generate steady level turning flight envelope by calling STF function for various altitudes.
gamma=3*pi/180;
h=linspace(0,24400,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=STF(h(k),gamma);
end
hold on;
4
x 10
6
h (ft) 2
0
100
1500
50 1000
500
φ (deg) 0 0
V (ft/s)
Figure 12.16: Flight envelope surface for steady level turning flight
grid on;
xlim([0 1200]);
We can also generate the steady level turning flight surface by calling STF function for various altitudes
and flight path angles. Figure 12.16 is generated by the following Matlab commands. Figure 12.15 is a cross
section of Figure 12.16.
phi=linspace(0*pi/180,70*pi/180,40);
for i=1:size(phi,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCT(h,phi(i)),10000);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=STF(h(i,j),phi(i));
end
end
surf(Vmax,phi*180/pi,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
hold on;
surf(Vmin,phi*180/pi,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
ylabel(’\phi (deg)’);
12.6 Steady turning flight in climb
We assume that the executive jet aircraft is in steady level turning flight with bank angle φ = 15 degree, and
flight path angle γ = 3 degree at an altitude of 10, 000 ft.
Thrust required: Suppose that V = 500 ft/s. The thrust required to maintain this steady turning and
climbing flight condition is given by (10.36);
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
3π 1 slug ft2
= 73000 lbf × + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
180 2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1 1
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × −3
× × × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 2 2 950 ft2 cos 15π
2
180
= 8.3190 × 103 lbf,
We can calculate the required thrust for various air speeds. The thrust required curve, Figure 12.17 is
V=linspace(150,1000,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
phi=15*pi/180;
gamma=3*pi/180
T=W*gamma+1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S/cos(phi)ˆ2;
plot(V,T);
grid on;
130 12.6. STEADY TURNING FLIGHT IN CLIMB
4
x 10
1.3
1.2

1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.17: Thrust required for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree)
Minimum required thrust: The air speed to achieve minimum required thrust for this steady turning and
climbing flight condition is given by (12.1).

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS cos φ CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
=t = 406.87 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug
ft3
2
× 950ft × cos 15π
180
0.015
2W
= 0.5477 and CM = 0. Then, we
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
The minimum thrust required is given by (12.2).
2W p
Tmin = W γ + KCD0 ,
cos φ
3π 2 × 73000 lbf √
= 73000 lbf × + √ × 0.05 × 0.015 = 7.9617 × 103 lbf.
180 3
2
s

s m
T ρ
σ= s ,
Tmax ρ
0.6
7.9617 × 103 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.7640.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed for this steady turning and climbing flight condi-
tion is found by solving the following equation.

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= Tmax .
2KW 2

1 4 s ρm
ρSCD0 V + W γ − Tmax s
V2+ = 0.
2 ρ ρS cos2 φ
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
air speed of the aircraft. The corresponding Mach number is 0.64. The low speed solution denotes the
minimum air speed of the aircraft in this steady turning and climbing flight condition.
2W
At the maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.33); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 0.1932 and
and (6.12) to give α = 1.4430 δe = 0.0705 degree. The throttle σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed in this steady turning and climbing flight condition is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 179.92 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × cos 15π
−3
180 × 2.8
The minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint as 241.58 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an aircraft
4
x 10
1.3
1.2

1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.18: Thrust required for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree)
case, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is larger than the stall speed, so the maximum thrust
constraint is active. Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the minimum air speed due to the
thrust constraint, namely 241.58 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.33);
2W
CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 1.5531 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the
elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 12.7761 degree, δe = 7.3560 degree.
Steady turning and climbing flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for this steady turning and climbing
flight condition can be found by solving the following equation.

m
2W p s ρ
Wγ + KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
cos φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. Define a Matlab function eqnFCT whose value is equal to zero at the
solution.
eqnFCT.m
function error=eqnFCTC(h,gamma,phi)
W=73000;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
error=W*gamma+2*W/cos(phi)*sqrt(K*CD0)-Tsmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCTC is equal to zero.

hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTC(h,3*pi/180,15*pi/180),10000)
We provide a graphical representation of the steady climbing flight envelope. We can find the maximum
air speed, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here
we define a Matlab function STFC that returns the maximum air speed, and the minimum air speed due to
the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude.
function [Vmax VminTC Vstall]=STFC(h,gamma,phi);

%Input: altitude h (ft), flight path angle gamma (rad), roll angle phi (rad)
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
Tsmax=12500;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2]));

Vmax=tmp(4);
VminTC=tmp(3);
We generate the steady turning and climbing flight envelope by calling STFC function for various altitudes.
gamma=3*pi/180;
phi=15*pi/180;
h=linspace(0,23551,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=STFC(h(k),gamma);
4
x 10
2.5
Altitude (ft)
1.5
0.5
0
200 300 400 500 600
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.19: Flight envelope for steady turning flight in climb (γ = 3 degree, φ = 15 degree)
end
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 1200]);
We can also generate steady climbing flight surface by calling STFC function for various altitudes and
flight path angles. Figure 12.20 is generated by the following Matlab commands. Figure 12.19 is a cross
section of Figure 12.20.
gamma=3*pi/180;
phi=linspace(0*pi/180,70*pi/180,40);
for i=1:size(phi,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTC(h,gamma,phi(i)),10000);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=STFC(h(i,j),phi(i));
end
end
4 4
x 10 x 10
2.5 10
2 8
1.5 6
h (ft)
h (ft)
1 4
0.5 2
0 0
60 5
40 800 3000
600 0 2000
20 400
200 1000
φ (deg) 0 0 γ (deg) −5 0
V (ft/s) V (ft/s)
(a) γ = 3 degree (b) φ = 15 degree
Figure 12.20: Flight envelope surface for steady turning flight in climb
surf(Vmax,phi*180/pi,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);hold on;
12.7 Steady turning flight in descent
We assume that the executive jet aircraft is in steady turning flight with bank angle φ = 15 degree, and flight
path angle γ = −2 degree at an altitude of 10, 000 ft.
1 2KW 2
T = W γ + ρV 2 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
2π 1 slug ft2
= −73000 lbf × + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 5002 2 × 950ft2 × 0.015
180 2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s2 1 1 1
+ 2 × 0.05 × 73, 0002 lbf 2 × × × × ,
1.7553 × 10−3 slug 5002 ft2 950 ft2 cos2 15π
180
= 1.9485 × 103 lbf,

136 12.7. STEADY TURNING FLIGHT IN DESCENT
14000
12000
10000

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.21: Thrust required for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree)
We calculate the required thrust for various air speeds. The thrust required curve, Figure 12.13 is generated
by the following Matlab commands.
V=linspace(150,1000,500);
W=73000;
S=950;
CD0=0.015;
K=0.05;
phi=15*pi/180;
gamma=-2*pi/180
T=W*gamma+1/2*rho*V.ˆ2*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V.ˆ2/S/cos(phi)ˆ2;
plot(V,T);
grid on;
Minimum required thrust: The air speed to achieve minimum required thrust for this steady turning and
descending flight condition is given by (12.1).

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS cos φ CD0
v r
u
u 2 × 73000 lbf 0.05
=t = 406.87 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug
ft3
2
× 950ft × cos 15π
180
0.015
2W
= 0.5477 and CM = 0. Then, we
0.02 + 0.12α = 0.5477,
0.24 − 0.18α + 0.28δe = 0
The minimum thrust is given by (12.2).
2W p
Tmin = W γ + KCD0 ,
cos φ
2π 2 × 73000 lbf √
= −73000 lbf × + √ × 0.05 × 0.015 = 1.5912 × 103 lbf.
180 3
2
s

m
ρs

T
σ= s
,
Tmax ρ
0.6
1.5912 × 103 lbf 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.1527.
12500 lbf 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum aircraft air speed: The maximum air speed for this steady turning and descending flight
condition is found by solving the following equation.

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= Tmax .
2KW 2

1 4 s ρm 2
2 ρs ρS cos2 φ
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 W*gamma-Tsmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 0 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
air speed of the aircraft in this flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of
14000
12000

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.22: Thrust required for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree)
the aircraft in this flight condition. The corresponding maximum Mach number of the high speed solution is
0.93. In this case, the maximum air speed is close to the speed of sound so that the compressibility effects
are important.
2W
At the computed maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.33); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 0.0898
and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from
(6.11) and (6.12) to give α = 0.5813 δe = −0.4834 degree. The throttle σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for this steady turning and climbing flight condition is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 179.92 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 950 ft2 × cos 15π
180 × 2.8
The minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint as 164.68 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an aircraft
case, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint is less than the stall speed, so the stall constraint
is active. Consequently, the minimum air speed at this flight condition is equal to the stall speed, namely
179.92 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.33); CL = CLmax = 2.8 and
and (6.12); α = 23.17 degree, δe = 14.04 degree.

