Forces Between Molecules

Explain Intermolecular
Interactions

DR. LEONISA O. BERNARDO

 MODULE 4 2022

INTRODUCTION

The title of this module tells us that there is interaction between molecules.
In this lesson the different kinds of intermolecular forces and the corresponding
interactions. These are ion-ion interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, hydrogen
bonding, ion-dipole interaction, induced dipole-dipole interaction, and London
dispersion force. Each of the intermolecular forces or interaction is discussed in
detail in terms of the molecule’s nature of substance and polarity. The strengths of
the different intermolecular interactions are also compared. In addition to
application of the concept to inorganic compounds, some examples also include
organic compounds. The module also discusses the effect of intermolecular
interaction in the bulk properties of substances like solubility, melting point, boiling
point and vapor pressure.

Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate intermolecular forces from intramolecular forces.
2. Enumerate the different types of intermolecular forces.
3. Identify the type of intermolecular forces that is present based on the nature
of substance and the polarity of molecules.
4. Compare the strength of the different types of intermolecular forces.
5. Explain some properties of substances based on the type and degree of
intermolecular interactions.

How to go about the module

Read each part thoroughly and try to understand the concepts. Answer the
Test Yourself Questions (TYQs) seriously and check if you get the correct answer.
NEVER LOOK AT THE Answer to Test Yourself Question (ATYQ) BEFORE
ANSWERING THEM. If you feel you can’t grasp a certain topic, go back to that part
and read it again. If still, you can’t get it, feel free to call my attention and ask me
for further explanation and clarification.

Keeping Time
You should be able to finish the module in about three (3) hours, depending
on how focus you are in reading it and your understanding of molecular polarity.

Pre-requisite Concept and Skill

To easily understand this module, you should have mastered our lesson
about molecular polarity. And of course, the topic needed to determine the polarity
of molecule is molecular geometry. If you think you still lack understanding of
molecular polarity and geometry, take extra effort to catch up.
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DISCUSSION

Most of the time we simply focus on the macro scale properties of substances we
observe around. Like, water boils after heating it for a while. Acetone in a small
bottle is simply gone when you get back at it after sometime. After heating table
salt solution in an evaporating dish, the water evaporates and leaves the salt
behind but no matter how long you heat it, it will not melt but simply splutters. But
chocolate you forgot in your pocket melts easily, especially during hot summer
days. We just know these facts but have we thought of knowing why?
Intermolecular forces between molecules will explain all these.

Figure 1. Observed properties of water, acetone, table salt and chocolate

Intermolecular Forces versus Intramolecular Forces

First, let us differentiate intermolecular forces from intramolecular forces. From the
word itself, we can deduce that intermolecular force means force between
molecules while intramolecular interaction means force that holds atoms
together in a molecule. Intramolecular forces stabilize the individual molecules
whereas, intermolecular force are primarily responsible for the bulk properties of
matter, like melting and boiling point.

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Before we proceed to our main topic, I would like to emphasize that intramolecular
forces refer to the chemical bond that holds the atoms together in a molecule. I’m
sure you are familiar with ionic bond, covalent bond and metallic bond. Which is
more difficult to break, the chemical bond or the intermolecular forces? Which is
stronger, intramolecular or intermolecular forces? Pause for a while and come think
about it.

It is far more difficult to break the chemical bond between atoms in a molecule
than the forces holding the molecules. Therefore, intramolecular force is a lot
stronger than intermolecular forces between molecules in a substance. (Do we
have the same answer?)

Intermolecular Interactions

Ion-Ion Interaction

We can now start discussing about intermolecular forces existing between

molecules. Let’s talk about the intermolecular forces of attraction between ionic
compounds or inorganic compounds. Ionic compounds consist of ions because the
metal transfers its electron(s) to the non-metal. Thus, the metal loses electron(s)
acquiring a positive charge and becomes a positive ion called cation. On the other
hand, the non-metal gains electron(s) from the metal acquiring a negative charge
and becomes a negative ion called anion. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) or
table salt consists of Na+ and Cl–. We know very well that “opposite charges
attracts while like charges repel”. What do we expect will happen between NaCl
molecules? Yes, they will attract one another. The Na+ of one molecule will be
attracted by the Cl– of the other molecule and vice versa. This kind of interaction
is called ion-ion interaction (see illustration below). Let us consider Barium Oxide
(BaO) as our next example. It consists of Ba 2+ and O2-. Similarly, Ba2+ of one
molecule will be attracted to the O2- of the other molecule, and vice versa.

