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Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes 1(ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. Recall the measurement units, significant figures, and identify vector and scalar
quantities
b. Recall and apply the principles of motion and kinematics
c. Recall and apply the concept of force and systems of forces
Metalanguage
In this section, the units of measurement, significant figures, vector, and scalar quantities relevant
to the study of physics will be reviewed to demonstrate ULOa. You need to understand the
following principles to demonstrate ULOa as a foundation knowledge in solving physics problems.
1. There are three fundamental physical quantities of mechanics – length, mass, and
time, which in the SI system have the units meter (m), kilogram (kg), and second
(s), respectively.
2. Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities. Dimensional analysis involves
the breaking down of units into simpler and basic quantities.
3. Measurements must consider significant figures. Notice that the rule for addition
and subtraction is different from that for multiplication and division. For addition
and subtraction, the important consideration is the number of decimal places, not
the number of significant figures.
4. Quantities may be classified as scalar or vector. Scalar describes the magnitude of a
physical phenomena without direction. Vector, on the other hand, is a quantity that
defines both the magnitude and direction.
5. Scalar always positive, vector can either be positive or negative.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to understand the basic rules of measurements and
quantities necessary that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Like all other
sciences, physics is based on experimental observations and quantitative measurements.
Measurements are associated with a physical quantity, hence, the units and significant
figures are relevant. On the other hand, physical quantities may be classified as scalar or
vector.
Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources.
Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources
that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.
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Keywords
Length SI unit Significant Figures Vector algebra
Mass Unit prefixes Scalar Unit vector
time English Unit Vector
Units of Measurement
Mass
In 1887, the SI standard unit for mass was established and called kilogram (kg). One
kilogram is defined as the mass of a specific platinum–iridium alloy cylinder kept at the
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International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. Table 1.2 shows some
approximate masses of various objects relevant to physics.
Table 1.2 Approximate Values of Some Measured Masses
Mass (kg)
Sun 1.99 x1030
Earth 5.98 x1024
Moon 7.36 x1022
Hydrogen atom 1.67 x10-27
Electron 9.11 x10-31
Time
The SI standard unit for time is second (sec) measured from the period of vibration of
radiation from the cesium-133 atom.
Other SI standard units are kelvin (K) (read as Kelvin and not degree Kelvin) for
temperature, ampere (A) for electric current, (Candela, cd) for luminous intensity, and
(mole) amount of substance.
SI Unit Prefixes
A unit prefix precedes a basic unit to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. It denotes
multipliers of the basic units based on various powers of ten. Table 1.3 is a list of the various
powers of ten and their abbreviations. These prefixes are helpful especially for values that are
too small or too big to quantify, for example, the mean radius of the Earth is 6,370,000 meters
that is equivalent to 6, 370 kilometers (km) or 6.37 x106 which is a much easier notation.
Basic knowledge on unit conversion includes unit analysis and significant figures which will
be discussed later part on this ULOa.
Table 1.3 Unit Prefix
Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation
10-24 yocto y 10 3 kilo k
10 -21 zepto z 10 6 mega M
10-18 atto a 10 9 giga G
10-15 fempto f 1012 tera T
10 -12 pico p 10 15 peta P
10-9 nano n 1018 exa E
10-6 micro 𝜇 1021 zetta Z
10 -3 milli m 10 24 yotta Y
10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d
The United States Customary System is another unit system similar to Imperial Units or what
is ambiguously called the English Units. An old British system of measuring units including
inch, foot, yard, mile, ounce, pound, gallon, and so. This system of units comes from a lot of
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history, mostly defined and redefined based on the reigning kings and queens of the British
Empire. Its standard units of measure are foot (ft), slug, and seconds (sec) for the length,
mass, and time, respectively. Table 1.4 lists the unit equivalence of some basic English and SI
units.
Table 1.4. English and SI Units
English Unit SI Unit Conversion
Mile Kilometer 1 mile = 1.609 km
Foot Meter 1 ft = 0.305 m
Inch Centimeter 1 in = 2.54 cm
Pound Grams 1 lb = 453.59 g
Ounce Grams 1 oz = 28.35 g
Gallon Liter 1 gal = 3.79 L
Celsius Kelvin 0 °𝐶 = 273 K
Unit Conversion
1 𝑖𝑛
(5 𝑐𝑚) ( ) = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔𝟖 𝒊𝒏
2.54 𝑐𝑚
Notice how the centimeters canceled out, which is your main objective.
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Example 2
Express the diameter of a hydrogen atom using prefixes.
From Table 1.1, the diameter of a hydrogen atom is ≈x10-10 meters, say 1.2x10 -10 m.
Step 1: Identify the nearest prefix to the given power of ten. Refer to Table 1.2
In this case, x10-10 is nearest to nano which is x10-9.
Step 2: Express x10-10 to nano by moving the decimal point up to 1 decimal place to the
left. (Note that shifting the decimal point to the left means increment to the power while
shifting to the right means decrement to the power, considering the sign.)
1.2 x10-10 m = 0.12 x10-9 m = 0.12 nanometer = 0.12 nm
Step 3: Express x10-10 to micro by moving the decimal point of step 2 up to 3 decimal
place to the left.
0.12 x10-9 m = 0.00012 x10-6 m = 0.00012 micrometer = 0.00012 𝜇𝑚
Step 4: Express x10-10 to mili by moving the decimal point of step 3 up to 3 decimal place
to the left.
0.00012 x10-6 m = 0.00000012 x10-3 m = 0.00000012 milimeter = 0.00000012 mm
Now you see that 1.2x10 -10 m = 0.12nm = 0.00012 𝝁𝒎 = 0.00000012 mm. Therefore, it
would be smarter to express too small or too large values using unit prefixes.
Example 3
A rectangular building lot has a width of 75.0 ft and a length of 125 ft. Determine the area
of this lot in square meters.
The area is solved by
𝑨 = 𝑳𝑾 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕 𝒙 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕 = 𝟗 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
Now 1 meter = 3.280 ft
1𝑚 2
(9375 𝑓𝑡 2 )( ) = 871.412 𝑚2
3.280 𝑓𝑡
Notice that the conversion factor is squared to obtain the square-meter area. (This is a
common mistake for students who forget the need to square the conversion factor.)