4
x 10
9
Altitude (ft)
5
0
500 1000 1500 2000
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 12.23: Flight envelope for steady turning flight in descent (γ = −2 degree, φ = 15 degree)
Steady turning and descending flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for an aircraft in this steady
turning and descending flight condition can be found by solving the following equation
m
2W p s ρ
Wγ + KCD0 − Tmax = 0,
cos φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. Here we use the previously defined Matlab function eqnFCTC
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTC(h,-2*pi/180,15*pi/180),10000)
A graphical representation of the steady turning and descending flight envelope can be determined using
the previous analysis. We can find the maximum air speed, and the minimum air speed due to the thrust
constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we use the previously defined Matlab function
STFC that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the thrust constraint, and the stall
speed for a specified altitude. Then we can generate the steady turning and descending flight, Figure 12.23
by the same procedure. Note that the high speed part of the flight envelope is not accurate doe to the fact
that the drag model does not include compressibility effects.

Chapter 13
Single Engine Propeller Driven Aircraft
This is an example of a single engine propeller-driven aircraft capable of carrying two persons and minimal
cargo. This general aviation aircraft is fictitious in the sense that it does not represent any specific existing
aircraft. The specific aircraft data is consistent with typical aircraft of this type.
The weight of the aircraft, with a full fuel tank, is 2900 lbs. The wing surface area is 175 ft2 ; the aspect
ratio is 7.4. The aerodynamic drag polar is given by
CD = 0.026 + 0.054CL2 .
The lift coefficient, in terms of the angle of attack, is
CL = 0.02 + 0.12α,
Figure 13.1: Single engine propeller driven aircraft
140
CHAPTER 13. SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT 141
where the angle of attack is measured in degrees. The maximum lift coefficient at stall is 2.4. The pitching
moment coefficient, in terms of the angle of attack and the elevator deflection, is given by
CM = 0.12 − 0.08α + 0.075δe ,
where the angle of attack and the elevator deflection are measured in degrees.
A single propeller with efficiency 0.8 generates the thrust. The propeller is driven by an internal com-
bustion engine that produces a maximum of 290 hp at sea level. The engine is configured in the aircraft
so that it does not generate any pitching moment on the aircraft. The thrust depends on the flight altitude
according to
0.6
ρ
P =σ 290 hp,
2.3769 × 10−3
where ρ is the air density in slug/ft3 . The maximum fuel that can be carried in the aircraft is 370 lbs. The
specific fuel consumption rate for the jet engines is 0.45 lb fuel/hr/hp.
This data for a propeller-driven aircraft is used to analyze steady flight properties of the aircraft and
to determine various performance measures of the aircraft. The development closely follows the approach
introduced in the prior chapters.
13.1 Steady level flight
The single engine propeller driven aircraft is in steady level flight at the altitude of 10, 000 ft. We have
W = 2, 900 lbs, S = 175 ft2 , and from the drag polar expression, CD0 = 0.026, and K = 0.0544. From
the standard atmospheric table, ρ = 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 .
Power required: Suppose that the air speed V = 200 ft/s. The required power is given by (6.20);
1 2KW 2
P = ρV 3 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV S
1 slug ft3
= × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × −3
× × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 175 ft2
= 4.6731 × 104 lbf ft/s = 84.97 hp,

where we use the fact that 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 . We calculate the required power for various air speeds. The
power required curve, shown in Figure 6.2, is generated by the following Matlab commands.
V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
P=1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S
plot(V,P);
ylabel(’Power required (lbf ft/s)’);
grid on;
Minimum required power: The air speed to achieve minimum required power is given by (6.33);
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
=t slug
= 125.34 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 −3
3 × 175ft
2 3 × 0.026
ft
2W
The lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 1.2019 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the
aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) to give α = 9.8488, δe =
8.9053 degree.
The minimum power is given by (6.34);

s
4 2W 3
q
Pmin = 3K 3 CD0 ,
3 ρS
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026 = 3.1454 × 104 lbf ft/s = 57.19 hp.
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2
s 550 lbf ft/s
The corresponding throttle can be found by (6.26). We have Pmax = 290 hp = 290 hp × 1 hp =
159500 lbf ft/s, m = 0.6, η = 0.8, ρs = 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3 , and ρ = 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 . Then
the throttle setting is

m
ρs

P
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
3.1454 × 104 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.2958.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed is found by solving (6.27). Multiplying (6.27) by V , we
obtain the following 4th degree polynomial equation.

m
1 4 s ρ 2KW 2
ρSCD0 V − ηPmax V + = 0.
2 ρs ρS
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 -eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
There are two solutions V = 288.75, 27.82 ft/s. The high-speed solution denotes the maximum air speed
of the aircraft; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of the aircraft. We can solve (6.27) by
graphical method using the Matlab ginput command from Figure 6.4.
2W
= 0.2647 and CM = 0.
to give α = 1.7205, δe = 0.2352 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed is given by (6.19). We have CLmax = 2.4. Then,
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 88.70 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × 2.4
The minimum air speed due to the engine power constraint is 27.82 ft/s. The minimum air speed of an
aircraft must satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum power constraint. In this case, the stall
speed is larger than the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, so the stall constraint is active.
Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the stall speed, 88.70 ft/s. At the minimum air speed, the
lift coefficient is given by CL = 2.4 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and
Steady level flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax can be found by solving (6.28). We define a function
whose value is equal to zero at the solution. Equation (6.28) can be written as
s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
3K CD0 − ηPmax = 0.
3 ρS ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function, eqnFCP as follows.
eqnFCP.m
function error=eqnFCP(h)
%Input: altitude (ft);
%Output: Error of (6.28)
W=2900;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
S=175;
m=0.6;
eta=0.8;
error=4/3*sqrt(2*Wˆ3/rhoh/S*sqrt(3*Kˆ3*CD0))-eta*Psmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
Here we used the Matlab function StdAtpUS defined in Chapter 2. The following Matlab command returns
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCP is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@eqnFCP,10000)
We provide a graphical representation of the steady level flight envelope using the previous analysis.
We can find the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed by the power constraint, and the stall speed for
various altitudes. Here we define a Matlab function SLF that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum
air speed by the power constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude.
SLFP.m
function [Vmax VminPC Vstall]=SLFP(h);
% Minimum air speed by the thrust constraint VminPC (ft/s)
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.4;
eta=0.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 -eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S]));

Vmax=tmp(2);
VminPC=tmp(1);
Then, we generate the steady level flight envelope by calling SLF function for various altitudes. Figure 6.5
(a) is generated by the following Matlab commands.
h=linspace(0,40190,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=SLFP(h(k));
end
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 400]);
Maximum range: Suppose that the propeller aircraft is flying at an altitude of 20, 000 ft to maximize the
CL
range. From the results of Section 9.2, the range of a propeller aircraft is maximized when CD is maximized.
CL
Substituting the expression of the drag polar into CD , we obtain
CL CL
= .
CD CD0 + KCL2
CL
Maximum CD is obtained by solving
CD0 − KCL2

d CL
= 2 = 0,
dCL CD0 + KCL2 CD0 + KCL2
which gives
CD0 = KCL2 .
CL
CL
r
CD0
CL = = 0.6939,
K
CD = 2CD0 = 0.0520,
s
CL 1 1
= = 13.3440.
CD 2 KCD0
Using (6.4), the air speed can be written as a function of weight as

s
2W
V = ,
ρSCL
v s
u
u 2W K
=t .
ρS CD0
throughout the flight since CL is constant. The required power is obtained from (6.5) as
s
2W 3
q
P =4 K 3 CD0 .
3ρS

s s m
2W 3 1 ρ
q
σ=4 3
K CD0 .
3ρS s
ηPmax ρ
Matlab function.
S=175; CD0=0.026; K=0.054; eta=0.8; Psmax=290*550; m=0.6; h=20000;
Wi=2900;
Wf=Wi-370;
V=sqrt(2*W/rho/S*sqrt(K/CD0));
P=4*sqrt(2*W.ˆ3/3/rho/S*sqrt(Kˆ3*CD0));
sigma=P/(eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm);
195 0.58
0.56
0.54
190
0.52
V (ft/s)
σ
0.5
185
0.48
0.46
180 0.44
2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900
W (lbf) W (lbf)
Figure 13.2: Maximum range
figure;
plot(W,V);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
figure;
plot(W,sigma);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
The results are shown at Figure 13.2.
We have c = 0.45 hrlbfhp = 0.45 lbf

