Fundametals of Polymer

Bahir Dar University
School of Materials Science and Engineering

Fundamentals of Polymers (MScE3209)
Corse Category: Major Mandatory
Course Code: MScE3209
Credit Hours: 3
Program: MSE, B.Sc. Degree, Year: III, Semester: II
Addisu A. (Ph.D.)
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1. Introduction to Chain Molecules
What are Polymers?
 The term polymer stems from the Greek roots poly (many) and mers
(part). The word thus means "many parts" and designates a molecule
made up by the repetition of some simpler unit called a mer.
 Polymers contain thousands to millions of atoms in a molecule that is
large; they are also called macromolecules.
 Polymers are prepared by joining a large number of small molecules
called monomers.
 Monomers are generally simple organic molecules containing a
double bond or a minimum of two active functional groups. The
presence of the double bond or active functional groups acts as the
driving force to add one monomer molecule upon the other (of the
same or different type) to make a polymer molecule by a process
known as polymerization.
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Cont…
 For example, the monomer ethylene gets linked with many other ethylene
molecules to form polyethylene, or large number of vinyl chloride molecules
combines to form polyvinyl chloride.
 The single repeating unit is called as monomer, and the resultant high
molecular weight compound is called as polymer.
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1.1 How Big a Polymer?
•On the basis of this physical property, the polymers with high
degree of polymerization are known as high polymers while those
having comparatively low degree of polymerization are known as
oligopolymers. The molecular weights of polymers are generally
higher than 5000. Hence, these are also known as macromolecules.
• The total number (n) of single monomer units combined together
to form a polymer is known as degree of polymerization (DP).
DP affect physical properties of polymers.
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Cont…
• End Groups constitute an insignificant fraction of the mass of high
molecular weight polymer and so usually have negligible effect on
polymer properties of major interest.
• Example. Calculate the end group content (weight fraction) of
polystyrene of molecular weight 150,000, assuming that phenyl
(C6H5-)groups constitute both the end groups of an average polymer
molecule.
• Degree of Polymerization (DP) refers to the number of repeating units

in the polymer molecule.
Mo is formula weight of the repeating unit
M molecular weight
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1.2. Classification of Polymers
I. Based on source:
a) Natural: e.g starch, cellulose, protein
b) Semi synthetic: Nitro cellulose
c) Synthetic: Polythene, polyvinyl chloride
ii) The nature of monomer
(a) Homo-polymers: A polymer containing identical monomers.
A-A-A-A
(b) Co-polymers are the compounds formed by two different small
molecules. For example in polystyrene butadiene. One molecule of
butadiene combines with one molecule of styrene. The product
obtained acts as a monomer to get the polymer.
A-B-A-B-A-A-B
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Cont…
• Homopolymer describe polymers whose structure can be represented
by repetition of a single type of repeating unit which may contain one
or more species of monomer unit. Thus, a hypothetical polymer -[-
AB-]n- is also a homopolymer.
• Copolymer is a polymer derived from more than one species of
monomer.
• Random copolymer is a copolymer with a relatively random
distribution of the different repeating units in its structure.
• Three other copolymers are known: alternating, block and graft

copolymer.
• In the alternating copolymer the two mers alternate in a regular
fashion along the polymer chain.
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Cont…
• A block copolymer is a linear polymer with one or more long
uninterrupted sequences of each mer in the chain:
• Different block copolymers are distinguished by the number of blocks

per molecule, for example, AB diblock, ABA triblock, ABAB tetrablock,
and AB multiblock copolymers, respectively.
• A graft copolymer, on the other hand, is a branched copolymer with

a backbone of one type of mer to which are attached one or more
side chains of another mer:
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Network polymers
Network polymers
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Cont…
iii) On the basis of arrangement of monomeric units in polymer,
these are named as linear, branched or cross — linked
(three dimensional structures),
•Some examples of linear high polymers are rubber,
•polyethylene, cellulose, polyvinyl acetate
•Polyethylene may also have branched chains.
•The vulcanized rubber is the best known example of cross-linked
polymers in which -S-S- cross links are joined irregularly. Due to cross
linking polymer structure becomes three dimensional cross linked or
network polymer. This makes the polymer very hard and rigid.
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Cont…
iv)Based on atoms- If the main chain of the polymer is of same atoms, it is known
as homochain polymers while if is of different atoms it is known as hetero
polymer.
•e.g. -C-C-C-C-C-Homochain polymer
-C-O-C-O-C-O- Heterochain polymer
v) Co-polymer is named as regular or irregular on the basis of arrangement
Eg. -A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A- regular
-A-B-B-A-B-A-A-B-B- Irregular
—A.—B—A—B—A—B-A Linear co-polymer
• If co-polymer chain possesses relatively long sequence of like monomers, it is