This ion-ion interaction causes a strong force between molecules of NaCl and BaO
creating cubic crystal lattices as shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Crystal Structures of NaCl and BaO

That explains why NaCl doesn’t melt no matter how long we heat it in our pan. This
ion-ion interaction is very strong that requires 801 0C to melt NaCl. Likewise, BaO
has to be heated to 1,9230C in order to melt it.

What about the covalently bonded molecules? In covalent bond, the pair of
electrons is being shared by the two atoms. The pair of electrons maybe equally
shared (non-polar) or unevenly shared (polar). To know what intermolecular forces
are present in covalently bonded molecules we have to know their polarity. And to
know the polarity we have to know their molecular geometry. That is the reason
why we tackled those two topics before this.

Dipole-Dipole Interaction

Let us begin with polar molecules. Take for example Hydrogen Chloride (HCl). We
have learned that it is a diatomic heteroatomic molecule with dipole. It is a polar
molecule with partially positive part (H) and partially negative part (Cl). What
intermolecular forces are present between these molecules. What kind of
interaction is present between molecules with dipole? There is force of
attraction between the partially positive part (H) of HCl and the partially negative
part (Cl) of the other HCl molecule and vice versa. Since the interaction is between
molecules with dipole it is called dipole-dipole interaction. See the illustration
below.

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Let us get an example from our previous topic, SCO. It is a linear molecule with
different atoms attached to the central atom, making it a polar molecule. It means
the molecule has dipole with partially positive side and partially negative side. Let
us have the structure of this molecule so we can easily analyze the interaction that
will occur between molecules of SCO.

The illustration above shows the dipole-dipole interaction between molecules of

SCO. I hope the concept of this type of interaction is becoming clear now.

Let us have organic molecules as our next example. Consider propanone (acetone)
molecules with trigonal planar shape but with two CH3 groups and an Oxygen atom
attached to Carbon. Although there is no lone pair but having different groups or
atoms attached to the central atom makes it a polar molecule. Aside from the fact
that the C=O bond is polar because of the high polarity of Oxygen. Here, oxygen
side is partially negative while the other side with methyl groups (CH 3) is the
partially positive side. Obviously, there is dipole in the molecule, thus, a dipole-
dipole interaction will be present. It was mentioned in the introduction part of this
module that acetone is easily gone in the bottle. It means that it has low boiling
point which is 560C only that makes it easily evaporates. We can say that acetone
is highly volatile. Have we clarified that property of acetone. By now, you should
know how to store your acetone. The container should be tightly closed and stored
in a cool place.

Figure 3. Dipole-Dipole Interaction between Propanone Molecules

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Let us have another example, Dimethly ether (common name) or Methoxymethane
(IUPAC name) with the formula CH3-O-CH3. By now I am expecting that just by
looking at Oxygen between the two methyl groups, you will not be mistaken of
classifying it as linear molecule, although it is written like linear. We have
encountered a lot of examples with O in the molecule. Have you thought at once
that its structure is like water. Thus, it‘s shape is angular bent with two bonding
pairs and two lone pairs. It makes this molecule asymmetrical with dipole moment.
Therefore, the molecules are bound by dipole-dipole interaction. See the
illustration in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Dipole-Dipole Interaction between Methoxymethane

Dimethyl ether is another organic compound with very low boiling point. It’s boiling
point is -24.90C. Since this temperature is lower than room temperature, its
physical state is gas at room temperature.

TYQ-1
Explain why Vitamin C is soluble in water while Vitamin D is soluble in fatty
acids in terms of intermolecular forces.

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Comparing the boiling point of ionic substances and polar covalent compounds,
which has the stronger intermolecular force, ion-ion interaction or dipole-
dipole interaction? Obviously, it is the ion-ion interaction. So, what kind of
substances are present in chocolate that it easily melts? Are the molecules
of these substances, ionic or covalent? The answer is obvious, I will let you
answer that question on your own.

Hydrogen bonding

There is a special type of dipole-dipole force that we will discuss. It is special

because it is stronger than an ordinary dipole force. It occurs when a Hydrogen
atom is bonded to a strongly electronegative atom and approaches another
electronegative atom with unshared electron pairs (lone pairs). This strong dipole
force is called Hydrogen bond.

The electronegative atom to which H is bonded is usually Oxygen, Nitrogen or

Fluorine which forms a partial negative charge while hydrogen has the partial
positive charge.