3600×550 s lbf ft/s = 0.45
3600×550 /ft, Wi = 2900 lbf, Wf = 2530 lbf, and
CL
CD = 13.3440. The maximum range is given from (9.11).
η CL Wi
R= ln ,
c CD Wf
0.8 × 3600 × 440 2900
= ft × 13.3440 × ln = 5.2264 × 106 ft = 989.86 miles.
0.45 2530
Maximum endurance: Suppose that the propeller aircraft is flying at an altitude of 20, 000 ft to maximize
3
CL2
the endurance. From the results of Section 9.3, the endurance of a propeller aircraft is maximized when CD
3
CL2
is maximized. Substituting the expression of the drag polar into CD , we obtain
3 3
CL2 CL2
= .
CD CD0 + KCL2
3
CL2
Maximum CD is obtained by solving
 3
 1
CL2 −3CD0 + KCL2

2
d  CL =− 1
= 0,
dCL CD0 + KCL2
2
2 CD0 + KCL2
which gives
1
CD0 = KCL2 .
3
3
CL2
3
CL2
r
3CD0
CL = = 1.2019,
K
CD = 4CD0 = 0.1040,
 3  3
4
2
 CL  = 1  3 1  = 12.6690.
CD 4 KC 3
D0
Using (6.4), the air speed can be written as a function of weight as

s
2W
V = ,
ρSCL
v s
u
u 2W K
= t .
ρS 3CD0
throughout the flight since CL is constant. The power is obtained from (6.5)
s r
2W 3 K 3 CD0
P =4 .
3ρS 3

s r s m
2W 3 K 3 CD0 1 ρ
σ=4 s
.
3ρS 3 ηPmax ρ
Matlab function.
S=950; CD0=0.015; K=0.05; Tsmax=12500; m=0.6; h=35000;
Wi=73000;
Wf=Wi-28000;
V=sqrt(2*W/rho/S*sqrt(K/3/CD0));
P=4*sqrt(2*W.ˆ3/3/rho/S*sqrt(Kˆ3*CD0/3));
sigma=P/(eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm);
figure;
plot(W,V);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
figure;
plot(W,sigma);
xlim([Wf Wi]);
We have c = 0.45 hrlbfhp = 0.45 lbf

3600×550 s lbf ft/s = 0.45
3600×550 /ft, η = 0.8, S = 175 ft2 , Wi = 2900 lbf,
3
CL2
Wf = 2530 lbf, and CD = 12.6690. The air density is 1.2664 × 10−3 slug ft/s3 at the altitude of 20000 ft.
The maximum endurance is given by (9.16) as
3 " #
η CL2 p 1 1
E= 2ρS p −√ ,
c CD Wf Wi

0.8 × 3600 × 550 ft p
−3
1 1
= × 12.6690 × 2 × 1.2664 × 10 × 175 slug/ft √ −√ ,
0.45 2530 lbf 2900 lbf
= 2.5395 × 104 s = 7 hr 3 min 15.3 s.
148 0.44
146
0.42
144
0.4
V (ft/s)
142
σ
0.38
140
0.36
138
136 0.34
2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900
W (lbf) W (lbf)
Figure 13.3: Maximum endurance
13.2 Steady climbing flight
First we assume that the propeller aircraft is in steady climbing flight with a rate of climb of 16 ft/s at an
altitude of 10, 000 ft.
Power required: Suppose that V = 200 ft/s. The thrust required is
1 2KW 2
P = W Vclimb + ρV 3 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV S
1 slug ft3
= 2900 lbf × 16 ft/s + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × −3
× × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 175 ft2
= 9.3131 × 104 lbf ft/s = 169.33 hp.
We calculate the required power for various air speeds. The power required curve, Figure 13.4 is generated
V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.4: Power required for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s)
Vclimb=16;
P=W*Vclimb+1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S
plot(V,P);
grid on;
Minimum required power: The air speed to achieve minimum required power for this steady climbing
flight condition is given by (6.33);
v s
u
u 2W K
V = t ,
ρS 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
= t
slug
= 125.34 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 ft3 × 175ft2 3 × 0.026
2W
The lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 1.2019 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the
aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) to give α = 9.8488, δe =
8.9053 degree.
The minimum power for this climb rate is given by;

s
4 2W 3
q
Pmin = W Vclimb + 3K 3 CD0 ,
3 ρS
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= 2900 lbf × 16 ft/s + 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026,
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2
= 7.7854 × 104 lbf ft/s = 141.55 hp.
s 550 lbf ft/s

m
ρs

P
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
7.7854 × 104 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.7319.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed at this steady climbing flight condition is found by solving
the following equation

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
W Vclimb + ρV 3 SCD0 + s
= ηPmax .
2 ρV S ρs
Multiplying the above equation by V , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial equation.
m
2KW 2

1 ρ
ρSCD0 V 4 + W Vclimb − ηPmax
s
s
V + = 0.
2 ρ ρS
This equation can be solved numerically using the Matlab roots commands.
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
of the aircraft in this steady climbing flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed
of the aircraft in this steady climbing flight condition.

2W
At this maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 0.3650 and CM = 0.
to give α = 2.8753, δe = 1.4670 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.

4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.5: Power required for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s)
Minimum air speed: The stall speed in this steady climbing flight condition is given by (6.19). We have
CLmax = 2.4. Then,

s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 88.70 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × 2.4
Consequently, the minimum air speed in this climbing flight condition is equal to the stall speed, 88.70 ft/s.
At the minimum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by CL = 2.4 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine
the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 19.83 degree,
δe = 19.55 degree.
Steady climbing flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for this aircraft in a steady climb with a climb
rate of 15 ft/s can be found by solving the following equation

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
W Vclimb + 3K CD0 − ηPmax = 0,
3 ρS ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function eqnFCCP whose value is equal to zero at
the solution.
eqnFCCP.m
function error=eqnFCCP(h,Vclimb)
W=2900;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
S=175;
m=0.6;
eta=0.8;
error=W*Vclimb+4/3*sqrt(2*Wˆ3/rhoh/S*sqrt(3*Kˆ3*CD0))-eta*Psmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
We use the Matlab function StdAtpUS defined in Chapter 2. The following Matlab command returns the
altitude such that the value of eqnFCCP is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCCP(h,16),10000)
where 10000 is an initial guess of hmax . After a few iterations, it gives the flight ceiling of 21, 675.37 ft.
We can provide a graphical representation of the steady climbing flight envelope using the previous
analysis. We can find the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed by the power constraint, and the stall
speed for various altitudes. We define a Matlab function SCFP that returns the maximum air speed, the
minimum air speed by the power constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude.
SCFP.m
function [Vmax VminPC Vstall]=SCFP(h,Vclimb);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.4;
4
x 10
2.5
Altitude (ft)
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.6: Flight envelope for steady climbing flight (Vclimb = 16 ft/s)
eta=0.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm
2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S]));
Vmax=tmp(2);
VminPC=tmp(1);
We generate the steady climbing flight envelope by calling SCFP function for various altitudes. Figure 13.6
is generated by the following Matlab commands.
h=linspace(0,21675,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=SCFP(h(k),16);
end
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 400]);
4
x 10
8
h (ft)
4
0
20
600
0 400
200
Vclimb (ft/s) −20 0
V (ft/s)
Figure 13.7: Flight envelope boundary surface for steady climbing flight
We also generate the steady climbing flight surface that defines the boundary of the steady climbing
flight envelope by calling SCFP function for various altitudes and climb rates. Figure 13.7 is generated by
the following Matlab commands. Figure 13.6 is a cross section of Figure 13.7.
Vclimb=linspace(-20,20,40);
for i=1:size(Vclimb,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCCP(h,Vclimb(i)),10000);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=SCFP(h(i,j),Vclimb(i));
end
end
surf(Vmax,Vclimb,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
hold on;
surf(Vmin,Vclimb,h,’LineStyle’,’none’);
ylabel(’V_climb (ft/s)’);
13.3 Steady descending flight
Now we assume that the rate of climb is −10 ft/s; the aircraft is in steady descending flight.
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.8: Power required for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
Power required: Suppose that the air speed V = 200 ft/s. The thrust required for this steady descending
flight condition is given by
1 2KW 2
2 ρV S
1 slug ft3
= −2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × −3
× × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 175 ft2
= 1.7731 × 104 lbf ft/s = 32.24 hp,
V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
Vclimb=-10;
P=W*Vclimb+1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S plot(V,P);
grid on;
Minimum required power: The air speed to achieve minimum required power in this steady descending
flight condition is
v s
u
u 2W K
V = t ,
ρS 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
= t
slug
= 125.34 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 ft3 × 175ft2 3 × 0.026
2W
At this point, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 1.2019 and CM = 0. Then, we
can determine the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) to give
α = 9.8488, δe = 8.9053 degree.
The minimum power for this steady descending flight condition is given by
s
4 2W 3
q
3 ρS
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= −2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026,
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2
= 2.4539 × 103 lbf ft/s = 4.46 hp.
s 550 lbf ft/s

m
ρs

P
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
2.4539 × 103 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.0230.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed is found by solving the following equation.
m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= ηPmax .
2 ρV S ρs
Multiplying the above equation by V , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial equation
m
2KW 2

1 4 s ρ
ρSCD0 V + W Vclimb − ηPmax V + = 0.
2 ρs ρS
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.9: Power required for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S])
of the aircraft in this descending flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed of
the aircraft in this descending flight condition.