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Example 4
At Mc Arthur Highway, a car is traveling at a speed of 38 m/s. Is the driver over
speeding the limit of 75.0 mi/h?
Know that 1 mile = 1 609 meters. Take note that our desired unit is mile, therefore, make it
as the numerator.
𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖
(38 )( ) = 2.36𝑥10−2
𝑠 1609 𝑚 𝑠
𝑚𝑖 60 𝑠 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖
(2.36𝑥10−2 )( )( ) = 84.96
𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑳 𝑳
=
𝑻 𝑻
Therefore, 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 is dimensionally correct because we have the same dimensions on both
sides. If the expression were given as 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡2, it would be dimensionally incorrect. Solve
and see!
Example 6
One of the fundamental laws of motion states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the resultant force on it and inversely proportional to its mass. If the
proportionality constant is defined to have no dimensions, determine the dimensions of
force.
𝐹
Given that 𝑎 ∝ , we have 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎. Therefore the units of force are those of 𝑚𝑎. From
𝑚
𝐿
Example 1, acceleration is 𝑎 = which means
𝑇2
𝐿 𝒎
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = (𝑀) ( 2) = 𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝟐 = 𝟏 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑇 𝒔
Newton, 𝑁, is the SI standard unit of force.
Significant Figures
The significant figures of a number are digits that express something about the uncertainty.
For example, we measure the diameter of a disc using a meter stick. If the diameter is 12.0
cm and assuming that the accuracy of the number of measurements performed is ± 0.1𝑐𝑚,
we can claim that the diameter is somewhere between 11.9 cm to 12.1 cm.
In identifying the significant figures, remember the following:
• Nonzero digits are significant, for example, 1.3 and 1.3 x10-4 both have two
significant figures.
• Zeros may or may not be significant figures. Zeros that are used to position the
decimal point is not significant. Say, 0.003, 3.0, and 0.000133 have one, two and
three significant figures respectively.
• Zeros between two significant digits are significant.
• Trailing zeros or the zeros that come after other digits is rather confusing. For
example, an object has a mass of 1 300 g is considered to have two significant figures.
However, if we express 1 300 g into scientific notation such as 1.30 x103 g of 1.30 kg
then we have three significant figures. Consequently, 1.300 x103 g has four
significant figures.
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In physics, quantities may be either scalar or vector. A scalar is a quantity that describes a
physical phenomenon by magnitude only. Examples are mass, length, time, temperature,
distance, speed, and so on. Operations with scalars follow the same rules as in elementary
algebra.
On the other hand, a vector is a quantity having both the magnitude and direction. Examples
are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and so on. Analytically, a vector is
represented by a letter with an arrow over it, say There are fundamental rules in
vector algebra which are as follows:
1. Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and direction.
2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector A but having the same magnitude
is denoted by – A.
3. The sum or resultant of vectors A and B is a vector C formed by placing the initial
point of B on the terminal point of A and then joining the initial point of A to the
terminal point of B, shown in Fig. 1.
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Fig. 1
A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. Any vector can be represented by a unit
vector. An important set of unit vectors are those having the directions of the positive x, y,
and z axes of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, and are denoted
respectively by i, j, and k shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
Any vector A in a three-dimensional coordinate system, shown in Fig. 3, can be
represented by its component vectors. In this case, the component vectors of vector A are
A1i, A2j, and A3k in the x, y, and z directions respectively.
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Fig. 3
The sum or resultant of the vector components is vector A, written as
𝑨 = 𝑨𝟏𝒊 + 𝑨𝟐𝒋 + 𝑨𝟑𝒌
And the magnitude of vector A is
|𝑨| = √(𝑨𝟏)𝟐 + (𝑨𝟐)𝟐 + (𝑨𝟑)𝟐
It follows that for a two-dimensional coordinate system, the sum of resultant is written as,
𝑨 = 𝑨𝟏𝒊 + 𝑨𝟐𝒋
And the magnitude of vector A is
|𝑨| = √(𝑨𝟏)𝟐 + (𝑨𝟐)𝟐
(Note: other books write the component vectors as 𝑨𝒙, 𝑨𝒚 and 𝑨𝒛)
Example 1
A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 70 feet per second., at an angle of 35° with the
horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the velocity.
𝒇𝒕
Let the resultant vector A = 𝟕𝟎
𝒔𝒆𝒄
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To solve for the x and y components of vector A, we find that the relationship between the
components and the resultant forms a right triangle. Therefore the component vectors are,
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝟓 ° = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝒊
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟓 ° = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒋
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Example 2
Given 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟑𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 𝒌, 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝒊 − 𝟒𝒋 − 𝟑𝒌, 𝒓𝟑 = −𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟐𝒌, find the magnitudes of (a)
𝒓𝟑, (b) 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑, (c) 𝟐𝒓𝟏 − 𝟑𝒓𝟐 − 𝟓𝒓𝟑.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:
*Giancoli, D. C. (2016). Physics: Principles with Applications (14th ed.). Boston, USA:
Pearson.
*Katz, D. (2017). Physics for Scientist and Engineers: Foundations and Connections.
Australia: Cengage Learning.
*Young, H. D. (2016). Sears and Zemanky's University Physics with Modern Physics (14th
ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson
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Let’s Check
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Let’s Analyze
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1 1 2
a. 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑜 + √𝑚𝑔ℎ
b. 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡2
c. 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑣2
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In a Nutshell
Activity 1.
Physics is based on experimental observations and quantitative measurements. The
fundamental laws used in developing theories are expressed in the language of
mathematics, the tool that provides a bridge between theory and experiment.
Discrepancies and uncertainties must be defined to achieve satisfactory data. Discuss the
relevance of the significant figures.
Activity 2.
Physical phenomena can be described by physical quantities. Thoroughly discuss the
difference between scalar and vector quantities and enumerate examples.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Recall and apply the principles of motion and
kinematics
Metalanguage
This section focuses on motion in one and two dimensions without considering
external influences that may cause or affect the motion. Demonstrating ULOb means
understanding motion including the concepts of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
You will go through the following formulas as the fundamentals of rectilinear motion and
kinematics:
Displacement: ∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
Average velocity: ∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
𝒗
̅ 𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕 −𝒕
𝒇 𝒊
Particle at constant velocity: 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗 ∆𝒕
Average acceleration:
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕 − 𝒕
𝒇 𝒊
Particle at constant 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂 𝒕
acceleration: 𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇)(𝒕)
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊)(𝒕) + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊)
𝒇 𝒊
Essential Knowledge
Keywords
Distance speed acceleration trajectory
Displacement velocity Free-fall Component vectors
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Describing motion requires a coordinate system and a specified origin. The position is the
location of the particle from a chosen reference point that we can consider to be the origin
of a coordinate system.