The Hydrogen bond may occur between the same molecules or combination of
these molecules as shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. Hydrogen bond between water, ammonia

and hydrogen fluoride molecules

This is the kind of interaction that exist between water molecules responsible for
the extraordinary properties of water that I mentioned in my module about
molecular geometry. The strong hydrogen bond is responsible for making ice less
dense than water, the high surface tension of water that some insects are able to
walk above it, the high boiling point of water, high heat capacity and as the
universal solvent. We will not discuss each of these properties here, it will take a
lot of time to do that. At least you can figure out the structure of water and its
interaction with itself and with other molecules. The concept you have learned here
will aid you in explaining these many other extraordinary properties of water.

The boiling point of water is 1000C while acetone is 560C. This is a solid proof that
H-bond is stronger than the ordinary dipole-dipole force.

Ion-dipole Interaction

Let us move to another type of interaction. Do you think it is possible to have

intermolecular interaction between ion and a polar molecule? Yes, it is
possible. At this point we will now explain in detail how NaCl is being dissolved by
water. NaCl is an ionic compound while H2O is a polar covalent compound. NaCl is
part of our daily life in the kitchen. It’s solubility in water is a common knowledge
to everyone. Let us use chemistry language in understanding this phenomenon. In
the introduction of my module about molecular polarity I showed this picture.

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The water molecule orients itself in such a way that its partially negative part (O δ-)
is near the positive ion (Na+). Similarly, the partially positive side of water (Hδ+) is
oriented towards the negative ion (Cl–). This type of interaction is called
ion-dipole interaction. Afterwards, the ions of the solute particles are pulled
away from the surface and surrounded by water molecules to fully dissolve it and
prevent it from crystallizing again.

Figure 5. Ion-Dipole Interaction in Dissolving NaCl with Water

Can you now explain to your students and friends, how water dissolves NaCl? I
really hope so.

It was observed that Lithium chloride (LiCl) is soluble in methanol (CH3OH). Can
you explain why? What kind of interaction is present in LiCl and CH3OH. It is
very similar to water and sodium chloride. Figure 6 shows that it is ion-dipole
interaction.

Figure 6. Ion-dipole interaction between LiCl and Methanol

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TYQ-2
Classify the type of intermolecular interaction between the following
molecules? Briefly explain your answer in terms of molecular polarity of the
molecule.

1. Between KOH molecules

2. Between CO molecules
3. Between HF molecules
4. Between CaCl2 and H2O molecules
5. Between ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and H2O molecules

Induced Dipole-Dipole Interaction

We have talked a lot about forces between ion and ion, ion and dipole molecule,
hydrogen bond and dipole and dipole molecules. All the particles involved here
have charges, either full charge or partial charge. Do you think it is also
possible for non-polar molecules to have intermolecular forces with other
molecules. Why do fats or oils able to dissolve Vitamins A, D, E and K if
they are all non-polar? I’m sure you have the answer now to these questions.
Yes, non-polar molecules have another type of force that facilitates their
interaction. That’s why vitamins A, D, E and K are absorbed by the body because
they are dissolved by fats in our body.

As we have mentioned, the electrons are shared equally in non-polar molecules.

They do not have charges or dipoles. Then, do they also acquire charges or
create dipoles to make them interact with other molecules? What do you
think? Did it tickle your curiosity?

We will start answering that question by citing an observed phenomenon. Krypton

is a noble gas and we know that noble gases are inert or unreactive because its
outer shell is complete with electrons. Then, why is Krypton soluble in water?

If an ion or a polar molecule is placed near a nonpolar molecule or an atom the

electron distribution of the molecule or atom is distorted by the force exerted by
the ion or the polar molecule. In the case of Kr and water, the polar water
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molecule distorts the electron distribution in Kr. The positive end of the water pulls
the electron density towards it, inducing Kr to have a dipole. However, the induced
dipole is just a temporary dipole. Now, the induced dipole of Kr is now capable of
having interaction with water. The type of interaction that exists between them is
called induced dipole-dipole interaction. See Figure 7 for visualization of
concept.

Figure 7. Induced dipole-Dipole Interaction between

Krypton and Water

A more common substance where we can apply this type of interaction is the
solubility of Oxygen (O2) in water. Diatomic oxygen is a non-polar molecule as we
have studied in the previous module. Similar to a neutral atom like Kr, O 2 can be
induced to have a dipole. This creates an induced dipole-dipole interaction with
water, making it soluble in water (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Induced dipole-Dipole Interaction Between Oxygen and Water

This is very significant to our aquatic life that needs oxygen. Without dissolved
oxygen in water, they will not survive.

In May 2019, there was a huge fish kill in Taal Lake, Batangas because the
dissolved oxygen (DO) level went lower than 5-6 ppm, the safe level for fishes.

