REVIEW1

engineering

ENGR. JOHN CARLO H. ABALA

Physics for Engineers
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

What is
P ENERGY?

1. .
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

The focus is mainly on mechanical energy, which

is the sum of kinetic energy, the energy
associated with motion, and potential energy—
the energy associated with relative position.
What is KINETIC ENERGY?
Kinetic Energyis the energy associated with the
motion of a moving object.
Kinetic energy is defined as one-half the
product of a moving object’s mass and the
square of its speed
K= ½ mv2
" The net WORK done on an object is equal to
the change in kinetic energy of the object."
Lifting mass at a constant speed
Since you are lifting at a constant speed, your
APPLIED FORCE equals the WEIGHT of the
object you are lifting.
Since you are lifting you are raising the object a
certain “y” displacement or height above the
ground.

When you lift an object above the ground it is

What is WORK?
said to have POTENTIAL ENERGY
Work is energy transferred to an object or
from an object as the result of the action of an
external force.

Positive work transfers energy to the object,

and negative work transfers energy from the Note KE = K, PE = U; these symbols are used
object interchangeably.

Work is done only if an object is moved through

some displacement while a force is applied to it.
What is HOOKE’S LAW?
Work is the scalar product of the force vector
Springs:
and the displacement vector.
Hooke's Law describes the force needed to
W = Fd
stretch an elastic object. This is primarily in
SI unit: joule ( J) = newton • meter (N • m) = kg reference to SPRINGS.
• m2/s2

What is WORK ENERGY THEOREM?

We have learned Kinematics and Newton's Laws.

Let's see what happens when we apply BOTH to
our new formula for WORK.

Fs  x
k = Constant of Proportionality
k = Spring Constant(Unit : N/m)
Fs = kx or − kx
What is POWER? IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

One useful application of Energy is to determine What is LINEAR MOMENTUM?

the RATE at which we store or use it, called The linear momentum of a particle or an object
POWER. that can be modeled as a particle of mass m
moving with a velocity is defined to be the
product of the mass and velocity:

• Linear momentum is a vector quantity.

Unit = WATT or Horsepower • Its direction is the same as the direction

of the velocity.

• The dimensions of momentum are ML/T.

• The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s.

• Momentum can be expressed in

component form:

MOMENTUM and KINETIC ENERGY

• Momentum and kinetic energy both

involve mass and velocity.

There are major differences between them:

• Kinetic energy is a scalar and momentum

is a vector.

• Kinetic energy can be transformed to

other types of energy.

• There is only one type of linear

momentum, so there are no similar
transformations.

What is the relationship between NEWTON’S

SECOND LAW and MOMENTUM?

Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the

momentum of a particle to the resultant force
acting on it.

with constant mass

The time rate of change of the linear momentum

of a particle is equal to the net force acting on
the particle.
What is the CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM?
In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not
Whenever two or more particles in an isolated conserved, although momentum is still
system interact, the total momentum of the
conserved.
system remains constant.

• The momentum of the system is

§If the objects stick together after the
conserved, not necessarily the momentum
collision, it is a perfectly inelastic collision.
of an individual particle.
Both momentum and kinetic energy are
• Avoid applying conservation of momentum
to a single particle. conserved.

• This also tells us that the total

momentum of an isolated system equals
its initial momentum.

IMPULSE and MOMENTUM

Typically, there are two unknowns to solve for

and so you need two equations.

PERFECTLY INELASTIC COLLISION

Momentum of an isolated system is conserved in

IMPULSE – MOMENTUM THEOREM any collision, so the total momentum before the
collision is equal to the total momentum of the
This equation expresses the impulse-momentum
theorem: The change in the momentum of a composite system after the collision.

particle is equal to the impulse of the new force Since the objects stick together, they share
acting on the particle. the same velocity after the collision.

What is COLLISION?

The term collision represents an event during

which two particles come close to each other
and interact by means of forces.

What are the TYPES of COLLISION?

In an elastic collision, momentum and kinetic

energy are conserved.

§Perfectly elastic collisions occur on a

microscopic level.

§In macroscopic collisions, only approximately

elastic collisions actually occur.

§Generally some energy is lost to deformation,

sound, etc.

§These collisions are described by the isolated

system model for both energy and momentum.
§There must be no transformation of kinetic
energy into other types of energy within the
system.
 KINEMATICS
What is average velocity?
What is DYNAMICS?
The average velocity is rate at which the
The study of motion and of physical concepts such as displacement occurs.
force and mass

What is KINEMATICS?

The part of dynamics that describes motion without
regard to its causes
What are the TYPES OF MOTION?
• Translational : An example is a car traveling on
a highway.
• Rotational : An example is the Earth’s spin on
its axis.
The x indicates motion along the x-axis.
The dimensions are length / time [L/T]
The SI units are m/s
Is also the slope of the line in the position – time
graph
What is the difference between AVERAGE SPEED
and AVERAGE VELOCITY?

• Vibrational : An example is the back-and-forth The average speed is not the magnitude of the
movement of a pendulum. average velocity.

What is difference between VECTORS AND
SCALAR?
Vector quantities need both magnitude (size or
numerical value) and direction to completely describe
them.
✓ Will use + and – signs to indicate vector
directions in this chapter
Scalar quantities are completely described by
magnitude only.
§For example, a runner ends at her starting
point.
§Her displacement is zero.
§Therefore, her velocity is zero.
§However, the distance traveled is not zero,
so the speed is not zero.
What is INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY?
The instantaneous velocity is the slope of the line
tangent to the x vs. t curve.