2W
At this maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (6.14); CL = ρV 2 S
= 0.1891 and CM = 0.
to give α = 1.4089, δe = −0.0971 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed in this steady descent is given by (6.19). We have CLmax = 2.4.
Then,
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρSCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 88.70 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3× 175 ft2 × 2.4
4
x 10
6
Altitude (ft)
3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.10: Flight envelope for steady descending flight (Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
Steady descending flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for steady descent of 10 ft/s can be found by
solving the following equation

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
3 ρS ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We use the previously defined Matlab function eqnFCCP.
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCCP(h,-10),10000)
where 10000 is an initial guess of hmax . After a few iterations, the flight ceiling is 50, 337.89 ft.
We provide a graphical representation of the steady descending flight envelope using the previous analy-
sis. We can find the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed by the power constraint, and the stall speed
for various altitudes. We use the previously defined Matlab function SCFP that returns the maximum air
speed, and the minimum air speed by the thrust constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude. Then,
we can generate the steady descending flight envelope for the descent rate of 10 ft/s shown in Figure 13.10.
4
x 10
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
h (ft)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
V (ft/s)
Figure 13.11: Steady gliding flight (maximizing gliding range)
13.4 Steady gliding flight
Minimum glide path angle: The minimum glide path angle is given by (8.7).
p
γglidemin = 2 KCD0 ,
√
= 2 0.054 × 0.026 = 0.0749 rad = 4.29 degree.
The corresponding air speed is given by (8.6).

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS CD0
which is a function of the altitude. Figure 13.11 shows the variation of the air speeds in this gliding flight
condition as the altitude changes.
The following Matlab commands are used to generate Figure 13.11.

W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
h=linspace(20000,2000,100);
for k=1:size(h,2);
[T p rho(k)]=StdAtpUS(h(k));
V(k)=sqrt(2*W/rho(k)/S*sqrt(K/CD0));
end
plot(V,h);
162 13.4. STEADY GLIDING FLIGHT
ylim([2000 20000]);
Assuming that the glide path angle is small, we have L = W from (8.2). Then, the lift coefficient is
given by
2W
CL = ,
ρV 2 S
r r
CD0 0.026
= = = 0.6939.
K 0.054
and (6.12) to give α = 5.6157 degree, δe = 4.3901 degree.
Steady gliding flight: Suppose that the propeller aircraft is in steady gliding flight with a constant glide
path angle of 12 degree.
The air speed is obtained from (8.4). Multiplying (8.4) by V 2 , we obtain the 4-th degree polynomial
equation
ρSCD0 4 2KW
V − γglide V 2 + = 0.
2W ρS
The above equation has two real solutions V . Figure 13.12 shows the variation of the air speeds as the
altitude changes. We can check that the smaller value of V is less than the stall limit speed, so it is not a
feasible solution.

W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
gamma=12*pi/180;
h=linspace(20000,2000,100);
for k=1:size(h,2);
[T p rho]=StdAtpUS(h(k));
tmp=sort(roots([rho*S*CD0/2/W 0 -gamma 0 2*K*W/rho/S]));
V1(k)=tmp(3);
V2(k)=tmp(4);
end
4
x 10
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
h (ft)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500
V (ft/s)
figure;
plot(V1,h,’r:’,V2,h,’b-’);
ylim([2000 20000]);
Assuming that the glide path angle is small, we have L = W from (8.2). Substituting this equation into
(8.3),
D
γglide = ,
L
CD CD0 + KCL2
= = .
CL CL
Multiplying the above equation by CL , we obtain the 2nd degree polynomial equation
KCL2 − γglide CL + CD0 = 0,
which gives CL = 0.1284 or CL = 3.7501. The second solution is greater than the stall limit. So, we
choose CL = 0.1284. The air speed is given by

s
2W
V = .
ρCL S
and (6.12) to give α = 0.9033 degree, δe = −0.6365 degree.

13.5 Steady level turning flight by banking
We assume that the propeller aircraft is in steady level turning flight with bank angle φ = 25 degree at an
altitude of 10, 000 ft.
Power required: Suppose that V = 200 ft/s. The power required for this steady turning flight condition
is given by (10.13)
1 2KW 2
P = ρV 3 SCD0 + ,
2 ρV S cos2 φ
1 slug ft3
= × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × −3
× × × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 175 ft2 cos 25π
180
= 4.9945 × 104 lbf ft/s = 90.81 hp,
We calculate the required power for various air speeds. The power required curve, Figure 13.13, is generated
V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
phi=25*pi/180;
P=1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S/cos(phi)ˆ2
plot(V,P);
grid on;
Minimum required power: This minimum required power for this steady level turning flight condition
can be obtained using the methods of calculus: at the minimum the curve has zero slope, that is the derivative
of the power with respect to the air speed is zero. Differentiating (10.13), we obtain
dP 3 2KW 2
= ρV 2 SCD0 − = 0.
dV 2 ρV 2 S cos2 φ
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.13: Power required for steady level turning flight (φ = 25, degree)
Then, the air speed to achieve minimum required power is given by
v s
u
u 2W K
V =t , (13.1)
ρS cos φ 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
=t = 131.66 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug
ft3
2
× 175ft × cos 25φ
180
3 × 0.026
2W
The lift coefficient is given by (10.33); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
the aircraft angle of attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12) to give α = 9.8488, δe =
8.9053 degree.
Substituting (13.1) into (10.13), the minimum required power is given by
s
4 2W 3
q
Pmin = 3K 3 CD0 ,
3 ρS cos3 φ
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= 2900 lbf × 16 ft/s + 25π 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026,
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos3 180
= 3.6455 × 104 lbf ft/s = 66.28 hp.
s 550 lbf ft/s

4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.14: Power required for steady level turning flight (φ = 25 degree)
m
ρs

P
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
3.6455 × 104 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.3427.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed for a steady level turning at 25 degree bank angle is found
by solving the following equation

m
2KW 2

1 3 s ρ
ρV SCD0 + = ηPmax .
2 ρV S cos2 φ ρs
m
2KW 2

1 ρ
ρSCD0 V 4 − ηPmax
s
V + = 0.
2 ρs ρS cos2 φ
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 -eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
of the aircraft in this steady turning flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air speed
of the aircraft in this steady turning flight condition.

2W
At this maximum air speed, the lift coefficient is given by (10.33); CL = ρV 2 S cos φ
= 0.2540 and
and (6.12) to give α = 1.9499, δe = 0.4799 degree. The throttle σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for this steady level turning flight condition is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 93.17 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos 25φ
−3
180 × 2.4
Steady turning flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for a steady level turn with 25 degree bank angle
can be found by solving the following equation numerically

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
3
3K CD0 − ηPmax = 0,
3 ρS cos φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function eqnFCTP whose value is equal to zero at
the solution.
eqnFCTP.m
function error=eqnFCTP(h,phi)
W=2900;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
S=175;
m=0.6;
eta=0.8;
error=4/3*sqrt(2*Wˆ3/rhoh/S/cos(phi)ˆ3*sqrt(3*Kˆ3*CD0))-eta*Psmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCTP is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTP(h,25*pi/180),10000)
We provide a graphical representation of the steady level turning flight envelope using the previous
analysis. We can find the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, and
the stall speed for various altitudes. Here we define a Matlab function STFP that returns the maximum air
speed, the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude.
STFP.m
function [Vmax VminPC Vstall]=STFP(h,phi);
%Input: altitude h (ft), bank angle phi (rad)
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.4;
eta=0.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 -eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2]));

Vmax=tmp(2);
VminPC=tmp(1);
Then, we generate the steady level turning flight envelope by calling STFP function for various altitudes.