Consider the movement of a car shown in Fig. 4. The reference point is x=0 and the car’s
initial position is at 30 m to the right of the origin. Let us define to the right of the origin as
the positive distance and negative distance to the left. For every ten seconds, the car moves
from one point to another. The car moves back and forth along a straight line from point A
to F.
Fig. 4
Table 1.5 shows a tabular representation of the recorded data of the car’s change of position
with respect to time. Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle. It is the total
amount of space that the particle covered during its motion. The data suggest that the car
has a total travel distance of 127 m. Since we only have the idea of the magnitude of motion
but not its direction, then distance is scalar and is always represented as a positive number.
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We hear the terms speed and velocity often interchangeable. However, in physics, the two
are defined distinctly.
The average speed denoted as 𝑣, of an object over a given time interval is the length of the
path it travels divided by the total elapsed time:
𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
By dimension analysis, distance is in meters and time in seconds, thus giving the SI standard
unit for speed as meters per second (m/s). Average speed is a scalar quantity that describes
how fast is the motion regardless of any variation in speed over the given time interval.
On the other hand, the average velocity denoted as 𝑣̅, during a time interval ∆𝑡 is the
displacement ∆𝑥 divided by ∆𝑡:
∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
𝒗
̅ 𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
The SI standard unity for velocity is also meters per second (m/s). Average velocity is a
vector quantity having both the magnitude and a direction, which can also be a positive or
negative value.
From the same example of Fig. 4, we compare the average speed and average velocity:
𝑑 127 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = 50 𝑠 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒔
𝑡
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 −53𝑚 − 30𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑎̅ 𝑣𝑒 = = 𝑡 = = −𝟏. 𝟕
∆𝑡 𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 50𝑠 − 0𝑠 𝒔
See the difference between speed and velocity?
To further illustrate the difference between speed and velocity. A man walks from point P
to Q, given two scenarios of the same starting position and final position over the same time
interval. First, he walks directly straight down the path. Second, he walks following the
curved path. The first and second walks have the same average velocity since 𝑥𝑓, 𝑥𝑖, and
time intervals are the same for both scenarios. However, the average speed of scenario 2 is
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greater than in scenario 1 because the length of the path traveled by the curved route is
larger than the straightforward route.
Fig. 5
Instantaneous Velocity
Consider the car in Fig. 4, the data in Table 1.5 shows the car’s position at a given time,
however, it doesn’t take into account the details of what happens during an interval of time.
The car may speed up or slow down between any given points along the path, the data
doesn’t show that.
Instantaneous velocity describes the speed and direction of a particle in motion at an instant
of time. It is the actual velocity at specific instants of time. Mathematically, instantaneous
velocity 𝑣 is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval ∆𝑡 becomes infinitesimally
small:
𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∆𝒙 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The SI standard unit for instantaneous velocity is meters per second (m/s). Graphically, the
instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent line to the position 𝑥 at a given time. Notice
that the definition is the same as the derivative of a function, and therefore, the
instantaneous velocity is the first derivative of the displacement with respect to time. The
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is called instantaneous speed.
Example 1:
A particle moves along the x-axis. Its position varies with time according to the expression
𝑥(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡2, where x is in meters, and t is in seconds.
a. Determine the displacement of the particle in the time intervals 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 1𝑠, and 𝑡 =
1 to 𝑡 = 3𝑠.
Since the given position is a function in terms of time, you need to substitute the given
time to the function to get its position at the said time.
𝑥(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡2
For t = 0 to t = 1s: For t = 1 to t = 3s:
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥(0) = 0 𝑚 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥(1) = −2 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥(1) = −2 𝑚 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥(3) = 6 𝑚
The displacement is,
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (−2) − 0 = −𝟐 𝒎 ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (6) − (−2) = +𝟖 𝒎
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𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚) + (5 ) (10 − 0 𝑠) = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎
(0
𝑠
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity over a given time. That happens when you
step harder on the gas pedal or slow down as you turn to another direction or step on the
brakes to slow down.
The average acceleration 𝑎 during the time interval ∆𝑡 is the change in velocity ∆𝑣 divided
by ∆𝑡.
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
If an object is moving at a constant velocity (𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖), then the acceleration is zero. By
dimension analysis to obtain the SI standard unit for acceleration, we have
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝒎
𝑎= =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝒔𝟐
Acceleration is a vector quantity, however, negative acceleration doesn’t necessarily mean
an object is slowing down. For the case of motion in a straight line, the direction of the
velocity of an object and the direction of its acceleration are related as follows: When the
object’s velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the speed of the object increases
with time. When the object’s velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, the speed
of the object decreases with time. Positive and negative accelerations specify directions
relative to chosen axes, not “speeding up” or “slowing down.” The terms speeding up or
slowing down refer to an increase and a decrease in speed, respectively.
Instantaneous Acceleration
𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∆𝒗
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
That is, in one-dimensional motion, the acceleration equals the second derivative of x with
respect to time.
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Example 3
The velocity of a particle moving along the x-axis varies according to the expression 𝑣 =
40 − 5𝑡2 m/s.
a. Find the average acceleration in the time interval t = 0 to t = 2.0 s.
Since the given velocity is a function in terms of time, you need to substitute the given
time to the function to get its velocity at the said time.
𝑣(𝑡) = 40 − 5𝑡2
For t = 0 to t = 2 s:
The average acceleration is,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 𝑣(0) = 40 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣 20 − 40
𝑖 𝑎= 𝑠 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑠 𝑖
= 𝑠
𝑚 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 2𝑠−0𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣(2) = 20
𝑠
b. Determine the acceleration at t = 2.0s.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = (40 − 5𝑡2) = −10𝑡2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝒎
at t = 2.0s 𝑎 = −(2.0)2 = −𝟐𝟎
𝒔
Because the velocity of the particle is positive and the acceleration is negative at this
instant, the particle is slowing down.