What is difference between DISTANCE and

DISPLACEMENT?

Displacement is defined as the change in position

during some time interval.

Distance is the length of a path followed by a

particle.

• Assume a player moves from one end of the

court to the other and back. This would be the green line.

• Distance is twice the length of the court The light blue lines show that as Δt gets
smaller, they approach the green line.

The general equation for instantaneous

velocity is:

• The instantaneous velocity can be positive,

negative, or zero.
• The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of
the instantaneous velocity.
• The instantaneous speed has no direction
• Displacement is zero
associated with it.
What is CONSTANT VELOCITY?
Constant velocity indicates the instantaneous
velocity at any instant during a time interval is
the same as the average velocity during that
time interval.
The mathematical representation of this
situation is the equation.
The graph represents the motion of a particle
under constant velocity.
The slope of the graph is the value of the
constant velocity.
The y-intercept is xi.
What is CONTANT SPEED?
A particle under constant velocity moves with a
constant speed along a straight line.
A particle can also move with a constant speed
along a curved path.
The primary equation is the same as for average
speed, with the average speed replaced by the
constant speed.
What are the AVERAGE ACCELERATION?
Acceleration is the rate of change of the
velocity.
Dimensions are L/T2
SI units are m/s²
In one dimension, positive and negative can be
used to indicate direction.
What is INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION?
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of
the average acceleration as Δt approaches 0.
The term acceleration will mean instantaneous
acceleration.
GRAPHICAL COMPARISON
Given the displacement-time graph (a)
The velocity-time graph is found by measuring
the slope of the position-time graph at every
instant.
The acceleration-time graph is found by
measuring the slope of the velocity-time graph
at every instant.
Acceleration and Velocity, Directions
When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in
the same direction, the object is speeding up.
When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in
the opposite direction, the object is slowing
down.
Acceleration and Force
The acceleration of an object is related to the
total force exerted on the object.
• The force is proportional to the
acceleration, Fx ∞ ax .
• Assume the velocity and acceleration are
in the same direction.
• The force is in the same direction as the
velocity and the object speeds up.
• Assume the velocity and acceleration are
in opposite directions.
 • The force is in the opposite direction as
Kinematic Equations 4
the velocity and the object slows down.
For constant acceleration,
Negative acceleration does not necessarily mean
the object is slowing down.

• If the acceleration and velocity are both

negative, the object is speeding up. Gives final position in terms of velocity and
acceleration
The word deceleration has the connotation of
slowing down. Doesn’t tell you about final velocity

Kinematic Equations 1 Kinematic Equations 5

For constant ax, For constant acceleration,

Can determine an object’s velocity at any time t Gives final velocity in terms of acceleration and
when we know its initial velocity and its displacement
acceleration
Does not give any information about the time
• Assumes ti = 0 and tf = t
When acceleration is zero,
Does not give any information about
displacement

Kinematic Equations 2
The constant acceleration model reduces to the
For constant acceleration,
constant velocity model

What is FREELY FALLING OBJECTS?

A freely falling object is any object moving freely

The average velocity can be expressed as the
under the influence of gravity alone.
arithmetic mean of the initial and final
velocities. It does not depend upon the initial motion of the
object.
• This applies only in situations where the
acceleration is constant. • Dropped – released from rest
• Thrown downward
Kinematic Equations 3
• Thrown upward
For constant acceleration,
ACCELERATION OF FREELY FALLING OBJECTS

The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed

downward, regardless of the initial motion.

The magnitude of free fall acceleration is g = 9.80

This gives you the position of the particle in m/s2.
terms of time and velocities. • g decreases with increasing altitude
Doesn’t give you the acceleration
• g varies with latitude

• 9.80 m/s2 is the average at the Earth’s

surface
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

What is the difference between TRANSLATION

and ROTATION?

STEPS FOR SOLVING

Center of gravity

What is TORQUE?

Newton’s second law for rotational motion about a

fixed axis

RIGID OBJECTS IN EQUILIBRIUM

COMMON VALUES OF I

Rotational work

Angular momentum
 ELASTICITY
What is ELASTICITY?
An elastic object returns to its original shape when
the deforming forces are removed.
We have assumed that objects remain rigid when
external forces act on them.
It is possible to change the size and/or shape of the
object by applying external forces.
Internal forces resist the deformation.
What is STRESS?
Is proportional to the force causing the deformation
It is the external force acting on the object per unit
cross-sectional area.
What is STRAIN?
Is the result of a stress
Is a measure of the degree of deformation
What is ELASTIC MODULUS?
The elastic modulus is the constant of
proportionality between the stress and the strain.
• For sufficiently small stresses, the stress is
directly proportional to the stress.
• It depends on the material being deformed.
• It also depends on the nature of the
deformation.
What are the DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODULI?
Young’s Modulus
Measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its
length
The tensile stress is the ratio of the magnitude of
the external force to the cross-sectional area A.
The tension strain is the ratio of the change in
length to the original length.
Young’s modulus, Y, is the ratio of those two ratios:
Shear Modulus
Measures the resistance of motion of the planes
within a solid parallel to each other
Another type of deformation occurs when a force
acts parallel to one of its faces while the opposite
face is held fixed by another force. This is called a
shear stress.
For small deformations, no change in volume occurs
with this deformation.
The shear strain is Δx / h.
• Δx is the horizontal distance the sheared
face moves.
• h is the height of the object.
The shear stress is F / A.
• F is the tangential force.
• A is the area of the face being sheared.
The shear modulus is the ratio of the shear stress
to the shear strain.
Bulk Modulus
Measures the resistance of solids or liquids to
changes in their volume.
Another type of deformation occurs when a force of
uniform magnitude is applied perpendicularly over
the entire surface of the object.
The object will undergo a change in volume, but not
in shape.
The volume stress is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of the total force, F, exerted on the
surface to the area, A, of the surface. This is also
called the pressure.
The volume strain is the ratio of the change in
volume to the original volume.
The bulk modulus is the ratio of the volume stress to
the volume strain.
The negative indicates that an increase in pressure
will result in a decrease in volume.
The COMPRESSIBILITY is the inverse of the bulk
modulus.
It may be used instead of the bulk modulus.
MODULI VALUES OF COMMON MATERIALS FLUIDS