4
x 10
4
3.5
2.5
Altitude (ft)
2
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.15: Flight envelope for steady level turning flight (φ = 25 degree)
h=linspace(0,37398,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=STFP(h(k),25*pi/180);
end
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 400]);
We also generate the steady level turning flight surface that bounds the steady level turning flight en-
velope by calling STFP function for various altitudes and climb rates. Figure 13.16 is generated by the
following Matlab commands. Figure 13.15 is a cross section of Figure 13.16.
phi=linspace(0,65*pi/180,40);
for i=1:size(phi,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTP(h,phi(i)),10000);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=STFP(h(i,j),phi(i));
end
end
4
x 10
5
h (ft)
2
0
100
300
50 200
100
φ (deg) 0 0
V (ft/s)
Figure 13.16: Flight envelope surface for steady level turning flight
hold on;
13.6 Steady turning flight in climb
We assume that the propeller aircraft is in steady turning flight with bank angle of 10 degree and rate of
climb of 10 ft/s at an altitude of 10, 000 ft.

Power required: Suppose that V = 200 ft/s. The power required to achieve this turning and climbing
flight condition is given by (10.37)
1 2KW 2
2 ρV S cos2 φ
1 slug ft3
= 2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × × × × ,
1.7553 × 10−3 slug 500 ft 175 ft2 cos 10π
180
= 7.6190 × 104 lbf ft/s = 138.53 hp,
We calculate the required power for various air speeds. The power required curve, Figure 13.17, is

V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
phi=10*pi/180;
Vclimb=10;
P=W*Vclimb+1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S/cos(phi)ˆ2
plot(V,P);
grid on;
Minimum required power: The air speed to achieve minimum required power for this steady turning and
climbing flight condition is given by (13.1)

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS cos φ 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
= t
slug 25φ
= 131.66 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 −3
ft3
× 175ft × cos 180 3 × 0.026
2
2W
8.9053 degree.
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.17: Power required for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10, degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s)
Substituting (13.1) into (10.37), the minimum required power for this flight condition is given by
s
4 2W 3
q
3 ρS cos3 φ
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= 2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026,
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos3 25π 180
= 6.1185 × 104 lbf ft/s = 111.24 hp.
s 550 lbf ft/s

s m
P ρ
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
6.1185 × 104 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.5716.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed for this steady turning and climbing flight condition is
found by solving the following equation

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= ηPmax .
2 ρV S cos2 φ ρs
m
2KW 2

1 4 s ρ
2 ρs ρS cos2 φ
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.18: Power required for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s)
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
of the aircraft in this turning and climbing flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the minimum air
speed of the aircraft in this turning and climbing flight condition.

2W
= 0.2974 and
and (6.12) to give α = 2.3115, δe = 0.8656 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed in this steady turning and climbing flight condition is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 89.38 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos 10φ
180 × 2.4
We calculated that the minimum air speed due to the engine power constraint is 39.52 ft/s. The minimum
air speed of an aircraft must satisfy both the stall constraint and the maximum power constraint. In this case,
the stall speed is larger than the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, so the stall constraint is
active. Consequently, the minimum air speed is equal to the stall speed, 89.38 ft/s. At the minimum air
speed,the lift coefficient is given by CL = 2.4 and CM = 0. Then, we can determine the aircraft angle of
attack α and the elevator deflection δe from (6.11) and (6.12); α = 19.83 degree, δe = 19.55 degree.
Steady turning flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for this steady turning and climbing flight condi-
tion can be found by solving the following equation

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
3 ρS cos3 φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. We define a Matlab function eqnFCTCP whose value is equal to zero at
the solution.
eqnFCTCP.m
function error=eqnFCTCP(h,Vclimb,phi)
W=2900;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
S=175;
m=0.6;
eta=0.8;
error=4/3*sqrt(2*Wˆ3/rhoh/S/cos(phi)ˆ3*sqrt(3*Kˆ3*CD0))-eta*Psmax*(rhoh/rhos)ˆm;
the altitude such that the value of eqnFCTCP is equal to zero.
hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTCP(h,10,10*pi/180),10000)
where 10000 is an initial guess of hmax . After a few iterations, flight ceiling is 28, 549.58 ft.
We can provide a graphical representation of the steady level flight envelope. We can find the maximum
air speed, the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, and the stall speed for various altitudes. Here
we define a Matlab function STFCP that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the
power constraint, and the stall speed, for a specified altitude.
STFCP.m
4
x 10
3
2.5
Altitude (ft)
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.19: Flight envelope for steady turning and climbing flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = 10 ft/s)
function [Vmax VminPC Vstall]=STFCP(h,Vclimb,phi);

%Input: altitude h (ft), rate of climb Vclimb (ft/s), bank angle phi (rad)
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
Psmax=290*550;
m=0.6;
CLmax=2.4;
eta=0.8;
tmp=sort(roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2]));

Vmax=tmp(2);
VminPC=tmp(1);
We the generate steady turning and climbing flight envelope by calling the STFCP function for various
altitudes. Figure 13.19 is generated by the following Matlab commands.
h=linspace(0,28549,500);
for k=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(k) VminTC(k) Vstall(k)]=STFCP(h(k),10,10*pi/180);
end
4 4
x 10 x 10
3 8
6
2
h (ft)
h (ft)
4
1
2
0 0
100 50
300 600
50 200 0 400
100 200
0 0 Vclimb (ft/s) −50 0
φ (deg) V (ft/s) V (ft/s)
(a) Vclimb = 10 ft/s (b) φ = 10 degree
Figure 13.20: Flight envelope surface for steady turning and climbing flight
hold on;
grid on;
xlim([0 300]);
We can also generate the steady turning and climbing flight surface that bounds the steady turning and
climbing flight envelope by calling STFCP function for various altitudes and climb rates. Figure 13.20 is
generated by the following Matlab commands. Figure 13.19 is a cross section of Figure 13.20.
Vclimb=10;
phi=linspace(0,65*pi/180,40);
for i=1:size(phi,2)
hmax(i)=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTCP(h,Vclimb,phi(i)),10000);
for j=1:size(h,2)
[Vmax(i,j) VminTC(i,j) Vstall(i,j)]=STFCP(h(i,j),Vclimb,phi(i));
end
end
hold on;
13.7 Steady turning flight in descent
We assume that the propeller aircraft is in steady turning flight with bank angle of 10 degree and rate of
climb of −10 ft/s at an altitude of 10, 000 ft.
Power required: Suppose that V = 200 ft/s. The power required for this steady turning and descending
flight condition is given by (10.37)
1 2KW 2
2 ρV S cos2 φ
1 slug ft3
= −2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + × 1.7553 × 10−3 3 × 2003 3 × 175ft2 × 0.026
2 ft s
1 ft3 1 s 1 1 1
+ 2 × 0.054 × 2, 9002 lbf 2 × −3
× × × ,
1.7553 × 10 slug 500 ft 175 ft 2 cos 10π
180
= 1.8190 × 104 lbf ft/s = 33.07 hp,
V=linspace(20,350,500);
W=2900;
S=175;
CD0=0.026;
K=0.054;
rho=1.7553e-3;
phi=10*pi/180;
Vclimb=-10;
P=W*Vclimb+1/2*rho*V.ˆ3*S*CD0+2*K*Wˆ2/rho./V/S/cos(phi)ˆ2
plot(V,P);
grid on;
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.21: Power required for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10, degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
Minimum required power: The air speed to achieve minimum required power for this steady turning and
descending flight condition is given by (13.1)

v s
u
u 2W K
V =t ,
ρS cos φ 3CD0
v
u r
u 2 × 2900 lbf 0.054
= t
slug 25φ
= 131.66 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10−3 ft3 × 175ft × cos 180 3 × 0.026
2
2W
8.9053 degree.
Substituting (13.1) into (10.37), the minimum power required for this flight condition is given by
s
4 2W 3
q
3 ρS cos3 φ
s
4 2 × 29003 lbf 3 p
= −2900 lbf × 10 ft/s + 25π 3 × 0.0543 × 0.026,
3 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos3 180
= 3.1846 × 103 lbf ft/s = 5.79 hp.
s
The corresponding throttle setting can be found by (6.26). We have Pmax = 290 hp = 290 hp ×
550 lbf ft/s
1 hp = 159500 lbf ft/s, m = 0.6, η = 0.8, ρs = 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3 , and ρ = 1.7553 ×
4
x 10
15