called as block co-polymer where as if co-polymer possesses branched
structures in which the monomer segments are not in same sequence
on branch and backbone, it is known as graft co-polymers.
vi) Based on effect of heat polymers are of two types
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting
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Cont…
vii) Polymers are also classified on the basis of configuration of
macromolecule known as Tacticity of polymers in following ways
a) Isotactic polymers
• In isotactic, the head to tail configuration in macromolecule with
respect to functional groups is iso, i.e. all the functional groups lie on
the same side of the chain.
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b) Syndiotactic polymers
•Arrangement of side group in alternating fashion is called syndiotactic
polymer.
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c) Atactic polymers
•In atactic, the head to tail configuration is random i.e. the functional
groups are arranged randomly. e.g polypropylene
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Cont…
Vii. Homo-organic polymers examples of organic polymers are
polysaccharides, proteins, DNA,
viii) On the basis of chemical composition, the polymers are also called either
organic or inorganic polymer. Generally in organic polymers, carbon with or
without N, S, O, forms the skeleton while in inorganic, other elements form
the skeleton.
e.g Polyethylene., [- - H2 C - CH2 ---]
e.g. Polysilanes
•Man made organic polymers include PVC, PP, PVA, PF, UF, polyesters,
polyamides, polyurethanes, synthetic rubbers etc.
• Inorganic polymers are those in which atoms other than carbon form the
skeleton of polymer. Polysiloxanes or polytitoxane0 are the examples of
polymers where side chain may be of organic nature. They are also known
as elemento-organic or hetero-organic polymers. Polysilanes are purely
inorganic in nature.
• Other examples of this class are MgO polymer or hydrogen borons.
[- - -Mg -O-Mg-O-Mg---] Magnesium oxide polymer.
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Polymerization and Functionality
• Polymerization is the process of transformation of monomer
molecules to a polymer molecule.
Polymerization may occur if the monomers involved in the reaction
have the proper functionalities.
• The functionality of a molecule is the number of sites available for
bonding to other molecules under the specific conditions of
polymerization reaction. A bifunctional monomer, i.e., a monomer
with functionality 2, can link to two other molecules under appropriate
condition. Functionality defined on the basis of the given reaction.
• A polyfunctional monomer is one that can react with more than two
other molecules under the conditions of the polymerization reaction.
Example divinyl benzene tetrafunctional in reactions involving
additions across carbon-carbon double bonds.
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Common polymers
Monomer Polymer
CH3
H3C
Polyethylene n
Ethylene Repeat unit
CH3
CH3 n
Polypropylene CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
Propylene
CH3
Ph n
Polystyrene Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph
Styrene
CH3
Cl n
Poly(vinyl chloride) Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
Vinyl Chloride
F2 F2 F2 F2 F2 F2
F2C CF2 C C C C C C CF3
F3C C C C C C C
F2 F2 F2 nF F2 F2
Tetrafluoroethylene Poly(tetrafluoroethylene): Teflon 2
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Exercise
• What is the functionality of the following monomers in reactions with
(i) styrene, C6H5CH=CH2 and (ii) adipic acid, HOOC(CH2)4COOH
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1.3 Addition, Condensation, and Natural Polymers
• Polymerization process: Addition and Condensation polymerization

