NAME: MEHAK WAHAB

TEACHER: Dr. WAQAS AHMAD

PAPER: CHEMISTRY
CLASS: MICROBIOLOGY
SEMESTER: 2nd , MORNING
DATE: 14-07-2021

CENTRE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND

MICROBIOLOGY
QUESTION 1:
ENZYMES:
A large number of catalysts called enzymes, are found in living tissues.
Enzymes are proteins with high molecular weight and act as catalyst for
biochemical reactions occurring in all living matter.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSED REACTION:

An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical
reaction by which products are formed, and then allows the products to
dissociate (separate from the enzyme surface). The combination formed by an
enzyme and its substrates is called the enzyme–substrate complex.
When two substrates and one enzyme are involved, the complex is called a
ternary complex; one substrate and one enzyme are called a binary complex.
The substrates are attracted to the active site by electrostatic and hydrophobic
forces, which are called noncovalent bonds because they are physical attractions
and not chemical bonds.

EXAMPLE:
As an example, assume two substrates (S1 and S2) bind to the active site of
the enzyme during step 1 and react to form products (P1 and P2) during step 2.
The products dissociate from the enzyme surface in step 3, releasing the enzyme.
The enzyme, unchanged by the reaction, is able to react with additional substrate
molecules in this manner many times per second to form products. The step in
which the actual chemical transformation occurs is of great interest, and,
although much is known about it, it is not yet fully understood. In general there
are two types of enzymatic mechanisms, one in which a so-called covalent
intermediate forms and one in which none forms.

In the mechanism by which a covalent intermediate—i.e., an intermediate with a

chemical bond between substrate and enzyme—forms, one substrate, B―X, for
example, reacts with the group N on the enzyme surface to form an enzyme-
B intermediate compound. The intermediate compound then reacts with the
second substrate, Y, to form the products B―Y and X.
Many enzymes catalyze reactions by this type of mechanism.

ENZYME INHIBITOR:
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases
its activity. By binding to enzymes' active sites, inhibitors reduce the compatibility
of substrate and enzyme and this leads to the inhibition of Enzyme-Substrate
complexes' formation, preventing the catalysis of reactions and decreasing (at
times to zero) the amount of product produced by a reaction. It can be said that
as the concentration of enzyme inhibitors increases, the rate of enzyme activity
decreases, and thus, the amount of product produced is inversely proportional to
the concentration of inhibitor molecules.The binding of an inhibitor can stop a
substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and/or hinder the enzyme from
catalyzing its reaction.

TYPES OF INHIBITOR BINDING:

Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible.

IRREVERSIBLE INHIBITORS:
Irreversible inhibitors usually react with the enzyme and change it chemically (e.g.
via covalent bond formation). These inhibitors modify key amino acid residues
needed for enzymatic activity.

REVERSIBLE INHIBITORS:
In contrast, reversible inhibitors bind non-covalently and different types of
inhibition are produced depending on whether these inhibitors bind to the
enzyme, the enzyme-substrate complex, or both.
Enzyme inhibitors also occur naturally and are involved in the regulation of
metabolism.

QUESTION 2 PART (A):

OPTICAL PROPERTIES:
TYNDALL’S EFFECT:
Tyndall’s effect is defined as the phenomenon in which light is scattered by
the colloidal particles. The light is been absorbed by the particles present in the
solution. Once the light is been absorbed a part of the light gets scattered in all
the directions. The result of scattering exhibits this effect.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:
Electrical double layer theory:
In this theory, charge is imparted to the particles by placing ions which are
adsorbed preferentially at immovable points which for the first layer. The second
layer consists of diffused mobile ions. The charge present on both the layers is
equal. This two-layer arrangement leads to a development of potential called zeta
or Electrokinetic potential. As a result of this potential developed across the
particles, under the influence of electric field these particles move.

Electrophoresis:
It is a process in which an electric field is been applied to a colloidal solution
which is responsible for the movement of colloidal particles. Depending upon the
accumulation near the electrodes the charge of the particles can be predicted.
The charge of the particles is positive if the particles get collected near a negative
electrode and vice versa.