10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.22: Power required for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
10−3 slug/ft3 . Then

m
ρs

P
σ= s
,
ηPmax ρ
0.6
3.1846 × 103 lbf ft/s 2.3769 × 10−3 slug/ft3

= = 0.0299.
0.8 × 159500 lbf ft/s 1.7553 × 10−3 slug/ft3
Maximum air speed: The maximum air speed for this steady turning and descending flight condition is
found by solving the following equation

m
2KW 2

1 ρ
= ηPmax .
2 ρV S cos2 φ ρs
Multiplying by V , we obtain the following 4th degree polynomial equation

m
2KW 2

1 4 s ρ
2 ρs ρS cos2 φ
roots([1/2*rho*S*CD0 0 0 W*Vclimb-eta*Psmax*(rho/rhos)ˆm 2*K*Wˆ2/rho/S/cos(phi)ˆ2])
of the aircraft in this steady turning and descending flight condition; the low speed solution denotes the
minimum air speed of the aircraft in this steady turning and descending flight condition.
2W
= 0.1923 and
and (6.12) to give α = 1.4358, δe = −0.0685 degree. The throttle setting σ is equal to 1.
Minimum air speed: The stall speed for this steady turning and descending flight condition is given by
s
2W
Vstall = ,
ρS cos φCLmax
s
2 × 12500 lbf
= = 89.38 ft/s.
1.7553 × 10 slug/ft3 × 175 ft2 × cos 10φ
−3
180 × 2.4
Steady turning and descending flight envelope: The flight ceiling hmax for this steady turning and de-
scending flight condition can be found by solving the following equation.

s m
4 2W 3 ρ
q
3 s
3 ρS cos3 φ ρs
where ρ is a function of altitude h. Here we use the previously defined Matlab function eqnFCTCP whose
value is equal to zero at the solution.

hmax=fsolve(@(h) eqnFCTCP(h,-10,10*pi/180),10000)
We provide a graphical representation of the steady turning and descending flight envelope. We can find
the maximum air speed, the minimum air speed due to the power constraint, and the stall speed for various
altitudes. Here we use the Matlab function STFCP that returns the maximum air speed, the minimum air
speed due to the power constraint, and the stall speed for a specified altitude. Then we can generate steady
turning and descending flight envelope, as shown in Figure 13.23.

4
x 10
5
4
Altitude (ft)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Velocity (ft/s)
Figure 13.23: Flight envelope for steady turning and descending flight (φ = 10 degree, Vclimb = −10 ft/s)
Appendix A
Standard Atmosphere
U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976: The work of the U.S. Committee on Extension to the Standard At-
mosphere (COESA), established in 1953, led to the 1958, 1962, 1966, and 1976 versions of the U.S.
Standard Atmosphere.1 These models were published in book form jointly by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and
the U.S. Air Force. Altogether 30 U.S. organizations representing government, industry, research institu-
tions, and universities participated in the COESA effort. Based on rocket and satellite data and perfect gas
theory, the atmospheric densities and temperatures are represented from sea level to 1000 km. Below 32
km the U.S. Standard Atmosphere is identical with the Standard Atmosphere of the International Civil Avi-
ation Organization (ICAO). The U.S. Standard Atmospheres 1958, 1962, and 1976 consist of single profiles
representing the idealized, steady-state atmosphere for moderate solar activity. Parameters listed include
temperature, pressure, density, acceleration caused by gravity, pressure scale height, number density, mean
particle speed, mean collision frequency, mean free path, mean molecular weight, sound speed, dynamic
viscosity, kinematic viscosity, thermal conductivity, and geopotential altitude. The altitude resolution varies
from 0.05 km at low altitudes to 5 km at high altitudes. All tables are given in English (foot) as well as
metric (meter) units. The U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements, 1966 includes tables of temperature,
pressure, density, sound speed, viscosity, and thermal conductivity for five northern latitudes (15, 30, 45, 60,
1
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/space/model/atmos/us standard.html
182
APPENDIX A. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 183
75), for summer and winter conditions.
Availability: In hard copy from the National Technical Information Office (http://www.ntis.
gov/), Springfield, Virginia (Product Number: ADA-035-6000). The Fortran code can be obtained from
Public Domain Aeronautical Software (http://www.pdas.com/atmos.htm). A DOS executable
and turbo pascal source code is available from Small World Communications (http://www.sworld.
com.au/steven/space/atmosphere/).
Note: In the following tables, the altitude h is a geopotential altitude, which is a fictitious altitude related
RE
to the geometric altitude hg by h = RE +hg hg , where RE is the mean radius of the Earth.
184
Altitude Temperature Pressure Density Speed of Sound

h (km) T (K) P (N/m2 ) ρ (kg/m3 ) a (m/s)
-1.0 294.65 1.1393E+005 1.3470E+000 344.11
-0.8 293.35 1.1131E+005 1.3219E+000 343.35
-0.6 292.05 1.0874E+005 1.2971E+000 342.59
-0.4 290.75 1.0622E+005 1.2727E+000 341.83
-0.2 289.45 1.0375E+005 1.2487E+000 341.06
0.0 288.15 1.0133E+005 1.2250E+000 340.29
0.2 286.85 9.8945E+004 1.2017E+000 339.53
0.4 285.55 9.6611E+004 1.1786E+000 338.76
0.6 284.25 9.4322E+004 1.1560E+000 337.98
0.8 282.95 9.2076E+004 1.1336E+000 337.21
1.0 281.65 8.9875E+004 1.1116E+000 336.43
1.2 280.35 8.7716E+004 1.0900E+000 335.66
1.4 279.05 8.5599E+004 1.0686E+000 334.88
1.6 277.75 8.3524E+004 1.0476E+000 334.10
1.8 276.45 8.1489E+004 1.0269E+000 333.31
2.0 275.15 7.9495E+004 1.0065E+000 332.53
2.2 273.85 7.7541E+004 9.8641E-001 331.74
2.4 272.55 7.5626E+004 9.6663E-001 330.95
2.6 271.25 7.3749E+004 9.4716E-001 330.16
2.8 269.95 7.1910E+004 9.2799E-001 329.37
3.0 268.65 7.0109E+004 9.0912E-001 328.58
3.2 267.35 6.8344E+004 8.9055E-001 327.78
3.4 266.05 6.6615E+004 8.7226E-001 326.98
3.6 264.75 6.4922E+004 8.5427E-001 326.18
3.8 263.45 6.3264E+004 8.3656E-001 325.38
4.0 262.15 6.1640E+004 8.1913E-001 324.58
4.2 260.85 6.0051E+004 8.0198E-001 323.77
4.4 259.55 5.8494E+004 7.8511E-001 322.97
4.6 258.25 5.6971E+004 7.6851E-001 322.16
4.8 256.95 5.5479E+004 7.5218E-001 321.34
5.0 255.65 5.4020E+004 7.3612E-001 320.53
5.2 254.35 5.2592E+004 7.2032E-001 319.71
5.4 253.05 5.1194E+004 7.0478E-001 318.90
5.6 251.75 4.9827E+004 6.8950E-001 318.08
5.8 250.45 4.8489E+004 6.7447E-001 317.25
6.0 249.15 4.7181E+004 6.5970E-001 316.43
6.2 247.85 4.5901E+004 6.4517E-001 315.60
6.4 246.55 4.4650E+004 6.3089E-001 314.77
6.6 245.25 4.3426E+004 6.1686E-001 313.94
6.8 243.95 4.2230E+004 6.0306E-001 313.11
7.0 242.65 4.1061E+004 5.8950E-001 312.27
Table A.1: Standard Atmosphere (SI units)


7.2 241.35 3.9918E+004 5.7618E-001 311.44
7.4 240.05 3.8800E+004 5.6308E-001 310.60
7.6 238.75 3.7709E+004 5.5022E-001 309.75
7.8 237.45 3.6642E+004 5.3758E-001 308.91
8.0 236.15 3.5600E+004 5.2517E-001 308.06
8.2 234.85 3.4582E+004 5.1297E-001 307.21
8.4 233.55 3.3587E+004 5.0100E-001 306.36
8.6 232.25 3.2616E+004 4.8924E-001 305.51
8.8 230.95 3.1668E+004 4.7769E-001 304.65
9.0 229.65 3.0742E+004 4.6635E-001 303.79
9.2 228.35 2.9839E+004 4.5522E-001 302.93
9.4 227.05 2.8957E+004 4.4429E-001 302.07
9.6 225.75 2.8096E+004 4.3356E-001 301.20
9.8 224.45 2.7256E+004 4.2304E-001 300.33
10.0 223.15 2.6436E+004 4.1271E-001 299.46
10.2 221.85 2.5637E+004 4.0257E-001 298.59
10.4 220.55 2.4857E+004 3.9263E-001 297.71
10.6 219.25 2.4097E+004 3.8287E-001 296.83
10.8 217.95 2.3355E+004 3.7330E-001 295.95
11.0 216.65 2.2632E+004 3.6392E-001 295.07
11.2 216.65 2.1929E+004 3.5262E-001 295.07
11.4 216.65 2.1249E+004 3.4167E-001 295.07
11.6 216.65 2.0589E+004 3.3107E-001 295.07
11.8 216.65 1.9950E+004 3.2079E-001 295.07
12.0 216.65 1.9330E+004 3.1083E-001 295.07
12.2 216.65 1.8730E+004 3.0118E-001 295.07
12.4 216.65 1.8149E+004 2.9183E-001 295.07
12.6 216.65 1.7585E+004 2.8277E-001 295.07
12.8 216.65 1.7039E+004 2.7399E-001 295.07
13.0 216.65 1.6510E+004 2.6548E-001 295.07
13.2 216.65 1.5998E+004 2.5724E-001 295.07
13.4 216.65 1.5501E+004 2.4925E-001 295.07
13.6 216.65 1.5020E+004 2.4152E-001 295.07
13.8 216.65 1.4554E+004 2.3402E-001 295.07
14.0 216.65 1.4102E+004 2.2675E-001 295.07
14.2 216.65 1.3664E+004 2.1971E-001 295.07
14.4 216.65 1.3240E+004 2.1289E-001 295.07
14.6 216.65 1.2829E+004 2.0628E-001 295.07
14.8 216.65 1.2430E+004 1.9988E-001 295.07
15.0 216.65 1.2045E+004 1.9367E-001 295.07
15.2 216.65 1.1671E+004 1.8766E-001 295.07