The Hydrostatics is the science of fluids with no

motion. A fluid is defined as a substance that
continually flows under an applied shear stress
regardless of how small the applied stress. All liquids
and all gases are fluids. The term fluid is usually
mistaken as liquid, but it actually covers a lot of the
phases of matter (liquids, gases, plasmas and others).
Capacity of different Materials
Density

is defined as the ratio of mass per unit volume. It is

generally represented by the Greek letter rho, ρ, and
measured in terms of kilograms/cubic meter, or
kg/m3, slugs/ft³.

Specific Gravity

- is the ratio of the density of a substance to

the density of a reference substance.

- it is the ratio of densities, is a dimensionless

quantity

How a liquid's density compares to that of water at

4ºC is called its specific gravity. If a liquid has a
specific gravity of 0.9, then its density is

0.9 times that of water, or 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3.

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the

specific gravity.
Specific Volume
- the specific volume of a substance is the
ratio of the substance’s volume to its mass. It is the
reciprocal of density and is an intrinsic property of
matter:
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the ratio of force per unit
area
where the force is perpendicular to the cross-
sectional area. Pressure is a scalar quantity
measured in Pascals,where 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
Gauge Pressure, Atmospheric Pressure and
Absolute Pressure
Pressure gauges measure the difference between an
unknown pressure and atmospheric pressure. What
they measure is known as gauge pressure, and the
true pressure is known as absolute pressure:
Pressure Due to Weight of a Liquid
The additional hydrostatic pressure exerted on the
submerged object is often referred to as the gauge
pressure. The total pressure on the surface of the
object would be the combination of atmospheric
pressure plus this hydrostatic pressure.
Total pressure=gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure
Pascal’s Principle
A hydraulic lift for automobiles is an example of a
force multiplied by hydraulic press, based on
Pascal's principle. The fluid in the small cylinder
must be moved much further than the distance the
car is lifted.
Archimedes’ Principle
The magnitude of the buoyant force is given by
Archimedes’ Principle. It states that, A body fully or
partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force that is equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid. .
Fbuoyant = Fb=mdisplaced fluidg
Gases
Gases are similar to liquids in that they flow; hence
both are called fluids. The primary difference
between gases and liquids is the distance between
molecules. In a liquid, the molecules are close
together, where they continually experience forces
from the surrounding molecules. These forces
strongly affect the motion of the molecules. In a
gas, the molecules are far apart, allowing them to
move freely between collisions. When two molecules
in a gas collide, if one gains speed in the collisions,
the other loses speed, such that their kinetic energy
is unchanged.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere is a layer of air surrounding the
earth; its thickness has been estimated as about 500
to 600 mi. The density of the air decreases with
increasing altitude. Since air has weight, this layer
of air produces a pressure, called the atmospheric
pressure, at the surface of the earth. The
atmospheric pressure varies from day to day by
about 5 per cent, the variations often accompanying
changes in the weather.
The pressure of the air is measured by a barometer,
which often consists of an evacuated tube inverted
in a dish of mercury.
Barometers
The atmosphere exerts a pressure P on the open
surface of the mercury in the dish, and this is
transmitted to the liquid in the tube. This pressure
is balanced by the pressure due to the mercury in
the tube at a height h above the open surface of the
dish. Recall that the pressure is always the same at
any level surface in a liquid. Outside the barometer
tube the pressure at this surface is entirely due to
the atmosphere, so that the pressure of the
mercury here is atmospheric pressure. Hence the
pressure of the mercury within the tube at the level
of the surface of the mercury in the dish is also
atmospheric pressure. Knowing the density of
mercury and the height to which the column of
mercury rises within the evacuated barometer tube.
Boyle’s Law
Pressure depends on density of the gas
Pressure is just the force per unit area exerted by
the molecules as they collide with the walls of the
container
Double the density, double the number of collisions
with the wall and this doubles the pressure
P 1V1 = P2V2
Fluid Flow
In streamline flow, the motion of a particle after it
passes a particular point is the same as the motion
of the particle that preceded it at that point. The
path that a particle takes is called a streamline.
Every particle that passes any particular point will
follow the streamline that goes through that point. A
bundle of streamlines, like the ones here, is known as
a stream tube. Fluid never crosses the surface of a
stream tube.
Turbulent flow is illustrated here-flow through a
small constriction in a pipe and flow around an
airplane wing which is inclined at a steep angle. In
turbulent flow, the motion of a particle after it
passes a particular point may be quite different
from the motion of the particle that preceded it at
that point. Turbulent flow is characterized by
randomness or irreproducibility of the motion of
individual particles. It usually occurs in fluids moving
at high speeds. As you might expect, friction is far
greater in turbulent flow. We will concentrate most
of our attention on streamline flow.
VISCOSITY
The resistance to flow of a fluid and the resistance
to the movement of an object through a fluid are
usually stated in terms of the viscosity of the fluid.
Experimentally, under conditions of laminar flow, the
force required to move a plate at constant speed
against the resistance of a fluid is proportional to
the area of the plate and to the velocity gradient
perpendicular to the plate. The constant of
proportionality is called the viscosity
Surface Tension