When the acceleration is constant, the average acceleration is over any time interval is
numerically equal to the instantaneous acceleration at any instant within the interval.
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒
∆𝑣
𝑎=
∆𝑡
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
Therefore, 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂 𝒕 (for constant acceleration)
This equation enables us to determine an object’s velocity at any time t if we know the
object’s initial velocity and its (constant) acceleration. Also, the average velocity at constant
acceleration can be described as
𝒗𝒊+𝒗𝒇
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐
(for constant acceleration)
Now we can derive an equation that describes the position as a function of velocity and time
for the particle under constant acceleration model by equating the two average velocity
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formulas. This formula helps solve the object’s position without knowing the magnitude of
its acceleration. (As long as acceleration is constant!)
∆𝑥
𝑣 = and 𝑣 =
𝑣𝑖+𝑣𝑓
𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∆𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒 2
∆𝑥 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓
=
∆𝑡 2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
1
= (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓)
𝑡−0 2
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇)(𝒕) (for constant acceleration)
𝟐
Another formula can be also derived to obtain an equation that describes the position as a
function of time for the particle under constant acceleration model. This equation provides
the final position of the particle at time t in terms of the initial position, the initial velocity,
and the constant acceleration.
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓)(𝑡)
2
Since 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + [𝑣𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡)](𝑡)
2
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 )(𝑡) + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
Finally, we can obtain an expression for the final velocity that does not contain time as a
variable. This equation provides the final velocity in terms of the initial velocity, the
constant acceleration, and the position of the particle.
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑡=
𝑎
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )(𝑡)
2
1 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )( )
2 𝑎
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 +
2𝑎
2 2
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 ) (for constant acceleration)
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Remember that these equations of kinematics cannot be used in a situation in which the
acceleration varies with time. They can be used only when the acceleration is constant. The
equations may be used to solve any constant acceleration problem but the choice of which
equation you use in a given situation depends on what you know beforehand. One formula
is better or easier than the other depending on the given.
If you notice, these three rectilinear equations are the key to the other formulas. (Tip:
Understand the derivation of the formulas so you don’t need to memorize them all.)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡
𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑡
Example 1
a. What is its acceleration (assumed constant) if it stops in 2.0 s due to an arresting cable
that snags the jet and brings it to a stop?
First, examine the given. You are given the jet’s initial speed that is 63 m/s, constant
acceleration, time of 2.0 s, and final speed that is 0 m/s (because it stopped). Out of
the given, your goal is to solve the magnitude of its acceleration. Therefore, you use
the formula that has speed, acceleration, and time:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
0 𝑠 − 63 𝑠
𝑎= = −𝟑𝟐 𝒎
2.0 𝑠 𝒔𝟐
b. If the jet touches down at position 𝑥𝑖 = 0, what is its final position?
Now you are given an initial position of 0 m and asked to solve its final position.
Using the same parameters as (a), you’re going to use a formula that describes the
jet’s position in terms of speed and time.
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓)(𝑡)
2
1 𝑚 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 0 𝑚 + (63 + 0 ) (2.0) = 𝟔𝟑 𝒎
2 𝑠 𝑠
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Example 2
A car traveling at a constant speed of 45.0 m/s passes a trooper on a motorcycle hidden
behind a billboard. One second after the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper sets
out from the billboard to catch the car, accelerating at a constant rate of 3.00 m/s 2. How
long does it take the trooper to overtake the car?
Fig. 6
If you notice trooper’s initial position is set as the reference point and since the car
started ahead of 1 s, the initial position for the car is 45.0 𝑚. You are then asked to
solve the final time at which the trooper overtakes the car. That is the time when
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑎𝑟) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟). With all the given values, identify the suited formula to use.
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑎𝑟) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟)
1 1
𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓)(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 )(𝑡) + 𝑎𝑡2
2 2
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𝑚
45.0 𝑚 + 1 (45.0 𝑚 + 45.0 𝑚) (𝑡) = 0 𝑚 + (0 𝑚 ( ) 1 )(𝑡)2
)1𝑠
2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + (3.00 2
𝑚 𝑚 2 2 𝑠
45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 ) 𝑡 = (1.50 ) 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠2
𝑚 2 𝑚
(1.50 ) 𝑡 − (45.0 ) 𝑡 − 45.0𝑚 = 0
𝑠2 𝑠
Solving the quadratic equation would give you,
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟗 𝒔 and 𝑡 = −0.96 𝑠 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑑)
Example 3
𝑚𝑖/ℎ𝑟
A typical jetliner lands at a speed of 1.60 x102 mi/h and decelerates at the rate of 10.0 .
𝑠
If the plane travels at a constant speed of 1.60 x102 mi/hr for 1.00 s after landing before
applying the brakes, what is the total displacement of the aircraft between touchdown on
the runway and coming to rest?
Notice the inconsistencies of the units, thus the need for unit conversion.
𝑚𝑖 1609 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = 1.60𝑥102 ( )( ) = 71.5
ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖 3600 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚𝑖⁄
𝑎 = −10.0 ℎ𝑟 (1609 𝑚) ( 1 ℎ𝑟 ) = −4.47 𝑚
𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖 3600 𝑠 𝑠2
`
Fig. 7
During coating, the jet is at constant velocity thus acceleration is zero for 1 s. At
braking distance, the jet decelerates to stop thus a negative acceleration and zero
final velocity. You have to realize that the final position at coasting is the initial
position at braking.
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑥𝑖(𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔)
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𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑖(𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 0 𝑚 + (71.5 ) (1.00 𝑠) + (0 2) (1.00 𝑠) = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟓 𝒎
𝑠 2 𝑠
Use the obtained value to solve the final position as it brakes to stop.
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑖
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚
(0 ) = (71.5 ) + 2(−4.47 ) (𝑥𝑓 − 71.5 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠2
Solving for the final position we get, 𝒙𝒇 = 𝟔𝟒𝟑 𝒎
You might already hear about an experiment of simultaneously dropping a coin and a
feather from the same height. Neglecting the effects of air resistance, both will hit the floor
at the same time. In the idealized case, in which air resistance is absent, such motion is
referred to as free-fall motion. This behavior of free-falling objects was introduced by
Galileo Galilei. A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of
gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion.