186

15.4 216.65 1.1308E+004 1.8183E-001 295.07
15.6 216.65 1.0957E+004 1.7619E-001 295.07
15.8 216.65 1.0617E+004 1.7072E-001 295.07
16.0 216.65 1.0287E+004 1.6542E-001 295.07
16.2 216.65 9.9681E+003 1.6028E-001 295.07
16.4 216.65 9.6586E+003 1.5531E-001 295.07
16.6 216.65 9.3588E+003 1.5049E-001 295.07
16.8 216.65 9.0682E+003 1.4581E-001 295.07
17.0 216.65 8.7867E+003 1.4129E-001 295.07
17.2 216.65 8.5139E+003 1.3690E-001 295.07
17.4 216.65 8.2496E+003 1.3265E-001 295.07
17.6 216.65 7.9935E+003 1.2853E-001 295.07
17.8 216.65 7.7453E+003 1.2454E-001 295.07
18.0 216.65 7.5048E+003 1.2068E-001 295.07
18.2 216.65 7.2719E+003 1.1693E-001 295.07
18.4 216.65 7.0461E+003 1.1330E-001 295.07
18.6 216.65 6.8273E+003 1.0978E-001 295.07
18.8 216.65 6.6154E+003 1.0637E-001 295.07
19.0 216.65 6.4100E+003 1.0307E-001 295.07
19.2 216.65 6.2110E+003 9.9871E-002 295.07
19.4 216.65 6.0182E+003 9.6771E-002 295.07
19.6 216.65 5.8313E+003 9.3767E-002 295.07
19.8 216.65 5.6503E+003 9.0856E-002 295.07
20.0 216.65 5.4749E+003 8.8035E-002 295.07
20.2 216.85 5.3050E+003 8.5224E-002 295.21
20.4 217.05 5.1405E+003 8.2506E-002 295.34
20.6 217.25 4.9813E+003 7.9877E-002 295.48
20.8 217.45 4.8271E+003 7.7334E-002 295.61
21.0 217.65 4.6779E+003 7.4874E-002 295.75
21.2 217.85 4.5334E+003 7.2494E-002 295.89
21.4 218.05 4.3935E+003 7.0192E-002 296.02
21.6 218.25 4.2580E+003 6.7966E-002 296.16
21.8 218.45 4.1268E+003 6.5811E-002 296.29
22.0 218.65 3.9998E+003 6.3727E-002 296.43
22.2 218.85 3.8768E+003 6.1711E-002 296.56
22.4 219.05 3.7577E+003 5.9760E-002 296.70
22.6 219.25 3.6423E+003 5.7873E-002 296.83
22.8 219.45 3.5306E+003 5.6047E-002 296.97
23.0 219.65 3.4224E+003 5.4280E-002 297.11
23.2 219.85 3.3177E+003 5.2571E-002 297.24
23.4 220.05 3.2162E+003 5.0916E-002 297.38


23.6 220.25 3.1179E+003 4.9316E-002 297.51
23.8 220.45 3.0227E+003 4.7766E-002 297.65
24.0 220.65 2.9305E+003 4.6267E-002 297.78
24.2 220.85 2.8412E+003 4.4817E-002 297.92
24.4 221.05 2.7547E+003 4.3413E-002 298.05
24.6 221.25 2.6709E+003 4.2054E-002 298.19
24.8 221.45 2.5897E+003 4.0739E-002 298.32
25.0 221.65 2.5110E+003 3.9466E-002 298.46
25.2 221.85 2.4348E+003 3.8234E-002 298.59
25.4 222.05 2.3610E+003 3.7041E-002 298.72
25.6 222.25 2.2895E+003 3.5887E-002 298.86
25.8 222.45 2.2202E+003 3.4770E-002 298.99
26.0 222.65 2.1531E+003 3.3688E-002 299.13
26.2 222.85 2.0881E+003 3.2641E-002 299.26
26.4 223.05 2.0250E+003 3.1628E-002 299.40
26.6 223.25 1.9640E+003 3.0646E-002 299.53
26.8 223.45 1.9048E+003 2.9697E-002 299.66
27.0 223.65 1.8475E+003 2.8777E-002 299.80
27.2 223.85 1.7919E+003 2.7886E-002 299.93
27.4 224.05 1.7380E+003 2.7024E-002 300.07
27.6 224.25 1.6859E+003 2.6190E-002 300.20
27.8 224.45 1.6353E+003 2.5381E-002 300.33
28.0 224.65 1.5863E+003 2.4599E-002 300.47
28.2 224.85 1.5388E+003 2.3841E-002 300.60
28.4 225.05 1.4928E+003 2.3107E-002 300.74
28.6 225.25 1.4481E+003 2.2397E-002 300.87
28.8 225.45 1.4049E+003 2.1708E-002 301.00
29.0 225.65 1.3630E+003 2.1042E-002 301.14
29.2 225.85 1.3223E+003 2.0397E-002 301.27
29.4 226.05 1.2829E+003 1.9772E-002 301.40
29.6 226.25 1.2448E+003 1.9166E-002 301.54
29.8 226.45 1.2077E+003 1.8580E-002 301.67
30.0 226.65 1.1719E+003 1.8012E-002 301.80
30.2 226.85 1.1371E+003 1.7462E-002 301.94
30.4 227.05 1.1034E+003 1.6929E-002 302.07
30.6 227.25 1.0707E+003 1.6413E-002 302.20
30.8 227.45 1.0390E+003 1.5913E-002 302.33
31.0 227.65 1.0082E+003 1.5429E-002 302.47
31.2 227.85 9.7843E+002 1.4960E-002 302.60
31.4 228.05 9.4954E+002 1.4505E-002 302.73
31.6 228.25 9.2153E+002 1.4065E-002 302.87

188

h (ft) T (R) P (lbf/ft2 ) ρ (slug/ft3 ) a (ft/s)
-2000 525.80 2.2737E+003 2.5191E-003 1124.10
-1000 522.24 2.1938E+003 2.4472E-003 1120.28
0 518.67 2.1162E+003 2.3769E-003 1116.45
1000 515.10 2.0409E+003 2.3081E-003 1112.61
2000 511.54 1.9677E+003 2.2409E-003 1108.75
3000 507.97 1.8966E+003 2.1751E-003 1104.88
4000 504.41 1.8277E+003 2.1109E-003 1100.99
5000 500.84 1.7608E+003 2.0481E-003 1097.09
6000 497.27 1.6959E+003 1.9867E-003 1093.18
7000 493.71 1.6329E+003 1.9268E-003 1089.25
8000 490.14 1.5719E+003 1.8683E-003 1085.31
9000 486.57 1.5127E+003 1.8111E-003 1081.36
10000 483.01 1.4553E+003 1.7553E-003 1077.39
11000 479.44 1.3997E+003 1.7008E-003 1073.40
12000 475.88 1.3459E+003 1.6476E-003 1069.40
13000 472.31 1.2937E+003 1.5957E-003 1065.39
14000 468.74 1.2432E+003 1.5450E-003 1061.36
15000 465.18 1.1943E+003 1.4956E-003 1057.31
16000 461.61 1.1469E+003 1.4474E-003 1053.25
17000 458.05 1.1011E+003 1.4004E-003 1049.18
18000 454.48 1.0568E+003 1.3546E-003 1045.08
19000 450.91 1.0139E+003 1.3100E-003 1040.97
20000 447.35 9.7249E+002 1.2664E-003 1036.85
21000 443.78 9.3243E+002 1.2240E-003 1032.71
22000 440.21 8.9372E+002 1.1827E-003 1028.55
23000 436.65 8.5632E+002 1.1425E-003 1024.38
24000 433.08 8.2019E+002 1.1033E-003 1020.19
25000 429.52 7.8531E+002 1.0651E-003 1015.98
26000 425.95 7.5164E+002 1.0280E-003 1011.75
27000 422.38 7.1915E+002 9.9187E-004 1007.51
28000 418.82 6.8781E+002 9.5671E-004 1003.24
29000 415.25 6.5758E+002 9.2252E-004 998.96
30000 411.69 6.2843E+002 8.8927E-004 994.66
31000 408.12 6.0035E+002 8.5695E-004 990.35
32000 404.55 5.7328E+002 8.2553E-004 986.01
33000 400.99 5.4721E+002 7.9500E-004 981.66
34000 397.42 5.2212E+002 7.6534E-004 977.28
35000 393.85 4.9796E+002 7.3654E-004 972.89
36000 390.29 4.7471E+002 7.0857E-004 968.47
37000 389.97 4.5244E+002 6.7587E-004 968.08
38000 389.97 4.3120E+002 6.4416E-004 968.08
Table A.2: Standard Atmosphere (US units)