• In the addition process, no by-product is evolved, whereas in the
condensation process, just as in various condensation reactions (e.g.,
esterification, etherification, amidation, etc.) of organic chemistry, a
low-molecular-weight by-product (e.g., H2O, HCI, etc.) is evolved.
• Polymers formed by addition polymerization do so by the successive
addition of unsaturated monomer units in a chain reaction promoted
by the active center.
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Cont…
• Chain polymerization involves three processes: chain initiation, chain propagation,
and chain termination. (A fourth process, chain transfer, may also be involved, but it
may be regarded as a combination of chain termination and chain initiation.)
Chain initiation occurs by an attack on the monomer molecule by a free radical, a
cation, or an anion; accordingly, the chain polymerization processes are called free-
radical polymerization, cationic polymerization, or anionic polymerization.
Chain (addition)
Monomer decreases throughout reaction,
• In chain growth, a monomer is activated and polymerization propagates by activating
neighboring monomers. The process is rapid & high MW polymers are achieved
quickly.
• The following describes the chain growth reaction in which * represents the activated
monomer M. This can be a free radical, negative charge, or positive charge:
1. R* + M RM*
2. RM* + M RMM*
RMn* + M RMn+1*
3. Event that terminates
•
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Step (condensation)
Monomer consumed early in reaction
• In chain growth, bifunctional monomers are added
systematically to form covalent bonds. It generally involves 2
(or more) functional groups: “a” and “b.” Molecular weight
increases “slowly” as dimers become trimers, which in turn
become tetramers.
• Examples of polymers formed by chain growth: nylons,
polyesters, polypeptides (proteins)
a+b c + d where c = covalent link
d = byproduct
1. a—a + b—b a—c—b + d
HOOCRCOOH + HO-R1-OH HOOCRCOOR1OH + H2O
(dialcohol) ester link byproduct
2. a—c—b + a—a a—c—c—a

3. a—c—c—a + b—c—c—c—a a(c)6a + d
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I. Natural Polymer
• Natural polymers that are found in nature includes
Protiens, Nucli acids, Polysaccharides, Cellulose,
Natural rubbers and etc.
• Natural rubber is a high-molecular-weight polymer
of isoprene.
• The Source of natural rubber can be obtained from
nearly five hundred different species of plants.
• The outstanding source is the tree Hevea
brasilliensis, from which comes the name Hevea
rubber.
• Rubber is obtained from a latex that exudes from
the bark of the Hevea tree.
• When the tree is cut, it yields a Latex
• The latex is gathered, coagulated, washed, and dried.
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II. Synthetic Polymers
1.4 Polymer Nomenclature and Structural Isomerism
• Polymer Nomenclature follows by naming a polymer according to its
source, i.e., the monomer(s) used in its synthesis, and the generic term used
is poly"monomer", whether or not the monomer is real. The prefix ’poly’ is
added on to the name of the monomer to form a single word, e.g.,
polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyacrylonitrile.
• If a same polymer can be synthesized from more than one monomer, the
name of the monomer that is commonly used to manufacture the polymer is
used in the nomenclature.
Thus -[-HN(CH2)5CO-]n- named as poly(caprolactam) since it is industrially
made from caprolactam by ring-opening polymerization,-in preference to
polymerization of the parent amino acid, H2N-(CH2)5-COOH.
• A few polymers are given names based on the repeating unit without
reference to the parent monomer. The primary examples are silicones, which
possess the repeating unit. Thus, if R = CH3, the polymer is named as
poly(dimethyl siloxane).
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Cont…
• The nomenclature of random copolymers includes the names of the
monomer separated by the interfix -co-. Thus (XXII) is named as
poly(styrene-co-methyl methacrylate) or poly(methyl methacrylate-
co-styrene), depending on which of the monomers is the major
component (if there is one). For alternating copolymers, the interfix -
alt- is used, e.g., poly(styrene-alt-maleic anhydride) (XXIII).
• Graft copolymers of A and B monomers are named poly(A-g-B) poly

A-graft-poly B with the backbone polymer -(-A-)n- mentioned before
the branch polymer. Some examples are poly(ethylene-g-styrene)
polyethylene-graft-polystyrene.
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Cont…
• In the nomenclature of block copolymers, b or block is used in place of g
or graft, e.g. poly(A-b-B)or poly A-block-poly B, poly(A-b-B-b-A)or poly
A-block-poly B block-poly A, poly(A-b-B-b-C) or poly A-block-poly B-
block-poly C), and so on. Thus the triblock polymer (XXIV)is called
poly(styrene-b-butadiene-b-styrene) or polystyrene-block -polybutadiene-
block-polystyrene. When such polymers are articles of commerce they are
usually designated by the monomer initials; thus, structure (XXIV) would
be named SBS block copolymer.
• Ex. Name the polyamides made from the following monomers and draw
their structural formulas(one repeating unit). (a) Caprolactam; (b) ω-
aminoundecanoicacid; (c) dodecyl lactam; (d) Ethylene diamine and
sebacic acid, and (e) Ethylene diamine and decanedioic acid.
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Structural Isomerism
 Three types of isomerism that are encountered in polymers.
These are positional isomerism, stereo isomerism, and geometrical
isomerism
 Positional isomerism is conveniently illustrated by considering the
polymerization of a vinyl monomer. In such a reaction, the adding
monomer may become attached to the growing chain
end (designated by *) in either of two orientations:
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Cont.
• Stereo Isomerism: consider the number of ways a singly substituted vinyl
monomer can add to a growing polymer chain: isotactic, syndiotactic and
atactic.
• Geometrical isomerism: consider the three important