The surface tension of water provides the necessary

wall tension for the formation of bubbles with water.
The tendency to minimize that wall and of liquid
droplets. tension pulls the bubbles into spherical
shapes (LaPlace's law).

The pressure difference between the inside and

outside of a bubble depends upon the surface
tension and the radius of the bubble.

The relationship can be obtained by visualizing the

bubble as two hemispheres and noting that the
internal pressure which tends to push the
hemispheres apart is counteracted by the surface
tension acting around the circumference of the
circle.

For a bubble with two surfaces providing tension

tension, the pressure relationship is:

Bernoulli's Equation

Capillary Action

Capillary action is the result of adhesion and surface

tension. Adhesion of water to the walls of a vessel
will cause an upward force on the liquid at the edges
and result in a meniscus which turns upward. The
surface tension acts to hold the surface intact, so
instead of just the edges moving upward, the whole
liquid surface is dragged upward.
 HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

What is HEAT?

• Form of energy and measured in JOULES

• Particles move about more and take up more

room if heated – this is why things expand if
heated

• It is also why substances change from:

solids>liquids>gases when heated

In physics, especially in calorimetry, and in

meteorology, the concepts of latent heat and of
sensible heat are used.

– Latent heat is associated with phase changes,

while

– Sensible heat is associated with temperature

change.

What is the relationship between Heat and

Temperature?

• The temperature of an object tells us how

HOT it is measured in degrees Celsius - °C

• Heat is related to temperature but the two

are not the same.

• Temperature is a measure of the kinetic

energy of the particles. Temperature does
not depend on the mass of the substance.
• The amount of heat energy which a substance
has does depend on its mass.

Conversion of Energy Units

Heat and Cooling Table: Specific latent heat of different substances
• If an object has become hotter, it means that
it has gained heat energy.

• If an object cools down, it means it has lost

energy

Figure Latent heat exchanges of energy involved
with the phase changes of water.
Latent Heat
Sensible Heat
Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body that has as
its sole effect a change of temperature. The term is used
in contrast to a latent heat, which is the amount of heat
exchanged that is hidden, meaning it occurs without
change of temperature.

-it is the energy needed to change a substance to a

higher state of matter. This same energy is released
from the substance when the change of state (or
phase) is reversed.
where:
Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed
during the change of phase of the substance (in kJ
or in BTU),
m is the mass of the substance (in kg or in lb), and
The sensible heat of a thermodynamic process may be
calculated as the product of the body's mass (m) with
its specific heat capacity (c) and the change in
temperature (T):
Specific Heat
• The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit
mass required to raise the temperature by one
degree Celsius.

L is the specific latent heat for a particular • The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C =
substance (kJ-kg or in BTU-lb ), either L for
−1 −1 4.186 joule/gram °C which is higher than any
fusion (melting or freezing), or Lv for vaporization other common substance. As a result, water
plays a very important role in temperature
(boiling or condensing.
regulation.
Specific Latent Heat
Substance C (J/g oC)

A specific latent heat (L) expresses the amount of Air 1.01

energy in form of heat (Q) required to completely

Aluminum 0.902
affect a phase change of a unit of mass (m), usually
Copper 0.385
1kg, of a substance as an intensive property:
Gold 0.129

Intensive properties are material characteristics Iron 0.450

and are not dependent on the size or extent of the Mercury 0.140

sample. NaCl 0.864

Ice 2.03

Water 4.18

•
HEAT TRANSFER

The transfer of heat is normally from a high

temperature object to a lower temperature object.
Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both
systems involved according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics.

Conduction

• Heat is transferred through a material by

being passed from one particle to the next

• Particles at the warm end move faster and

this then causes the next particles to move
faster and so on.

• In this way heat in an object travel from: the Convection

HOT end >>> the cold end
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by the
movement of liquid or gas.

Water on the bottom of the pan is heated by

conduction and becomes less dense and therefore
rises. At the surface it begins to cool and move
closer together and sink again. This circular motion
is called a convection current.

Two types of convective heat transfer may be

distinguished:

• Free or natural convection: when fluid

For heat transfer between two plane surfaces, such
as heat loss through the wall of a house, the rate of
conduction heat transfer is:
• Forced convection: when a fluid is forced to
motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
result from the density variations due to
variations of temperature in the fluid.
Familiar examples are the upward flow of air
due to a fire or hot object and the circulation
of water in a pot that is heated from below.
flow over the surface by an external source
such as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating
an artificially induced convection current.

