Biological molecules

A biomolecule or biological molecule is a loosely used term for molecules present

in organisms that are essential to one or more typically biological processes, such
as cell division, morphogenesis, or development. Biomolecules include
large macromolecules (or polyanions) such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as
primary metabolites, secondary metabolites and natural products. A more general
name for this class of material is biological materials. Biomolecules are an
important element of living organisms, those biomolecules are
often endogenous, produced within the organism but organisms usually
need exogenous biomolecules, for example certain nutrients, to survive.

Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that

are produced by cells and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of
sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions. The four major types of
biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.

Carbohydrates

 carbohydrates, which are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms

of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are essential energy sources and structural
components of all life, and they are among the most abundant biomolecules on
Earth. They are built from four types of sugar units—
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

 Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and
vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy
to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have
other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.

Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O) n, where n is the number

of carbon atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules.

Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the

most common of which is glucose.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is an
important source of energy.Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and
water by the process of photosynthesis, and the glucose, in turn, is used for the
energy requirements of the plant. The excess synthesized glucose is often stored as
starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed on plants.

Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other
common monosaccharides
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a
dehydration reaction (a reaction in which the removal of a water molecule
occurs). Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. 

A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as

a polysaccharide (poly- = “many”).

Lipids

Another key biomolecule of living organisms, fulfill a variety of roles, including

serving as a source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers. They also
form membranes, which separate cells from their environments and
compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise to organelles, such as
the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex) organisms.

Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature.

Lipids are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are
nonpolar molecules. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store
energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide
insulation from the environment for plants and animals. For example, they help
keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature.
Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important
constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes,
phospholipids, and steroids.

 Proteins

Proteins are major structural elements of cells. They also serve as transporters,
moving nutrients and other molecules in and out of cells, and act
as enzymes and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical reactions that take place
in living organisms. Proteins also form antibodies and hormones, and they
influence gene activity. Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in
living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules.
Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective; they may serve in
transport, storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes. Each cell in a
living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique
function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however,
polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence.

The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different
chemically distinct amino acids that form long chains, and the amino acids can be
in any order. For example, proteins can function as enzymes or hormones

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the
genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.

The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all
living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.

The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The
DNA molecules never leave the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to
communicate with the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are also involved in
protein synthesis and its regulation.

DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The nucleotides
combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide
is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar,
and a phosphate group. Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar
molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts. The study of enzymes is called enzymology. They
speed up reactions although they are not changed in the reaction. Enzymes are
proteins, and therefore are folded chains of amino acids with a specific shape. This
shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids held together by bonds, for
example Hydrogen bonds. Enzymes speed up reactions by bringing reactants
together and reducing the activation energy required to start the reaction
(enzymatic reaction).
Enzymes are specific: they have a specific shape, therefore only a certain substrate
will fit its active site. There are two theories of enzyme action: Lock and Key and
Induced Fit.  The lock and key theory states that only a certain substrate will fit a
certain active site, just like a key fits a lock. Induced Fit, likewise, states that
enzymes wrap around substrates, attracted to each other by opposite charges,
forming an enzyme substrate complex. 

Examples of specific enzymes

 Lipases – a group of enzymes that help digest fats in the gut.
 Amylase – helps change starches into sugars. ...
 Maltase – also found in saliva; breaks the sugar maltose into glucose. ...
 Trypsin – found in the small intestine, breaks proteins down into amino acids.

Properties of enzymes:
1. Chemical nature:
 All enzymes are protein in nature except ribozyme. Ribozyme is an
RNA molecule
2. Active site:
 All enzymes molecules contain a special cleft or pocket in its structure
which is actively involved in catalysis. This cleft or pocket is known as
active site of enzyme.
 Active site binds with substrate and the functional group present in
active site modify the substrate during catalysis.
3. Specificity:
 Enzyme catalyzed reaction are highly specific i.e. A particular enzyme
catalyzes particular type of biochemical reaction.
 There are two types of enzyme specificity. One is absolute specificity
and other is group specificity.
 i) Absolute specificity: if enzyme acts on only one type of substrate, it
is called absolute specificity. For example, catalase enzyme acts on
H2O2 only. Similarly, Urease enzyme acts urea only.
 ii) Group specificity: some enzymes acts on group of closely related
substrates. This type of specificity is known as group specificity. For
example, enzyme Alcohol dehydrogenase bring dehydrogenation of
many alcohols such as methanol, ethanol etc
4. Catalytic efficiency:

 Enzyme catalyzed reaction are highly efficient.

 Efficiency of enzyme is expressed in turn over number. Turn over
number is defined as number of substrate molecule converted into
product by one enzyme molecule in one second.

5. Co-factor and co-enzyme:

 Some enzyme are composed of protein part only (eg. Pepsin) whereas
other enzymes are composed of both protein part and non-protein part.
 The complete enzyme molecule (with both protein part and non-protein
part) is known as holo-enzyme.
 The protein part is known as Apo-enzyme
 Non- protein part may be co-factor or co-enzyme
 Co-enzyme is organic molecules such as NAD+, NADP, FAD+ etc
present with Apo-enzyme.

6. Enzyme regulation:

Enzymes are regularly regulated in cell or body depending upon need.


 Enzyme synthesis can be activated or inhibited upon need in cell.
Mechanism of enzyme action
Enzymes are very specific and it was suggested by Fischer in 1890 that this was
because the enzyme had a particular shape into which the substrate or substrates fit
exactly.
This is often referred as Lock and Key hypothesis.

I. Lock and Key model:

 According to this model, shape of active site of enzyme is

complementary to the shape of substrate molecules. i.e. the substrate is
like a key whose shape is complementary to the enzyme which is
supposed to be lock and they fit perfectly.
 Enzymes catalyze only those substrates which fit perfectly on the
active site of that enzyme.
 Most enzymes are far larger than the substrates molecules that act on
and the active site is usually a very small portion of the enzyme,
between 3 and 12 amino acids. The remaining amino acids which make
the bulk of the enzyme, function to maintain the correct globular shape
of the enzyme.
 Once the product is formed, they no longer fit into the active site and
escape into surrounding medium.
 According to lock and key model, enzymes behave as rigid molecules.
However, most enzymes are globular and are flexible with varying
shape.