monomers of this type are 1,3-butadiene, 1,3-
isoprene, and 1,3-chloroprene that form different
geometrical isomers.
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1.5 Molecular Weights and Molecular Weight Averages
• The molecular weight of polymer is a characteristic feature which

significantly affects different properties
• Very short chain hydrocarbons are the predominant component of
petrol – liquid at room temperature
• Longer chain hydrocarbons are present in various waxes such as
candle wax – soft, pliable and easy to melt
• Polyethene is a very long chain hydrocarbon – tough, strong and
very resistant to heat and solvents.
• Molecular weight can also affect different properties including
solubility, strength and etc.,
• Molecular weight of a polymer is defined as sum of the atomic
weight of each of the atoms in the molecules, which is present in the
polymer.
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Cont…
• Not all chains in a polymer are of the same length
— i.e., there is a distribution of molecular weights
 There is actually a wide range of lengths, so when we discuss
molecular weight, we really mean the average molecular weight of
the material.
 This average is found by measuring samples of the material as it is

produced.
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Molecular Weight Calculation
 There are different categories of molecular weight average that are

commonly used:
– Number Average Molecular Weight (Mn )
– Weight Average Molecular Weight (Mw)
Number average (Mn ) = S Ni Mi Mn is the total weight of the
S Ni polymer molecules divided by
the total number of molecules
Weight average (Mw) = S Ni Mi2 = S Wi Mi  Ni*Mi = weight (Wi)

S Ni Mi S Wi of the sample
 Ni is number (mole) of polymers and
 Mi is molecular weight/length of polymer
Polydispersity characterises the
Polydispersity (p) = Mw
shape of the distribution
Mn
Cont…
Example 1:
We have:
10 moles of Polyethylene (PE) that are 500 monomers long
5 moles of PE that are 100 monomers long
5 moles of PE that are 800 monomers long
What is Mn?
Solution:
10 moles X 500 monomers = 5,000
5 moles X 100 monomers = 500
5 moles X 800 monomers = 4,000
Total number of monomers = 9,500
Total number of moles = 10 + 5 + 5 = 20
Mn = 9,500/20 = 475, The average chain is 475 monomers long
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Example 2:
a. 9 moles, molecular weight (Mw) = 30,000
b. 5 moles, molecular weight ( Mw) = 50,000
(9 mol x 30,000 g/mol) + (5 mol x 50,000 g/mol)

Mn= = 37,000 g/mol
9 mol + 5 mol
9 mol(30,000 g/mol)2 + 5 mol(50,000 g/mol)2

Mw = = 40,000 g/mol
9 mol(30,000 g/mol) + 5 mol(50,000 g/mol)
Example 3:
a. 9 grams, molecular weight ( Mw ) = 30,000
b. 5 grams, molecular weight ( Mw ) = 50,000
9g+5g
Mn = = 35,000 g/mol
(9 g/30,000 g/mol) + (5 g/50,000 g/mol)
(9 g/30,000 g/mol) (30,000 g/mol)2 + (5 g/50,000 g/mol)(50,000 g/mol)2