Heat conduction Q/ Time = (Thermal conductivity) x

(Area) x (Thot - Tcold)/Thickness
 Emitters

• q = heat transferred per unit time (W) • Hotter objects emit (give out) heat

• A = heat transfer area of the surface (mo)
• hc= convective heat transfer coefficient of
the process (W/m2K or W/m2oC)
• ΔT = temperature difference between the
surface and the bulk fluid (K or oC)
• Different surfaces emit heat at different
speeds
• A dull black surfaces loses energy more
quickly – it is a good radiator
• A bright shiny or white surface is a poor
radiator

• Marathon runners need to keep warm at the

end of races, covering in shiny blankets
reduces radiation and therefore heat loss.

Absorbers

⚫ Cooler objects absorb (take in) heat

⚫ Substances absorb heat at different speeds

Table: The following table shows some typical values
for the convective heat transfer
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of energy through matter
or space as electromagnetic waves, such as visible
light and infrared waves.
Heat radiation is also known as INFRA-RED
RADIATION
⚫ Dull, black surfaces absorb heat quickly
⚫ Bright, shiny surfaces absorb heat slowly
⚫ In hot countries, people wear bright white
clothes and paint their houses white to
reduce absorption of energy from the sun.
⚫ Petrol storage tanks sprayed silver to reflect
sun’s rays

All objects that are hotter than their surroundings

give out heat as infra-red radiation.

Heat transfer by radiation does not need particles

to occur and is the only way energy can be
transferred across empty space

The relationship governing radiation from hot

objects is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

The energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per

second per unit area is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature and is given by:
 OSCILLATION
What is PERIODIC MOTION?
Periodic motion is the repeating motion of an object
in which it continues to return
to a given position after a fixed time interval.
The repetitive movements are called oscillations.
A special case of periodic motion called simple
harmonic motion will be the focus.
▪ Simple harmonic motion also forms the basis
for understanding mechanical waves.
Oscillations and waves also explain many other
phenomena quantity.
▪ Oscillations of bridges and skyscrapers
▪ Radio and television
▪ Understanding atomic theory
Periodic motion is motion of an object that regularly
returns to a given position
after a fixed time interval.
A special kind of periodic motion occurs in
mechanical systems when the force acting on the
object is proportional to the position of the object
relative to some equilibrium position.
▪ If the force is always directed toward the
equilibrium position, the motion is called
simple harmonic motion.
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law states Fs = - kx
▪ Fs is the restoring force.
▪ It is always directed toward the
equilibrium position.
▪ Therefore, it is always opposite the
displacement from equilibrium.
▪ k is the force (spring) constant.
▪ x is the displacement.
Acceleration
When the block is displaced from the equilibrium
point and released, it is a particle under a net force
and therefore has an acceleration.
The force described by Hooke’s Law is the net force
in Newton’s Second Law.
-kx = max
ax = -(k/m)x
The acceleration is proportional to the displacement
of the block.
The direction of the acceleration is opposite the
direction of the displacement from equilibrium.
An object moves with simple harmonic motion
whenever its acceleration is proportional to its
position and is oppositely directed to the
displacement from equilibrium.
The acceleration is not constant.
▪ Therefore, the kinematic equations cannot be
applied.
▪ If the block is released from some position x
= A, then the initial acceleration is –kA/m.
▪ When the block passes through the
equilibrium position, a = 0.
▪ The block continues to x = -A where its
acceleration is +kA/m.
Simple Harmonic Motion – Definitions
• A is the amplitude of the motion.
▪ This is the maximum position of the particle
in either the positive or negative x direction.
• ω is called the angular frequency.
▪ Units are rad/s
• k
• f is the phase constant or the initial phase
angle.
Period
The period, T, of the motion is the time interval
required for the particle to go
through one full cycle of its motion.
▪ The values of x and v for the particle at time
t equal the values of x and v at t
T = 2π/ω
Frequency
The inverse of the period is called the frequency.
The frequency represents the number of oscillations
that the particle undergoes per unit time interval.
ƒ= 1/T = 1/ω
Units are cycles per second = hertz (Hz).
Motion Equations for Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is one-dimensional and so
directions can be denoted by + or - sign.
Remember, simple harmonic motion is not uniformly
accelerated motion.
Maximum Values of v and a
Because the sine and cosine functions oscillate
between ±1, we can easily find the maximum values of
velocity and acceleration for an object in SHM.
Graphs
The graphs show:
(a) displacement as a function of time
(b) velocity as a function of time
(c) acceleration as a function of time
The velocity is 90o out of phase with the
displacement and the acceleration is 180o out of
phase with the displacement.
Velocity at a Given Position
Energy can be used to find the velocity:
Waves
Main Types of Waves
Mechanical waves
• Some physical medium is being disturbed.
• The wave is the propagation of a disturbance
through a medium.
Electromagnetic waves
• No medium required.
• Examples are light, radio waves, x-rays
Kinds of Waves
Transverse Wave - is a wave in which particles of
the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the
direction that the wave moves.
Longitudinal Wave - is a wave in which particles of
the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction that the wave moves.
Region of Compression - is a region in a longitudinal
wave where the particles are closest together.
Region of Rare Faction - is a region in a longitudinal
wave where the particles are furthest apart.
Wave Speed in a Strings
𝐹 𝐹𝐿
v=√ = √
𝜇 𝑚
𝒎
𝜇 =
𝑳
v = speed of the transverse wave (m/s)
F = Tension on the string (N)
𝜇 = mass per unit length (kg/m)
Properties of Waves
Reflection
– is when waves will reflect in such a way that the
angle at which they approach the barrier equals the
angle at which they reflect off the barrier.
- involves a change in direction of waves when they
bounce off a barrier