39000 389.97 4.1097E+002 6.1393E-004 968.08
40000 389.97 3.9168E+002 5.8512E-004 968.08
41000 389.97 3.7330E+002 5.5766E-004 968.08
42000 389.97 3.5579E+002 5.3149E-004 968.08
43000 389.97 3.3909E+002 5.0655E-004 968.08
44000 389.97 3.2318E+002 4.8278E-004 968.08
45000 389.97 3.0801E+002 4.6013E-004 968.08
46000 389.97 2.9356E+002 4.3853E-004 968.08
47000 389.97 2.7978E+002 4.1795E-004 968.08
48000 389.97 2.6665E+002 3.9834E-004 968.08
49000 389.97 2.5414E+002 3.7965E-004 968.08
50000 389.97 2.4221E+002 3.6183E-004 968.08
51000 389.97 2.3085E+002 3.4485E-004 968.08
52000 389.97 2.2001E+002 3.2867E-004 968.08
53000 389.97 2.0969E+002 3.1325E-004 968.08
54000 389.97 1.9985E+002 2.9855E-004 968.08
55000 389.97 1.9047E+002 2.8454E-004 968.08
56000 389.97 1.8153E+002 2.7119E-004 968.08
57000 389.97 1.7301E+002 2.5846E-004 968.08
58000 389.97 1.6490E+002 2.4633E-004 968.08
59000 389.97 1.5716E+002 2.3477E-004 968.08
60000 389.97 1.4978E+002 2.2375E-004 968.08
61000 389.97 1.4275E+002 2.1325E-004 968.08
62000 389.97 1.3606E+002 2.0325E-004 968.08
63000 389.97 1.2967E+002 1.9371E-004 968.08
64000 389.97 1.2359E+002 1.8462E-004 968.08
65000 389.97 1.1779E+002 1.7596E-004 968.08
66000 390.18 1.1226E+002 1.6761E-004 968.34
67000 390.73 1.0700E+002 1.5953E-004 969.02
68000 391.28 1.0199E+002 1.5185E-004 969.70
69000 391.83 9.7222E+001 1.4455E-004 970.38
70000 392.37 9.2684E+001 1.3761E-004 971.06
71000 392.92 8.8364E+001 1.3101E-004 971.74
72000 393.47 8.4251E+001 1.2474E-004 972.41
73000 394.02 8.0334E+001 1.1877E-004 973.09
74000 394.57 7.6605E+001 1.1310E-004 973.77
75000 395.12 7.3053E+001 1.0771E-004 974.44
76000 395.67 6.9671E+001 1.0258E-004 975.12
77000 396.22 6.6450E+001 9.7702E-005 975.80
78000 396.76 6.3381E+001 9.3061E-005 976.47
79000 397.31 6.0459E+001 8.8648E-005 977.15

190

80000 397.86 5.7675E+001 8.4449E-005 977.82
81000 398.41 5.5022E+001 8.0455E-005 978.50
82000 398.96 5.2496E+001 7.6654E-005 979.17
83000 399.51 5.0088E+001 7.3038E-005 979.84
84000 400.06 4.7794E+001 6.9597E-005 980.51
85000 400.60 4.5608E+001 6.6323E-005 981.19
86000 401.15 4.3524E+001 6.3207E-005 981.86
87000 401.70 4.1539E+001 6.0241E-005 982.53
88000 402.25 3.9646E+001 5.7418E-005 983.20
89000 402.80 3.7843E+001 5.4731E-005 983.87
90000 403.35 3.6123E+001 5.2173E-005 984.54
91000 403.90 3.4484E+001 4.9738E-005 985.21
92000 404.44 3.2921E+001 4.7420E-005 985.88
93000 404.99 3.1432E+001 4.5212E-005 986.55
94000 405.54 3.0011E+001 4.3111E-005 987.22
95000 406.09 2.8656E+001 4.1109E-005 987.88
96000 406.64 2.7365E+001 3.9203E-005 988.55
97000 407.19 2.6133E+001 3.7388E-005 989.22
98000 407.74 2.4958E+001 3.5659E-005 989.88
99000 408.29 2.3837E+001 3.4012E-005 990.55
100000 408.83 2.2768E+001 3.2443E-005 991.21

References
[1] J. D. Anderson. Aircraft Performance and Design. McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[2] J. D. Anderson. Introduction to Flight. McGraw-Hill, 4th edition, 2000.
[3] M. Asselin. An Introduction to Aircraft Performance. AIAA Education Series, 1997.
[4] R. H. Barnard and D. R. Philpott. Aircraft Flight: A Description of the Physical Principles of Aircraft
Flight. Longman Scientific and Technical, 2nd edition, 1995.
[5] R. P. G. Collinson. Introduction to Avionics. Chapman and Hall, 1996.
[6] B. McCormick. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. Wiley, 2nd edition, 1994.
[7] J. Roskam and C. T. E. Lan. Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance. DARcorporation, 1997.
[8] N. X. Vinh. Flight Mechanics of High-Performance Aircraft. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
[9] P. P. Wegener. What Makes Airplanes Fly? History, Science, and Applications of Aerodynamics.
Springer-Verlag, 1991.
[10] T. R. Yechout and D. E. Bossert. Introduction to Aircraft Flight Mechanics: Performance, Static
Stability, Dynamic Stability, and Classical Feedback Control. AIAA Education Series, 2003.
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Steady Aircraft Flight and Aircraft Performance

Course Notes for AE 245

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1 Aircraft Components and Subsystems 1

1.1 Aircraft subsystems for conventional fixed-wing aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Aerodynamic control surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 Aircraft propulsion systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Air data and flight instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.5 Guidance, navigation and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6 Flight control computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.7 Communication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.9 Autonomous aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.10 Interconnection of flight subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics 10

2.1 Fundamental properties of air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Standard atmosphere model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.3 Aerodynamics fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.4 Wing theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Aircraft Kinematics and Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 27

3.2 Aerodynamic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.3 Aerodynamic moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.1 Steady thrust and power relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.3 Propeller driven by internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.4 Turboprop engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.5 Throttle as a pilot input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Equations of Motion for Steady Flight 42

5.1 Aircraft forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.2 Steady flight equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.3 Steady longitudinal flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Aircraft Cruise in Steady Level Flight 47

6.1 Force and moment equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.2 Steady level flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6.3 Solving for steady level flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.4 Thrust vs speed curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.5 Power vs speed curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6.6 Aircraft with jet engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6.7 Aircraft with propeller and internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.8 Optimal steady level flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6.9 Steady level flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7 Aircraft Steady Climbing Flight 62

7.1 Algebraic equations for steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.3 Steady climbing flight and pilot inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7.4 Optimal steady climbing flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7.5 Steady climbing flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

8 Aircraft Steady Gliding Flight 68

8.1 Steady gliding flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.2 Solving for steady gliding flight conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

8.3 Optimal glide path angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.4 Altitude effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.5 Steady gliding flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

9 Aircraft Range and Endurance 72

9.1 Fuel consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

9.2 Range of propeller aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9.3 Endurance of propeller aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.4 Range of jet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

9.5 Endurance of jet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10 Aircraft Steady Turns 81

10.1 Turns by side-slipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

10.2 Banked level turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

10.3 Banked turns in climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

10.4 Steady turning flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

11 Aircraft Maneuvers Between Steady Flight Conditions 94

11.2 Change in the elevator deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95