Mw =
9g+5g
= 37,000 g/mol
Cont…
• Ex. Poly(hexamethylene adipamide) (Nylon-6,6) was synthesized in
condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine and adipic
acid in 1:1 mole ratio. Calculate the acid equivalent of the polymer
whose average DP is 440.
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Effect of Molecular Weight on the properties of Polymers
 Generally
+ = improves, - = worse
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1.6 Crystallinity of polymers
• A polymer is described by the distinction between amorphous and crystalline
regions.
• Polymers with an amorphous morphology have their molecules held together
in a random structure
• Crystalline polymers have a ‘reasonably’ regular chain structure and a specific
preferred chain conformation. The crystallized regions are called crystallites.
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Polymer Crystallinity (cont.)
Polymers rarely 100% crystalline
• Difficult for all regions of all chains to become aligned
• Degree of crystallinity expressed as % crystallinity.
• Some physical properties depend on % crystallinity.
• As crystallinity is increased in a polymer:
 Density increases
 Stiffness, strength, and toughness increases
 Heat resistance increases
 If the polymer is transparent in the amorphous state, it becomes
opaque when partially crystallized
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1.7 Mechanical Properties of Polymers
brittle polymer
plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli
– less than for metals Adapted from Fig. 15.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
• Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals

• Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
– for most metals, deformation strains < 10%
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1.8 Thermal behavior of polymers
Polymers are classified into three types based on their
thermal response pattern
Thermoplastics: Thermosets:
o Melt when heating o Chemical change when heating
o Linear/branched polymers o significant crosslinking
o Ductile (10 to 50% of repeat units)
o Ex. Polyethylene, polypropylene o hard and brittle
polycarbonate, polystyrene o Vulcanized rubber, epoxies,
polyester resin, phenolic resin
Elastomers:
o Exhibit extreme elastic extensibility and yet completely recover to
their original shape
o Also known as rubber
o low degree of cross-linking than Thermosets
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THERMAL TRANSITIONS IN POLYMERS
• The term "transition" refers to a change of state induced by changing the
temperatures or pressure. Two major thermal transitions are the glass transition and
the melting, the respective temperatures being called Tg and Tm .
• All polymers are hard rigid solids at sufficiently low temperatures but as the
temperature rises a thermoplastic polymer eventually acquires sufficient thermal
energy to enable its chains to move freely enough for it to behave like a viscous
liquid (assuming there is no degradation).
• A thermoplastic polymer may be completely amorphous in the solid state, which
means that the polymer molecular chains in the specimen are arranged in a totally
random fashion. The volume change in amorphous polymers follows the curve
ABC.
• Semicrystalline polymers usually exhibit

both Tg and Tm,~ (not T°m) corresponding to
the disordered and ordered regions,
respectively, and follow curves similar to
E-H-D-
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Cont’d
• Glassy solid has characteristics of glasses, including hardness, stiffness, and brittleness. In the
glassy region, the available thermal energy (RT energy units/mol) is insufficient to allow
rotation about single bonds in the polymer backbone overcoming intramolecular energy
barriers.
• When the sample is heated, it passes through a temperature Tg, above which it softens and
becomes rubber like (material softens). Tg is the onset of extensive molecular motion, which is
reflected in marked changes in properties, such as specific volume, refractive index, stiffness,
and hardness.
• In a perfectly crystalline polymer, all the chains would be contained in regions of three
dimensional order, called crystallites, and no glass transition would be observed, because of the
absence of disordered chains in the sample. A perfectly crystalline polymer, on heating, would
thus follow curve G-F-A, melting at T°m to become a viscous liquid.
• Eg. polycaprolactone has Tg = - 60°C and Tm~ = + 60°C, while poly(ethylene terephthalate)
has Tg = + 60 °C
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Exercise
• Account for the differences in glass transition temperatures for the
following pairs of isomeric polymers having similar chemical
structures:
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Relation between Tm and Tg
• Boyer and Beamen found that the ratio Tg/Tm ranged from 0.5 to
0.75 when the temperatures are expressed in degrees Kelvin. The
ratio is closer to 0.5 for symmetrical polymers such as
polyethylene and polybutadiene, but closer to 0.75 for
unsymmterical polymers, such as polystyrene and polyisoprene.
The difference in these values maybe related to the fact that in
unsymmterical chains with repeat units of the type -(CH2-CHX-)-
an additional restriction to rotation is imposed by steric effects
causing Tg to increase, and conversely, an increase in symmetry
lowers Tg.
• Eg. A new atactic polymer of the type -(-CH2-CHX-)n- has Tm
value of 80°C.What is its Tg likely to be ?
Answer
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Factors that affect Tg
• Molecular weight of the polymer at high molecular weights Tg~ is
essentially constant when measured by any given method, but is found to
decrease as the molecular weight of the sample is lowered. This behavior
would be expected since a polymer chain end requires more free volume in
which to move about than a segment in the chain interior and, being
connected only at one end, the end units are able to rotate more readily with
increasing thermal energy than the rest of the chain.
• Branching in the polymer: a small number of branches on a polymer chain
are found to reduce the value of Tg. This also can be explained using the free
volume concept.
• Cross-linking in the polymer: two polymer chains connected by introducing
a crosslink at intermediate points, pulled chains closer together and decrease
the free volume. This reduction in the free volume raises Tg.
• Polymer Diluents: adding a low-molecular-weight substance to a polymer
lower its glass transition temperature. Flexible products of poly(vinyl
chloride) obtained by adding relatively nonvolatile diluents such as dibutyl
phthalate or tricresyl phosphate as plasticizers to the polymer.
45
Cont…
• Both Tm and Tg increases with