Refraction
- the bending of the path of the waves, is when
waves involve a change in the direction of waves as
they pass from one medium to another.
Diffraction
- involves a change in direction of waves as they pass
through an opening or around a barrier in their path.
Dispersion
- any phenomenon associated with the propagation of
individual waves at speeds that depend on their
wavelengths
- causes the shape of a wave pulse to change as it
travels
- is sometimes called the separation of light into
colours, an effect more properly called angular
dispersion.
Polarization
- property of certain electromagnetic radiations in
which the direction and magnitude of the vibrating
electric field are related in a specified way.
- is an expression of the orientation of the lines of
electric flux in an electromagnetic field ( EM field ).
Polarization can be constant; that is, existing in a
particular orientation at all times, or it can rotate
with each wave cycle.
Interference
- is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves
meet while traveling along the same medium.
- causes the medium to take on a shape that results
from the net effect of the two individual waves upon
the particles of the medium.
➢ Constructive - is a type of interference that
occurs at any location along the medium where
the two interfering waves have a
displacement in the same direction.
➢ Destructive - is a type of interference that
occurs at any location along the medium where
the two interfering waves have a
displacement in the opposite direction.
Sound Waves
Sound is a mechanical wave that results from the
back-and-forth vibration of the particles of the
medium through which the sound wave is moving.
Types of Sound Waves Intensity of a Periodic Sound Wave

Ultrasonic Wave - the waves of frequency greater The intensity, I, of a wave is defined as the power
than 20,000Hz, which is the upper limit of human per unit area.
noise perception.
This is the rate at which the energy being
Infrasonic Wave - the waves of frequency less than transported by the wave transfers through a unit
20Hz which are not audible to a human ear. area, A, perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

Audible waves are within the sensitivity of the

human ear.

Speed of Sound Waves

In terms of the pressure amplitude,
Speed of wave in gas/ fluid

The bulk modulus of the material is B.

A Point Source
The density of the material is ρ
A point source will emit sound waves equally in all
Speed of wave in metal rod directions.

𝑌 • This can result in a spherical wave. This can

v =√
𝜌 be represented as a series of circular arcs
concentric with the source. Each surface of
The bulk modulus of the material is Y.
constant phase is a wave front.
The density of the material is ρ
The radial distance between adjacent wave fronts
Speed of wave in extended solid that have the same phase is the wavelength λ of the
wave.
4
𝐵+ 3𝑆
v =√ Radial lines pointing outward from the source,
𝜌
representing the direction of propagation, are called
The bulk modulus of the material is B. rays.
The shear modulus of the material S.

The density of the material is ρ

Speed of Sound in Air

𝑩
v =√
𝝆

𝑷 𝑹𝑻
B = γP =
𝝆 𝑴

γP γRT
v =√ = √
𝝆 𝑴

γ = 1.4 for air

R = 8.314 J/mol.K

M = 29 g/mol Intensity of a Point Source

Sound Level It is convenient to represent the waves as wave
fronts.

• These surfaces are called wave fronts.

• The distance between adjacent wave fronts is

I0 is called the reference intensity.
the wavelength.
I0 = 1.00 x 10-12 W/ m2
β is in decibels (dB) fo = fs (
𝑣+𝑣𝑜
)
𝑣 −𝑣𝑠
fo – observed frequency
fs – frequency of source
v – velocity of sound
vo – velocity of observer
vs – velocity of source
•

Principles of Superposition

When two waves interfere, the resulting

displacement of the medium at any location is the
algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual
waves at that same location.

Doppler Effect

- the effect produced by a moving source of waves in

which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency
for observers towards whom the source is
approaching and an apparent downward shift in
frequency for observers from whom the source is
receding.

- It is important to note that the effect does not

result because of an actual change in the frequency
of the source.

The Doppler effect is the apparent change in

frequency (or wavelength) that occurs because of
motion of the source or observer of a wave.

The observer moves with a speed of vo.

Assume a point source that remains stationary

relative to the air.
 Using Roemer’s data, Huygens estimated the lower
OPTICS
limit of the speed of light to be 2.3 x 108 m/s.
Light
This was important because it demonstrated that
Light is basic to almost all life on Earth. light has a finite speed as well as giving an estimate
of that speed.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Measurement of the Speed of Light – Fizeau’s
Light represents energy transfer from the source to
Method
the observer.

Optics

Reflection and refraction are the fundamental

phenomena in ray (geometric) optics.

Internal reflection is the basis for fiber optics.

Confirmation of Wave Nature

During the nineteenth century, other developments

led to the general acceptance of the wave theory of
This was the first successful method for measuring
light.
the speed of light by means of a purely terrestrial
Thomas Young provided evidence that light rays technique.
interfere with one another according to the principle
It was developed in 1849 by Armand Fizeau.
of superposition.
He used a rotating toothed wheel.
This behavior could not be explained by a particle
theory. The distance between the wheel (considered to be
the source) and a mirror was known.
Maxwell asserted that light was a form of high-
frequency electromagnetic wave. d is the distance between the wheel and the mirror.

Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions. Δt is the time for one round trip.