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About 605 metric tons of tilapia were found dead in the lake with an estimated
losses of Php 42.9 million (see Figure 9). The stocking density or number of fishes
per cage was violated by fish cage owners resulting to low amount of oxygen
available for the fishes.

Figure 9. Fish Kill in Taal Lake, Batangas in May 2019

London Dispersion Force

By now, we have undertaken many everyday happenings around by applying

intermolecular interaction concepts. There is one more type of intermolecular force
that we will tackle. Is it also possible to have interaction between two non-
polar molecules or neutral atoms. What if there is no nearby polar
molecule that will induce a non-polar molecule or a neutral atom?

The electrons in an atom are constantly moving around the nucleus. But there are
times that one side of an atom has higher electron density than the other side. In
other words, the electrons are dispersed in such a way that temporary dipole is
created. It is called instantaneous dipole. When it comes closer to another
atom, it can induce the other atom and creates another atom with instantaneous
dipole. Thus, there will be interaction between these atoms. This type of
interaction is caused by a force called London Dispersion Force (LDF). Take for
instance Neon, another inert gas. The interaction between Neon atoms is caused
by London Dispersion Forces.

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Figure 10. London Dispersion Force between Temporary Induced Atoms

The same case is true for the non-polar

hydrocarbons. The electrons are moving
around the hydrocarbon molecules. At times
the electron density is not evenly distributed.
Part of the molecule has denser electron
cloud creating a partially negative part while
the other part becomes partially positive.
This is called instantaneous dipole.

London dispersion force creates attraction

between the oppositely charged part of the
hydrocarbons as shown in the opposite
illustration.

However, LDF is a very weak force. This is

the reason why hydrocarbons with few
numbers of carbons are gases at room
temperature.
As the carbon chain increases, more surface areas with temporary dipole are
exposed. This also increases the London dispersion force that binds the molecules
together. That’s why hydrocarbons with longer chain are liquids. Candle with 25
carbons is solid, showing strong attraction because of more LDF in long chain of
carbon.

Let us enumerate the different types of intermolecular forces we have studied.

1. Ion-ion force of attraction
2. Ion-dipole force
3. Dipole-dipole force
4. Hydrogen bonding
5. Dipole-induced dipole force
6. London Dispersion force

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TYQ-3
1. Based on our discussion, arrange the different types of intermolecular
forces from strongest to weakest intermolecular force?

2. Explain why propane, CH3CH2CH3, is a gas while heptane, (CH3(CH2)5CH3,

is liquid.

3. Classify the type of intermolecular interaction present in the following set

of molecules.
a. Between CO2 molecules
b. Between N2 and H2O molecules
c. Between methane (CH4) molecules

MORE APPLICATIONS
We have compared some substances in terms of their boiling point and solubility.
Let us have some more comparisons and explain them in terms of the
intermolecular forces present.

Which has higher boiling point, CH3CH2OH or CH3CH3?

CH3CH2OH, because of dipole-dipole force & hydrogen bonding between ethanol
molecules. Ethane (CH3CH3) has only London dispersion force which is very weak.

Which has higher boiling point, butanol or methanol?

Both butanol and methanol have hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole force. In
addition to H-bonding and dipole-dipole force, butanol has London dispersion forces
that increases with increasing carbon chain. The larger the size, the more it
becomes polarizable, and the stronger the London dispersion force.

Which has higher vapor pressure, butanol or methanol?

The higher the boiling point, the lower the vapor pressure. Therefore, methanol
has higher vapor pressure. Because methanol boils at lower temperature it will
produce vapors easier which increases the vapor pressure.

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Which has higher boiling point, 2,2-Dimethylpropare or n-pentane? Which
has higher vapor pressure of the two?
Both has the molecular formula (C5H12) but based on their structure, n-pentane has
more surface area expose which provides more London dispersion forces. More
carbon branching makes lesser surface area expose.

2,2-Dimethylpropane n-pentane

Arrange the following substances from highest to lowest boiling point:

H2O, H2S, H2Se
All of them have angular bent shape. Therefore, they are all polar. They have
dipole-dipole force between their molecules but H2O has hydrogen bonding. Thus,
H2O will have the highest boiling point. We will compare the other two in terms of
their sizes because the bigger the size the more it is polarizable. Since Se is bigger
than S, then, H2Se has higher boiling point. The final arrangement from highest to
lowest boiling point is as follows: H2O > H2Se > H2S

Which has higher boiling point, HBr or HI?

Both are linear, diatomic, and polar. We can base our comparison from their sizes.
Since I is bigger than Br, HI is more polarizable. Thus, HI has higher boiling point
than HBr.