increasing chain stiffness
• Chain stiffness increased by
presence of
1. Bulky side groups
2. Polar groups or side groups
3. Chain double bonds and
aromatic chain groups
• Regularity of repeat unit

arrangements – affects Tm only
46
Cont…
Effect of Copolymerization on Tg
• Block and graft copolymers usually have multiple
glass transition temperatures that are near to the values
of Tg for each constituent homopolymers.
• Random or statistical copolymers usually have a single
Tg between that of the corresponding homopolymers.
47
Melting & Glass Transition Temperature
 Glass transition temperature: Tg, is a characteristic temperature
that marks the transition from the glassy state (hard and brittle
amorphous state) to the rubbery or flexible state
• The flexibility of amorphous polymer is reduced drastically when
they are cooled below Tg
• The glass transition temperature is characteristic of a particular
polymer in much the same way that a melting point is characteristic
of ordinary low molecular weight compounds.
Cont…
• The melting temperature (Tm) is defined as the temperature at
which crystalline regions appear in a polymer melt.
• While cooling non-crystalline polymer

melt, there is no sharp drop in specific
volume and the melt becomes highly
viscous and it appears like solid.
• Since the glass behaves in this manner

the temperature at which the specific
volume curve changes its slope is called
Tg- glass transition temperature.
Applications of polymers
• Coatings – thin polymer films applied to surfaces – i.e.,
paints, varnishes
– protects from corrosion/degradation
– decorative – improves appearance
– can provide electrical insulation
• Adhesives – bonds two solid materials (adherands)
– bonding types:
1. Secondary – van der Waals forces
2. Mechanical – penetration into pores/crevices
• Films – produced by different techniques

• Foams – gas bubbles incorporated into plastic
50
Advanced Polymers
• Outstanding properties
– high impact strength
– resistance to wear/abrasion
– low coefficient of friction
– self-lubricating surface
• Important applications
– bullet-proof vests
– golf ball covers
– hip implants
51 51

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Fundametals of Polymer

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Bahir Dar University

School of Materials Science and Engineering

• Degree of Polymerization (DP) refers to the number of repeating units

• Three other copolymers are known: alternating, block and graft

• Different block copolymers are distinguished by the number of blocks

• A graft copolymer, on the other hand, is a branched copolymer with

• If co-polymer chain possesses relatively long sequence of like monomers, it is

• Polymerization process: Addition and Condensation polymerization

2. a—c—b + a—a a—c—c—a

• Graft copolymers of A and B monomers are named poly(A-g-B) poly

• Geometrical isomerism: consider the three important

• The molecular weight of polymer is a characteristic feature which

 This average is found by measuring samples of the material as it is

 There are different categories of molecular weight average that are

Weight average (Mw) = S Ni Mi2 = S Wi Mi  Ni*Mi = weight (Wi)

b. 5 moles, molecular weight ( Mw) = 50,000

(9 mol x 30,000 g/mol) + (5 mol x 50,000 g/mol)

9 mol(30,000 g/mol)2 + 5 mol(50,000 g/mol)2

a. 9 grams, molecular weight ( Mw ) = 30,000

b. 5 grams, molecular weight ( Mw ) = 50,000

(9 g/30,000 g/mol) (30,000 g/mol)2 + (5 g/50,000 g/mol)(50,000 g/mol)2

• Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals

• Semicrystalline polymers usually exhibit

• Both Tm and Tg increases with

• Regularity of repeat unit

• While cooling non-crystalline polymer

• Since the glass behaves in this manner

• Films – produced by different techniques

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