Example 1
A ball is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s straight
upward, at an initial height of 50.0 m above the ground. The ball just misses the edge of the
roof on its way down, as shown in Fig. 8 and determine the following:
a. the time needed for the ball to reach its maximum height.
b. the maximum height.
c. the time needed for the ball to return to the height from which it was thrown and the
velocity of the ball at that instant,
d. the time needed for the ball to reach the ground
e. the velocity and position of the ball at t = 5.00 s.
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𝑚 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔 𝑡 𝑚
𝒗𝒄 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟖𝑚⁄𝑠
e. at t = 5.00 s 𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔𝑡 = 20.0 + (−9.80 ) (5.00𝑠) = −𝟐𝟗. 𝟎
𝑠 𝑠2 𝒔
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Example 2
A rocket moves straight upward, starting from rest with an acceleration of +29.4 m/s2. It
runs out of fuel at the end of 4.00 s and continues to coast upward, reaching a maximum
height before falling back to Earth.
a. Find the rocket’s velocity and position at the end of 4.00 s.
The rocket starts with an acceleration of +29.4 m/s2 then the fuel runs out at t=4.00s.
𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 + (29.4 2) (4.00𝑠) = 𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝑠 𝑠 𝒔
1 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0𝑚 + (0 ) (4.00 𝑠) + (29.4 ) (4.00𝑠)2 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒎
𝑓 𝑖 𝑖
2 𝑠 2 𝑠2
b. Find the maximum height the rocket reaches.
At maximum height 𝑣𝑓 = 0.
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 + 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖)
𝑓 1
𝑚 2 𝑚
0 = (118 ) + 2(−9.80 )(𝑦𝑓 − 235 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠2
𝒚𝒇 = 𝟗𝟒𝟓 𝒎
c. Find the velocity the instant before the rocket crashes on the ground.
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 + 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖)
𝑓 1
𝑚
𝑣2 = 0 𝑚 + 2(−9.80 )(0 − 945 𝑚)
𝑓
𝑠2
𝒎
𝒗𝒇 = ±𝟏𝟑𝟔
𝒔
Taking the negative sign to indicate the direction of going down.
Motion in Two-Dimensions
This section includes the study of particles moving in both the x- and y- direction
simultaneously under constant acceleration. Generally, motion in two dimensions can be
modeled as two independent motions in each of the two perpendicular directions
associated with the x and y axes. That is, any influence in the y-direction does not affect the
motion in the x-direction and vice versa. The component vectors learned from ULOa is now
applied.
The position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be written as
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𝑟 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋
If the position vector is known, the velocity of the particle can be written as
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑣 = = 𝒊 + 𝒋 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒋
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 1
A particle moves in the XY plane, starting from the origin at t = 0s with an initial velocity
having an x component of 20 m/s and a y component of –15 m/s. The particle experiences
an acceleration in the x-direction, given by 𝑎𝑥 = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠2.
a. Determine the total velocity vector at any time.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
To begin with, let us identify the given. 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 20 𝑠 , 𝑣 𝑦𝑖 = −15 𝑠 , 𝑎 𝑥 = 4.0 𝑠2, 𝑎𝑦=
𝑚
0 𝑠2 And substitute the given to the vector components,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 = (𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑡)𝒊 + (𝑣𝑦𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦𝑖 𝑡)𝒋 = (20 + 4.0 2 𝑡) 𝒊 + (−15 + 0 2 ) 𝒋
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝒗𝒇 = [(𝟐𝟎 + 𝟒. 𝟎𝒕)𝒊 + (−𝟏𝟓)𝒋]
b. Calculate the velocity and speed of the particle at t = 5.0 s and the angle the velocity vector
makes with the x-axis.
Substitute the given time to the velocity vector obtained in (a),
𝒎
𝑣𝑓 = [(20 + 4.0𝑡)𝒊 + (−15)𝒋] = [(20 + (4.0)(5.0))𝒊 + (−15)𝒋] = [𝟒𝟎𝒊 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒋]
𝒔
Remember that the speed is the magnitude of the velocity,
𝒎
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑓 = | 𝑣 𝑓 | = √402 + (−15)2 = 𝟒𝟑
𝒔
𝑣𝑓𝑦 −15 𝑚
tan 𝜃 = = 𝑠
𝒗𝒇𝒙 𝑚
40 𝑠
𝟏𝟓
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (− ) = −𝟐𝟏°
𝟒𝟎
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Projectile Motion
Fig. 9
If the velocity vector makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal, where 𝜃 is called the projection
angle, then from the definitions of the cosine and sine functions and Fig. 9, we have,
𝒗𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and 𝒗𝒚𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
The same is true for the equations we had earlier about particle under constant velocity and
acceleration, that we obtain the following for a two-dimensional case:
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The object’s velocity vector is written as 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒋. The speed is the magnitude of the
vector and is solved using the Pythagorean theorem:
|𝒗| = √𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐
𝒙 𝒚
And the projection angle is the included angle of the component vectors:
𝒗𝒚
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒗𝒙
An important fact in projectile motion is that the acceleration of the x-component of the
motion is always zero (𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑚/𝑠2) to which if substituted to the above formulas for the
x-direction, would give you 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊. That is why the x-component velocity remains constant.
Example 1
An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package of emergency rations to stranded hikers. The
plane is traveling horizontally at 40.0 m/s at a height of 100. m above the ground.
a. Where does the package strike the ground relative to the point at which it was released?
𝑚
First, identify that we have 𝑣 = 40.0 and 𝑦 = 100. 𝑚
𝑥 𝑠 𝑖
1 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥𝑡
Since 𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑚 always and we don’t have time
2 𝑡, we solve time 𝑡 from:
𝑠2
1 2
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2
𝑡 = 4.52 𝑠
Substituting the time to solve 𝑥𝑓 we have,
1 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥𝑡
2
𝒙𝒇 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝒎
b. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity of the package just before
it hits the ground?