Measurement of the Speed of Light Then c = 2d / Δt

Since light travels at a very high speed, early Fizeau found a value of
attempts to measure its speed were unsuccessful.
c = 3.1 x 108 m/s.
Remember c = 3.00 x 10 m/s
8
Ray Approximation in Ray Optics
Galileo tried by using two observers separated by
about 10 km.

The reaction time of the observers was more than

the transit time of the light.

Measurement of the Speed of Light – Roemer’s

Method

In 1675 Ole Roemer used astronomical observations

to estimate the speed of light.

He used the period of revolution of Io, a moon of

Jupiter, as Jupiter revolved around the sun.

The angle through which Jupiter moves during a 90°

movement of the Earth was calculated. Ray optics (sometimes called geometric optics)
involves the study of the propagation of light.
The periods of revolution were longer when the
Earth was receding from Jupiter.

Shorter when the Earth was approaching

It uses the assumption that light travels in a Specular Reflection
straight-line path in a uniform medium and changes
its direction when it meets the surface of a
different medium or if the optical properties of the
medium are nonuniform.

The ray approximation is used to represent beams of

light.

The rays are straight lines perpendicular to the wave

fronts.

With the ray approximation, we assume that a wave

moving through a medium travel in a straight line in
the direction of its rays.

Specular reflection is reflection from a smooth

surface.

The reflected rays are parallel to each other.

All reflection in this text is assumed to be specular.

Diffuse Reflection

If a wave meets a barrier, with λ<<d, the wave

emerging from the opening continues to move in a
straight line.

d is the diameter of the opening.

There may be some small edge effects.

This approximation is good for the study of mirrors,

lenses, prisms, etc.

Other effects occur for openings of other sizes.

Reflection of Light

A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a medium.

When it encounters a boundary with a second
medium, part of the incident ray is reflected back
into the first medium.
This means it is directed backward into the first
medium.
For light waves traveling in three-dimensional space,
the reflected light can be in directions different
from the direction of the incident rays.
Diffuse reflection is reflection from a rough
surface. `
The reflected rays travel in a variety of directions.
A surface behaves as a smooth surface as long as
the surface variations are much smaller than the
wavelength of the light.
Law of Reflection
The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface.
It is at the point where the incident ray strikes the
surface.
The incident ray makes an angle of θ1 with the
normal.
The reflected ray makes an angle of θ1’ with the
normal.
The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
θ1’= θ1
This relationship is called the Law of Reflection.
Multiple Reflections
The incident ray strikes the first mirror.
The reflected ray is directed toward the second
mirror.
There is a second reflection from the second mirror.
Apply the Law of Reflection and some geometry to
determine information about the rays.
Refraction of Light
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent
medium encounters a boundary leading into another
transparent medium, part of the energy is reflected,
and part enters the second medium.
The ray that enters the second medium changes its
direction of propagation at the boundary.
This bending of the ray is called refraction.
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted
ray, and the normal all lie on the same plane.
The angle of refraction depends upon the material
and the angle of incidence.
sin θ2 v 2
=
sin θ1 v1
v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and v2
is its speed in the second.
Index of Refraction
The speed of light in any material is less than its
speed in vacuum.
The index of refraction, n, of a medium can be
defined as
speed of light in a vacuum c
n 
speed of light in a medium v
For a vacuum, n = 1
We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater than unity.
n is not necessarily an integer.
Snell’s Law of Refraction A flexible light pipe is called an optical fiber.

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 A bundle of parallel fibers (shown) can be used to

construct an optical transmission line.
θ1 is the angle of incidence
Image formation by a plane mirror
θ2 is the angle of refraction

The experimental discovery of this relationship is

usually credited to Willebrord Snell and is therefore
known as Snell’s law of refraction.

Refraction is a commonplace occurrence, so identify

an analysis model as a wave under refraction.

Dispersion

For a given material, the index of refraction varies

with the wavelength of the light passing through the
material.

This dependence of n on λ is called dispersion.

Snell’s law indicates light of different wavelengths is

bent at different angles when incident on a
refracting material.

Fiber Optics

• The image is just as far behind the mirror as

the object is in front of the mirror.

• The lateral magnification is m = y/y.

• The image is virtual, erect, reversed, and the

same size as the object (see Figure 34.6 at
the right and the next slide).

An application of internal reflection

Plastic or glass rods are used to “pipe” light from one

place to another.

Applications include:

Medical examination of internal organs

Telecommunications

The transparent core is surrounded by cladding.

The cladding has a lower n than the core.

This allows the light in the core to experience total

internal reflection.

The combination is surrounded by the jacket.

 • The image formed by a plane mirror is reversed back to front. See Figures 34.7 (left) and
34.8 (right).

Graphical methods for mirrors

Principle Rays

• A ray parallel to the axis, after reflection, passes through the focal point F of a concave
mirror, or appears to come from the (virtual) focal point of a convex mirror.

• A ray through (or proceeding toward) the focal point F is reflected parallel to the axis.

• A ray along the radius through or away from the center of curvature C intersects the surface
normally and is reflected back along its original path.

• A ray to the vertex V is reflected forming equal angles with the optical axis.
Graphical methods for lenses
• Follow the text summary of the three principal rays.

• Figure 34.36 below illustrates the principal rays for converging and diverging lenses.
 ELECTROSTATICS Semiconductors

The study of electric charges at rest, the forces The electrical properties of semiconductors are
between them and the electric fields associated somewhere between those of insulators and
with them. conductors.