Electro-osmosis:
It is a process in which the dispersing medium of the colloidal solution is
brought under the influence of electric field and the particles are arrested.

QUESTION 2 PART(B):
TECHNIQUES FOR PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDS:
The following methods are commonly used for the purification of colloidal
solutions.
1) Dialysis:
• The process of separating the particles of colloid from those of crystalloid,
by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane is called dialysis.

• It’s principle is based upon the fact that colloidal particles can not pass
through a parchment or cellophane membrane while the ions of the
electrolyte can pass through it.

• The impurities slowly diffused out of the bag leaving behind pure colloidal
solution

• The distilled water is changed frequently to avoid accumulation of the

crystalloids otherwise they may start diffusing back into the bag.

• Dialysis can be used for removing from the ferric hydroxide sol.

2) Electrodialysis
• The ordinary process of dialysis is slow.

• To increase the process of purification, the dialysis is carried out by

applying electric field. This process is called electrodialysis.

• The important application of electrodialysis process in the artificial kidney

machine used for the purification of blood of the patients whose kidneys
have failed to work. The artificial kidney machine works on the principle of
dialysis.

3) Ultra – filtration
• Sol particles directly pass through ordinary filter paper because their pores
are larger (more than or ) than the size of sol particles (less than ).

• If the pores of the ordinary filter paper are made smaller by soaking the
filter paper in a solution of gelatin of colloidion and subsequently hardened
 by soaking in formaldehyde, the treated filter paper may retain colloidal
particles and allow the true solution particles to escape. Such filter paper is
known as ultra - filter and the process of separating colloids by using ultra
– filters is known as ultra – filtration.

4) Ultra – centrifugation
• The sol particles are prevented from setting out under the action of gravity
by kinetic impacts of the molecules of the medium.

• The setting force can be enhanced by using high speed centrifugal

machines having 15,000 or more revolutions per minute. Such machines
are known as ultra–centrifuges.

QUESTION 3 PART(A):
COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF RADIATIONS:

ALPHA RAYS:
Alpha rays are the positively charged particles. Alpha-particle is highly
active and energetic helium atom that contains two neutrons and protons. These
particles have the minimum penetration power and highest ionization power.
They can cause serious damage if get into the body due to their high ionization
power. They are capable of ionizing numerous atoms by a short distance. It is due
to the fact that the radioactive substances that release alpha particles are
required to be handled after wearing rubber gloves.

• MASS: 6.6466 x 10E-27 kg

• CHARGE: +2e
• IONIZATION POWER: very high
• PENETRATION POWER: alpha radiation is absorbed by the thickness of the
skin or by few centimeters of air.

BETA RAYS:
 Beta particles are extremely energetic electrons that are liberated from the
inner nucleus. They bear negligible mass and carry the negative charge. A neutron
in the nucleus splits into a proton and an electron on the emission of a beta
particle. Hence, it is the electron that is emitted by the nucleus at a rapid pace.
Beta particles have a higher penetration power when compared to alpha particles
and can travel through the skin with ease. Beta particles can be dangerous and
any contact with the body must be avoided, though their ionization power is low.

• MASS: 9.109 x 10E-31 kg

• CHARGE: -e
• IONIZATION POWER: intermediate
• PENETRATION POWER: beta radiation is more penetrating the alpha
radiation.

GAMMA RAYS:
The waves arising from the high-frequency end of the electromagnetic
spectrum that has no mass are known as gamma rays. They hold the highest
power of penetration. They are the most penetrating but least ionizing and very
difficult to resist them from entering the body. The Gamma rays carry a large
amount of energy and can also travel via thick concrete and thin lead.

• MASS: 0
• CHARGE: 0
• IONIZATION POWER: very low
• PENETRATION POWER: gamma radiation is the most penetrating of the
three radiations. It can easily penetrate body tissue.

QUESTION 3 PART(B):
QUESTION 3 PART(C):