𝒎
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎
𝒔
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𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 + (−9.80 ) (4.52 𝑠) = −𝟒𝟒. 𝟑
𝑠 𝒔
c. Find the angle of the impact
𝑚
𝑣𝑦 −44.3
𝑠 ) = −𝟒𝟖. 𝟎°
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = tan (
−1
𝑣𝑥 𝑚
40.0
𝑠
𝑉𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
𝑉𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ=
2𝑔
where 𝑔 = +9.80 𝑚/𝑠2. Remember that these formulas are only applicable to projectile
motions of which the initial and final position has the same horizontal level. Fig. 10
illustrates various trajectories for a projectile having a given initial speed but launched at
different angles. As you can see, the range is a maximum at 𝜃 = 45°.
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Fig. 10
Example 1
A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal and at a speed
of 11.0 m/s.
a. How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
𝑚 2
𝑣𝑖2 sin
2𝜃 (11.0 𝑠 ) sin(2)(20 °)
𝑅= = 𝑚 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 𝒎
𝑔 2(9.80 𝑠2)
It is important to make sure that the particle returns to the same horizontal level to
use the formulas.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:
*Serway, R. (2014). Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th ed)
Australia: Cengage Learning..
*Katz, D. (2017). Physics for Scientist and Engineers: Foundations and Connections.
Australia: Cengage Learning.
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Let’s Check
A motorist drives north for 35.0 minutes at 85.0 km/h and then stops for 15.0 minutes. He
then continues north, traveling 130 km in 2.00 h.
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Problem 3: Acceleration
A certain car is capable of accelerating at a rate of 0.60 m/s2. How long does it take for this
car to go from a speed of 55 mi/h to a speed of 60 mi/h?
A space capsule was fired from a 220-m-long cannon with final speed of 10.97 km/s. What
would have been the unrealistically large acceleration experienced by the space travelers
during their launch?
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c. How long does the ball take to hit the ground after it reaches its highest point?
d. What is its velocity when it returns to the level from which it started?
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A person walks 25.0° north of east for 3.10 km. How far due north and how far due east
would she have to walk to arrive at the same location?
A brick is thrown upward from the top of a building at an angle of 25° to the horizontal and
with an initial speed of 15 m/s. If the brick is in flight for 3.0 s, how tall is the building?
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Let’s Analyze
To qualify for the finals in a racing event, a race car must achieve an average speed of 250
km/h on a track with a total length of 1 600 m. If a particular car covers the first half of the
track at an average speed of 230 km/h, what minimum average speed must it have in the
second half of the event to qualify
An object moves with a constant acceleration of 4.00 m/s2 and over a time interval reaches
a final velocity of 12.0 m/s.
a. If its original velocity is 6.00 m/s, what is its displacement during the time interval?
c. If its original velocity is 26.00 m/s, what is its displacement during this interval?
d. What is the total distance it travels during the interval in part (c)?
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A baseball is hit so that it travels straight upward after being struck by the bat. A fan
observes that it takes 3.00 s for the ball to reach its maximum height. Find the ball’s initial
velocity and the height it reaches.
A fireman d = 50.0 m away from a burning building directs a stream of water from a ground-
level fire hose at an angle of 𝜃 = 30.0° above the horizontal. If the speed of the stream as it
leaves the hose is 𝑣 𝑖 = 40.0 m/s, at what height will the stream of water strike the building?
A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 60.0 m/s at an angle of 30.0° above the
horizontal. The projectile lands on a hillside 4.00 s later. Neglect air friction.
b. What is the straight-line distance from where the projectile was launched to where it hits
its target?
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In a Nutshell
Activity 1.
Under what circumstances would a vector have components that are equal in magnitude?
Activity 2.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c. Recall and apply the concept of force and systems of
forces
Metalanguage
Essential Knowledge
This section discusses on Newton’s three laws of motion and his law of gravity, the
concept of force on a more fundamental level. Dynamics is the branch of classical
mechanics concerned with the study of forces and their effects on motion. Isaac Newton
defined the fundamental physical laws which govern dynamics in physics. As long as the
system under study doesn’t involve objects comparable in size to an atom or traveling close
to the speed of light, classical mechanics provides an excellent description of nature.
Keywords
Force equilibrium Reaction force Static friction
inertia Action force Frictional Force Dynamic friction
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Force
The basic understanding of force refers to an interaction with an object that causes it to
move. A physical contact between two objects referred to as contact forces that causes the
object’s velocity to change. However, forces do not always cause motion. For example,
when you are sitting, a gravitational force acts on your body and yet you remain stationary.
You can push on a large boulder and not be able to move it. Another applied force called
field forces doesn’t involve any direct physical contact such as gravitational force between
to masses, electric force between two charges, and magnetic force. These forces act
through empty space. Fig. 12 shows examples of forces applied to various objects.
Fig. 12
Imagine a heavy slab lying on the floor, if you do nothing the slab remains in its position
unmoved. But if you try to push it, you may move the slab because of the applied force.
Now consider, a smooth and waxed floor, moving the slab would be easier and requires
less force. Newton’s Law describes these phenomena into three Laws of Motion.
Newton’s first law of motion sometimes called the law of inertia states that an object moves
with a velocity that is constant in magnitude and direction unless a non-zero net force acts
on it. This law explains what happens to an object that has no net force acting on it. The net
force on an object is defined as the vector sum of all external forces exerted on the object.
In the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion
continues in motion with a constant velocity. In other words, when no force acts on an
object, the acceleration of the object is zero. The tendency of an object to resist any attempt
to change its velocity is called inertia.
Mass
Inertia is the tendency of an object to continue its motion in the absence of a force. On the
other hand, mass is a measure of the object’s resistance to changes in its motion due to a
force. The greater the mass of a body, the less it accelerates under the action of a given
applied force. From that definition, we can say that the acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass under a given force,
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𝑭
𝒎=
𝒂
The second law answers the question of what happens to an object that does have a net
force acting on it. Simply stated, Newton’s Second Law states that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass. Mathematically, we can describe the second law as
∑ 𝑭
𝒂=
𝒎
where 𝒂 is the acceleration of the object, 𝑚 is its mass, and ∑ 𝑭is the vector sum of all
forces acting on it. Force is a vector quantity, in terms of its components we write as
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙 and ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒚
When there is no net force on an object, its acceleration is zero, which means the velocity
is constant (Newton’s First Law).
Example 1
An airboat with mass 3.50 x102 kg, including the passenger, has an engine that produces a
net horizontal force of 7.70 x102 N, after accounting for forces of resistance.
b. Starting from rest, how long does it take the airboat to reach a speed of 12.0 m/s?
