Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 143 (MEE Bruner’s Constructivist Theory In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes: + describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge. + explain how the spiral curriculum works. Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in.which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. za OEE elre iss Bruner’s ral Constructivist Theory Gara (Main Concepts) Theory of Instruction Representation of Knowledge Enactive Predisposition to Learn Structure of Knowledge - Effective Sequencing Symbolic ‘{ Reinforcement Lee “Leamers are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for themselves.” “Jerome Bruner144 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING Think of a topic that you studied when you were in your preschool or elementary years, and then you studied it again in high school, and probably you had that same topic again in college. What was the topic? s a ‘Try to recall how the topic was discussed/tackled in class (use of visual aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.). Describe what and how you leamed about the topic during preschool/ elementary. Describe what and how you learned about the topic during high school. < Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college. Jerome Bruner Born New York City, October 1, 1915. He received his AB, degree from Duke Unies in 1987 fd he PRD in 1947 ‘Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the pap different levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details in the Department given, etc.) of Psycology at award Unversty : : from 1952 = 1972 Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three Seow tom 1972 different levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted 1980, Later he form. Jone the New York Unversity of La : In 1960 Brner pb- ished The Process of Ecucaton. Ths vas andar book wih ed to much ‘experimentation and el In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a ine 18608 Hover} single topic can be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in high Samreccegee | school, and still again in college! Take for instance, in learning about woke ude Barer] Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, enced by Ns work, | Know that he is our national hero, born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba leteeaty 70s | Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there. In high school, we toteachat Umersty| May study his two novels in more detail. In college, we would go of Ones fr several) deeper into analyzing Rizal’s works and may look into the personal Henard in 1s78. | and social factors that influenced him in his life and work and write a term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is_a way of applying the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important concepts in development of representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist approach. (Constructivism will be discussed in Module 14).Bas 3 9s, eT a Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 145 Bruner’s Main Concepts Representation Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge. 1. Enactive representation — At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate Sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple). 2. Teonie representation — This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using models and pictures. The learner can [Warch these Bow use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. | videos at you: Iconic representation allows one to recognize objects when they |. are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains with and without 3, Sah Jerome Bruner representation — In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The’ most common symbol systems are language and mathematical notation. spoke at the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid May 27, Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, |2006. Pictorial then symbolic activities to facilitate leaming. Before children | pan can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first have | ntpimewyou the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically | tube.com watch? (in pictures). Children can later on handle number concepts without | Y=K3qDIpHcfUA conerete objects and only with numbers and number signs (symbolic). |, hntp ww . youtube.com/ Spiral curriculum walch?v= ZKIF Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting | ybO7NHQ cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners’ cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the leamer’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on students? developmental levels. This is why certain topics are initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited within the same semester or school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you in Module 2, and will again be tackled in Module 26. This time the 14 principles will be taken up as 2 means to integrate and summarize all your learning in this course/ subject. Many other concepts and principles discussed in this book are also taken up in your other, subjects like Child and Adolescent Development and Principles of Teaching to name a few. This is part of spiral leaming. It helps you get a clearer understanding, thus more effective learning.46 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING In the K to 12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section 5 (g), Curriculum Development of RA. 10533, states “The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each level.” As applied in Math, this would mean that the teachers teach Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts from Kinder to Grade 10. In the science class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts are taught from Grade 3 (where Science as a subject starts) to Grade 10 considering the developmental stages of students. In the spiral’ progression approach, the teaching of concepts increases in depth and breadth across the Grade levels. Statistics concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared to the Statistics concepts in Grade 10. Geometry concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler than those taught in Grade 10. This is in contrast to the “disciplinal approach of Math and Science teaching in the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). This means that in the 2002 BEC, Algebra is taught in the First and Second Year; Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and Probability, and Trigonometry in the Fourth Year. In the sciences, Integrated Science is taught in the First Year; Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in the Third Year and Physics in the Fourth Year. In the spiral progression approach, concepts’are revisited again and again as you go up the Grades. This supports mastery of concepts. Figure 2. Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner: 1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences-and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by. the student (spiral organization). 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). Discovery learning Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and arranges activities in-such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles.Module 13 ~ Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Classroom Example: Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their ming environment rather than listen passively to teachers. In elementary school — Teachers might use guided discovery to help children lear animal groups (e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles). Rather than provide students with the basic animals groups and examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide the names of types of animals. Then the students and teacher could classify the animals by examining their similarities and differences. Category labels.can be assigned once classifications are made. This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that classifications are Proper, but students are active contributors as they discover the Similarities and differences among animals. lear In high school - A chemistry teacher might use “mystery” liquids and have students discover the elements in each. The students could proceed through a series of experiments designed to determine if certain substances are present in a sample. By using the experimental process, students learn about the reactions of various substances to certain chemicals and also how to determine the contents of their mystery substance. (Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-ine. com/Bruner.htm) major aspect: 1. Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teacher’s and parents’ influence on this. He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child’s spontaneous explorations. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized’ the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there will be many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge. 1, Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and structured pattern. 2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.48 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING 3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student's experience. 3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery. 4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. He investigated motivation for leaning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter-is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking. Categorization Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making and making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify four thing about objects. The four things are given below: 1. Criterial attributes — required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category “car” it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of transportation, The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined. 3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category of “truck” or perhaps “van”.) The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in “car”. There are several kinds of categories: 1. Identity categories ~ categories include objects based on their attributes or features. 2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories). Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be combined in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria, for example by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, an apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical classification group (formal).Module 13 — Bruner's Constructivist Theorys 149 Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories, Related categories form a “coding: system.” These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories. The principles of Bruner launched ‘the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own models or view of the world. uw