Which has higher melting point? Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) or oxalic acid
(H2C2O4)
Magnesium chloride is an ionic compound while oxalic acid is a polar covalent
compound. Thus, the intermolecular interaction present between magnesium
chlorides is ion-ion interaction and Hydrogen bonding between oxalic acid
molecules. Therefore, Magnesium chloride has higher melting point than oxalic
acid.

Our discussion ends here. I hope you can now explain some properties of
substances based on the intermolecular interactions present. Also, you can
compare substances in terms of their properties, like boiling point, without looking
at the actual value from sources.

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SUMMARY

Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules while intramolecular
forces are forces that holds atoms together in a molecule. Intramolecular forces
stabilize the individual molecules whereas, intermolecular forces are primarily
responsible for the bulk properties of matter, like melting point and boiling point.

The different intermolecular interaction or forces present in molecules are:

1. Ion-ion interaction
2. Dipole-dipole interaction
3. Hydrogen bonding
4. Ion-dipole interaction
5. Induced dipole-dipole interaction
6. London dispersion forces

Ion-ion interaction occurs between molecules due to the interaction of oppositely

charged ions of these molecules. This type of interaction happens between ionic
substances.

Dipole-dipole interaction occurs between polar covalently bonded molecules with

dipole or with partially positive and partially negative parts.

Hydrogen bonding is a special kind of dipole force because it is stronger than the
ordinary one. It occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a strongly
electronegative atom and approaches another electronegative atom with unshared
electron pairs (lone pairs).

Ion-dipole interaction is an interaction between an ion of an ionic compound and

a polar covalent compound.

Induced dipole-dipole interaction occurs between a polar molecule and a non-

polar molecule induced to have dipole by the polar molecule.

London dispersion force occurs between neutral atoms or non-polar molecules that
experienced temporary or instantaneous dipole due to the dispersion of electron
with one side of an atom or molecule with higher electron density.

The type of intermolecular interaction between molecules explains the properties of

substances such as solubility, melting point, boiling point, and vapor pressure.
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REFERENCES

Cox, P. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry. 2nd Ed. United Kingdom: Garland Science:
BIOS Scientific Publisher

Cotton, F. A. and Wilkinson, G. (1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry: A

Comprehensive Text. New York: John Willey & Sons

House, J. E. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry. London: Elsevier Inc.

Housecroft, C. & Sharpe, A. (2005). Inorganic Chemistry. 2nd Ed. England: Pearson
Education Limited.

Shriver & Atkins. (2010). Inorganic Chemistry. 5th Ed. Great Britain: Oxford
University Press.

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ANSWER TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTION

(ATYQ)

ATYQ-1

Both Vitamin C and water are polar substances, thus, they have dipole.
The presence of -OH groups in Vitamin C and water provides the
Hydrogen bond, a strong dipole force, to exist between them. Due to this
interaction, Vitamin C is soluble in water.

Vitamin D consists of hydrocarbons or alkyl groups which makes it a non-

polar molecule. Similarly, fatty acids contains non-polar long chain of
hydrocarbon tail that offset the polar head (-COOH). London dispersion
force provides the interaction between these which makes Vitamin D
soluble in fatty acids.

ATYQ-2

1. KOH consists of K+ ion and OH— ions. So, ion-ion interaction

occurs. At the same time, H-bonding is present. Thus, ion-ion
interaction and H-bonding exist.
2. CO is a polar covalent molecule. Therefore, dipole-dipole is the
type of interaction present.
3. HF is a heteroatomic molecule which makes it a polar one. At the
same time, H is bonded to a highly electronegative atom F. Thus,
H-bonding is present.
4. Calcium chloride is an ionic molecule while water molecule is polar
covalent molecule. The type of interaction present is ion-dipole
interaction.
5. Both ethanol and water are polar covalent molecules and contain -
OH group. H-bonding is the interaction present between them.

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ATYQ-3

1. The different intermolecular interactions arranged form strongest to

weakest are as follows:

• Ion-ion interaction
• Ion-dipole interaction\
• Hydrogen bonding
• Dipole-dipole interaction
• Induced dipole-dipole interaction
• London dispersion force

2. Both propane and Heptane are non-polar molecules, thus, London

dispersion force is present in both molecules. However, Heptane has
longer carbon chain than Propane which provides Heptane a stronger
LDP than that of Propane. Hence, with a weaker LDP, propane easily
vaporizes and makes it a gas. On the other hand, with longer carbon
chain providing strong LDP, heptane is a liquid.

3. a. London dispersion force

b. Induced dipole-dipole interaction
c. London dispersion force

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