Apply kinematics velocity equation from ULOb,
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
12.0 = 0 + (2.20 2 ) 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝒔
c. After reaching that speed, the pilot turns off the engine and drifts to a stop over a distance
of 50.0 m. Find the resistance force, assuming it’s constant.
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Let 12.0 m/s of (b) be the initial velocity. Also, know that the 50.0 m is the
displacement ∆𝑥,
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖)
𝑓 𝑖
𝑚 𝑚 2
0 = (12.0 ) + 2𝑎(50.0𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑎 = −1.44 𝑚/𝑠2
Substitute the acceleration into Newton’s second law, finding the resistance force:
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 = (3.50𝑥102𝑘𝑔)(−1.44𝑚/𝑠2) = −𝟓𝟎𝟒 𝑵
Example 2
Two horses are pulling a barge with mass 2.00 x103 kg along a canal, as shown in Fig. 13.
The cable connected to the first horse makes an angle of 𝜃 = 30.0° with respect to the
direction of the canal, while the cable connected to the second horse makes an angle of 𝜃 =
− 45.0°. Find the initial acceleration of the barge, starting at rest, if each horse exerts a
force of magnitude 6.00x102 N on the barge. Ignore forces of resistance on the barge.
Fig. 13
Compute the total x- and y- component forces exerted by the horses,
𝐹1𝑥 = 𝐹1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (6.00𝑥102𝑁)(cos 30.0°) = 5.20𝑥102𝑁
𝐹2𝑥 = 𝐹2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (6.00𝑥102𝑁)(cos −45.0°) = 4.24𝑥102𝑁
∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 = 9.44 𝑥102𝑁
𝑥
∑ 𝐹𝑦 −1.24 𝑥102𝑁 𝑚
𝑎𝑦 = = = −0.0620
𝑚 2.00 𝑥103𝑘𝑔 𝑠2
Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration,
Example 3
A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30 kg slides on the frictionless, horizontal surface of an
ice rink. Two hockey sticks strike the puck simultaneously, exerting the forces on the puck
shown in Fig. 14. The force 𝐹1 has a magnitude of 5.0 N, and is directed at 𝜃 = 20° below
the x-axis. The force 𝐹2 has a magnitude of 8.0 N and its direction is 𝜙 = 60° above the x-
axis. Determine both the magnitude and the
direction of the puck’s acceleration.
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Gravitational Force
The gravitational force is the mutual force of attraction between any two objects in the
Universe, as shown in Fig. 15. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every
particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. That is,
𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺 2
𝑟
Where G = 6.67x10-11 N m2/kg2 is the universal gravitation constant.
Fig. 15
The magnitude of the gravitational force acting on an object of mass 𝑚 is called the weight
𝑤 of the object, given by
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Where 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity. The SI standard unit for weight is Newton 𝑁.
Newton recognized, however, that a single isolated force couldn’t exist. Instead, forces in
nature always exist in pairs. He stated on his third law that, if two objects interact, the force
𝐹12 exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
force 𝐹21 exerted by object 2 on object 1:
𝐹12 = −𝐹21
The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 is popularly called the action force, and the force
of object 2 on object 1 is called the reaction force. The negative sign indicates that the
reaction force is acted in the opposite direction of equal magnitude.
There are many kinds of reaction forces such as friction force and normal force. Frictional
Force refers to the force generated by two surfaces that contacts and slide against each
other. Example of which is a slab on a rough surface, a book sliding on a smooth surface,
and such. The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact
with another stable object or surface, it is acted perpendicular to the action force. It is the
upward force that opposes the weight of an object.
Example 1
A man of mass 75.0 kg and woman of mass 55.0 kg stand facing each other on an ice rink,
both wearing ice skates. The woman pushes the man with a horizontal force of 85.0 N in
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Example 2
A traffic light weighing 1.00 x102 N hangs from a vertical cable tied to two other cables that
are fastened to a support, as in Fig. 16a. The upper cables make angles of 37.0° and 53.0°
with the horizontal. Find the tension in each of the three cables.
Tension is described as the pulling force transmitted through a rope, string or wire.
Because we are interested only at the body and the acting forces, a force diagram
called free-body diagram (FBD) would be helpful in the analysis. Identify all the
action and reaction forces, in this case, we have the weight (Fg) of the traffic light
and the tension forces of the strings. The construction of a correct free-body
diagram is an essential step in applying Newton’s laws. An incorrect diagram will
most likely lead to incorrect answers! Fig. 16 is an example of an FBD which shows
the external forces acting on the body necessary for the analysis. Fig. 16b shows the
forces acting on the traffic light and Fig.16c shows the forces acting on the cable
knot.
Fig. 16
Objects that are either at rest or moving with constant velocity are said to be in
equilibrium. Because of 𝑎 = 0 𝑚/𝑠2, Newton’s second law applied to an object in
equilibrium gives
∑𝐹 = 0
Find T3 from Fig. 16b, using the condition of equilibrium:
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∑ 𝐹 = 𝑇3 − 𝐹𝑔 = 0 → 𝑇3 = 𝐹𝑔
𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑵
Note the direction of the force, positive are those applied upward and rightwards
while negative are those downward and leftwards. 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are two-dimensional
forces which means you need to solve for the x- and y- components.
For the summation of forces along the x-direction, there are two component forces
acted by 𝑇1 and 𝑇2:
𝑇1𝑥 = 𝑇1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝑇1(cos 37.0°)
𝑇2𝑥 = 𝑇2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑇2(cos 53.0°)
∑ 𝑇𝑥 = −𝑇1(cos 37.0°) + 𝑇2(cos 53.0°) = 0 → 𝑒𝑞. 1
While in the y-direction, there are three component forces acted by 𝑇1, 𝑇2 and
weight 𝐹𝑔:
𝑇1𝑦 = 𝑇1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇1(sin 37.0°)
𝑇2𝑦 = 𝑇2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇2(sin 53.0°)
𝑇3 = −1.00𝑥102𝑁
∑ 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑇1(sin 37.0°) + 𝑇2(sin 53.0°) − 1.00𝑥102𝑁 = 0 → 𝑒𝑞. 2
Equating eq. 1 and 2 to solve 𝑇1 and 𝑇2
−𝑇1(cos 37.0°) + 𝑇2(cos 53.0°) = 0
𝑇1(sin 37.0°) + 𝑇2(sin 53.0°) − 1.00𝑥102𝑁 = 0
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟏𝑵 and 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟗 𝑵
Example 3
A sled is tied to a tree on a frictionless, snow-covered hill shown in Fig. 17. If the sled
weighs 77.0 N, find the magnitude of the tension force exerted by the rope on the sled
and that of the normal force 𝑛 exerted by the hill on the sled.