• Examples of semiconductor materials include

Negative Charges
• Type possessed by electrons
Positive Charges
• Type possessed by protons
✓ Charges of the same sign repel one another
and charges with opposite signs attract one
another.
The electric charge, q, is said to be quantized.
• q is the standard symbol used for charge as a
variable.
• Electric charge exists as discrete packets.
silicon and germanium.
• Semiconductors made from these materials
are commonly used in making electronic chips.
• The electrical properties of semiconductors
can be changed by the addition of controlled
amounts of certain atoms to the material.
Coulomb’s Law
• states that the magnitude of the
electrostatic (Coulomb or electric) force
between two-point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them

q = +Ne Charles Coulomb measured the magnitudes of

electric forces between two small, charged spheres.
• N is an integer
The force is inversely proportional to the square of
• e is the fundamental unit of charge
the separation r between the charges and directed
• |e| = 1.6 x 10-19 C along the line joining them.

• Electron: q = -e The force is proportional to the product of the

charges, q1 and q2, on the two particles.
• Proton: q = +e
The electrical force between two stationary point
Conductors
charges is given by Coulomb’s Law.
Electrical conductors are materials in which some of
the electrons are free electrons.

• Examples of good conductors include copper,

aluminum, and silver. F = magnitude of electrostatic force

• When a good conductor is charged in a small Q1 , Q2 = magnitude of charges

region, the charge readily distributes itself
r = distance between two-point charges
over the entire surface of the material.
k = electrostatic (Coulumb)
Insulator
constant = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2
Electrical insulators are materials in which all the
electrons are bound to atoms. Point Charge

• Examples of good insulators include glass, The term point charge refers to a particle of zero
rubber, and wood. size that carries an electric charge.

• When a good insulator is charged in a small The electrical behavior of electrons and protons is
region, the charge is unable to move to other well described by modeling them as point charges
regions of the material.
 ELECTRIC FIELD Electric Potential

• is defined as a region in which an electric
force will act on a charge that, is place in that
region/ a region of space around isolated
charge where an electric force is experienced
if a positive test charge placed in the region
The work done in bringing a test charge from infinity
to that point in the electric field per unit test
charge.

• Electric field around charges can be

represented by drawing a series of lines
called the electric field lines (lines of force) q = value of the test charge (including sign)

V = 0 at ∞

Unit: V or J/C

Characteristics of Electric Field Pattern

✓ The field lines indicate the direction of the

electric field (the field points in the direction
tangent to the field line at any point)

✓ The lines are drawn so that the magnitude of

electric field is proportional to the number of
lines crossing unit area perpendicular to the
lines. The closer the lines, the stronger the
field
Equipotential Lines and Surface
✓ Electric field lines start on positive charges
and end on negative charges, and the number • is defined as the locus of points that have the
of starting or ending is proportional to the same electric potential
magnitude of the charge • NO work is done when a charge moves from
✓ The field lines never cross because the one point on an equipotential surface to
electric field don’t have two values at the another point on the same surface (because
same point the potential difference is zero)

Electric Field Strength, E Potential Energy, U and A System of Point

Charges
 MAGNETISM The south-seeking pole points to the south
geographic pole.
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena
associated with magnetic forces among permanent • This would correspond to the Earth’s north
magnets and moving charges (i.e., currents). magnetic pole.

Permanent magnets are usually made of a type of However, the magnetic axis of the earth is not the
materials (called ferromagnetic materials) and they same as the axis of rotation.
can attract and repel each other’s by magnetic The magnetic axis is also change with time.
forces.
Magnetic Fields
For example, magnetite (a mineral) can attract iron
nails.

Every magnet has two poles, called north (N) and

south (S) poles.

• Poles exert forces on one another, similar to

Force on a Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field
the way electric charges exert forces on each
other

• Like poles repel each other & unlike poles

attract each other.

Earth itself is a magnet. If a bar magnet is

suspended on the Earth so that it can move freely, it
will rotate until it aligns with the Earth’s magnetic
field.

• The magnetic north pole points toward the

Earth’s north geographic pole.

• This means the Earth’s north geographic pole

is a magnetic south pole.
Difference Between Electric and Magnetic Fields
• Similarly, the Earth’s south geographic pole is
a magnetic north pole. Direction of force

A single magnetic pole has never been isolated.
• In other words, magnetic poles are always
found in pairs.
• All attempts so far to detect an isolated
magnetic pole has been unsuccessful.
Earth’s Magnetic Poles and Magnetic Fields
More proper terminology would be that a magnet has
“north-seeking” (N) and “south-seeking” (S) poles.
The north-seeking pole points to the north
geographic pole.
• This would correspond to the Earth’s south
magnetic pole.
• The electric force acts along the direction of
the electric field.
• The magnetic force acts perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
Motion
• The electric force acts on a charged particle
regardless of whether the particle is moving.
• The magnetic force acts on a charged particle
only when the particle is in motion.
Work
• The electric force does work in displacing a
charged particle.
• The magnetic force associated with a steady
magnetic field does no work when a particle is
displaced.

• This is because the force is

perpendicular to the displacement of
its point of application.
Units of Magnetic Field

Force on Charged Particle

Torque on a Current Loop

Force on a Wire Magnetic Dipole Moment