Fig. 17
Fig. 17b is the FBD for this force analysis. The object is at equilibrium, therefore,
apply Newton’s second law.
For the summation of forces along the x-axis,
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∑ 𝐹𝑥 = +𝑇 − 𝐹𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0
𝑇 − 77.0𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = 0
𝑻 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓 𝑵
Notice that sine function is used to solve for the x-component, that is because of the
angle 30° is opposite to the x-component of the weight force.
For the summation of forces along the y-axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = +𝑛 − 𝐹𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠30 ° = 0
𝑛 − 77.0𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 ° = 0
𝒏 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝑵
Example 4
Fig. 18
a. Determine the acceleration of the car, assuming the incline is frictionless.
Since the force causes the car to move, the summation of forces is equal to 𝑚𝑎. The
acceleration happens only along x-direction, hence
∑ 𝐹𝑥= 𝐹𝑔sin 20.0 ° = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑚𝑔) sin 20.0 ° = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚
(9.80 ) sin 20.0 ° = 𝑎𝑥
𝑠2
𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
b. If the length of the driveway is 25.0 m and the car starts from rest at the top, how long
does it take to travel to the bottom?
1 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
1 2 𝑚
25.0 𝑚 = 0 + 0 + (3.35 ) (𝑡2)
2 𝑠2
𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟔 𝒔
c. What is the car’s speed at the bottom?
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𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 + (3.35 2) (3.86 𝑠) = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗
𝑠 𝑠 𝒔
Forces of Friction
Example 1
Suppose a block with a mass of 2.50 kg is resting on a ramp. If the coefficient of static
friction between the block and ramp is 0.350, what maximum angle can the ramp make
with the horizontal before the block starts to slip down?
Identifying the forces we only have the weight. Next, identify whether the object is
at equilibrium, constant velocity, or with acceleration. In this case, the block is at
equilibrium before it starts to slip down, therefore, use Newton’s second law for the
x- and y- components. Draw an FBD as shown,
Now take note of the presence of the frictional force opposite to the applied force
which is the x-component of the weight. We know that 𝜇𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠/𝑛, meaning, we
have to solve for the normal force first along the y-axis.
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑛 = (𝑚𝑔)(cos 𝜃) − 𝑛 = 0
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𝑚
equation for the normal force → (2.50 𝑘𝑔) (9.80 2) cos 𝜃 = 𝑛
𝑠
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓𝑠 = (𝑚𝑔)(sin 𝜃) − 𝜇𝑠𝑛 = 0
𝑚 𝑚
(2.50 𝑘𝑔) (9.80 2) sin 𝜃 − (0.350) [(2.50𝑘𝑔) (9.80 2) cos 𝜃] = 0
𝑠 𝑠
Solving for the angle we get, 𝜃 = tan−1 0.350
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟑 °
Example 2
The hockey puck struck by a hockey stick is given an initial speed of 20.0 m/s on a frozen
pond. The puck remains on the ice and slides 1.20 x102 m, slowing down steadily until it
comes to rest. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the puck and the ice.
Identify the acting forces, in this case, we have the weight, normal, 𝑓𝑘, and the
applied force that caused the motion. The object is at motion at the x-axis and
equilibrium at y-axis, therefore, use Newton’s third and second law respectively.
Draw the FBD,
We know that 𝜇𝑘 = 𝑓𝑘/𝑛, meaning, we have to solve for the normal and frictional
force first. Identify the given, we have the puck’s initial and final speed and distance.
We cannot go directly with the summation of forces because the given values are
not sufficient. Utilizing the given to solve the unknown, we have,
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖)
𝑓 𝑖
𝑚 𝑚 2
0 = (20.0 ) + 2𝑎(1.20 𝑥102 − 0 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑎 = −1.67 𝑚/𝑠2
Now we can proceed to Newton’s second law for the y-axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑛 − 𝐹𝑔 = 0
𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔
Then Newton’s third law for the x-axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = − 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎
−𝜇𝑘𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚 𝑚
−𝜇𝑘(𝑚) (9.80 2) = 𝑚(−1.67 2)
𝑠 𝑠
𝝁𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟎
65
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:
*Serway, R. (2014). Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th ed)
Australia: Cengage Learning..
*Katz, D. (2017). Physics for Scientist and Engineers: Foundations and Connections.
Australia: Cengage Learning.
*Young, H. D. (2016). Sears and Zemanky's University Physics with Modern Physics (14th
ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson
Let’s Check
66
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
A 75-kg man standing on a scale in an elevator notes that as the elevator rises, the scale
reads 825 N. What is the acceleration of the elevator?
A dockworker loading crates on a ship finds that a 20-kg crate, initially at rest on a
horizontal surface, requires a 75-N horizontal force to set it in motion. However, after the
crate is in motion, a horizontal force of 60 N is required to keep it moving with a constant
speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction between crate and floor.
67
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Let’s Analyze
A 5.0-g bullet leaves the muzzle of a rifle with a speed of 320 m/s. What force (assumed
constant) is exerted on the bullet while it is traveling down the 0.82-m-long barrel of the
rifle?
68
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
A 150-N bird feeder is supported by three cables as shown. Find the tension in
each cable.
A 1 000-N crate is being pushed across a level floor at a constant speed by a force of 300 N
at an angle of 20.0° below the horizontal, as shown in Figure a.
a. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the floor?
b. If the 300-N force is instead pulling the block at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal,
as shown in Figure b, what will be the acceleration of the crate? Assume that the coefficient
of friction is the same as that found in part (a).
69
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a Nutshell
Activity 1
A space explorer is moving through space far from any planet or star. He notices a large
rock, taken as a specimen from an alien planet, floating around the cabin of the ship. Should
he push it gently, or should he kick it toward the storage compartment? Explain.
Activity 2:
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