LESSON 2.

13 READING MATERIAL

LEARNING CODE: STEM_GC11OCllg-j-91

MELC: Describe the formation and structure of polymers.

What are Polymers?

● Polymers is derived from the Greek words poly meaning “many” and meres
meaning “parts”.
● These are large molecular compounds made up of many repeating units called
monomers.
● In some cases, naturally occurring polymers can also be produced synthetically.
Example is natural (Hevea) rubber, known as polyisoprene in its synthetic form.

Monomers vs. Polymers

Monomers Polymers

Definition Monomer is the building Polymer is a

block of polymers. macromolecule consisting
of repeating units that
represent the monomers.

Number of Molecules A single molecule A collection of a large

number of molecules.

Molecular Weight Small Large

Boiling Point Usually low Very high

Mechanical Strength Comparatively low Usually high

Illustration 🟢 🟢-🟢-🟢-🟢-🟢-🟢-🟢

2 Types of Polymers
1. Natural Polymers
● Natural polymers are polymer compounds that can be found naturally in our
environment.
● Examples: Silk, Wool, DNA, Cellulose, and Proteins

2. Synthetic Polymers
● Synthetic polymers are polymer compounds that are produced artificially by
humans.
● Examples: Nylon, Polyethylene, Polyester, Teflon, and Epoxy

Polymer Synthesis
● The chemical by which the monomers are linked together to form polymers is
called polymerization.

2 Major Types of Polymerization Methods

1. Addition Polymerization (Chain - Reaction Polymerization)

● Monomers simply link together without the elimination of any atoms.
● Involves unsaturated compounds containing double or triple bonds particularly
C=C and C=C.
● Polymerization reactions consists of three steps which are Initiation,
Propagation, and Termination.
A. Initiation
● A free radical initiator (X*) attacks the carbon-carbon double bond (first step
below) The initiator can be something like hydrogen peroxide. This material can
easily split to form two species with a free electron attached to each:
● H-O-O-H 2H-O.
● One of the pi electron forms a single bond with the initiator while the other pi
electron forms a new free radical on the carbon atom.

B. Propagation
● The new free radical compound interacts with another alkane, continuing the
process of chain growth (second step below).

C. Termination
● Occurs whenever two free radicals come in contact with one another.
● The process gets terminated when two long-chained radicals combine to form
the polyethylene polymer.
● Some of the plastics made by addition polymerization include polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylics, polystyrene, and polyoxymethylene (acetal).
 2. Condensation Polymerization (Step - Reaction Polymerization)
● It is a form of step-growth polymerization in which monomers react with each
other to form larger structural units while releasing smaller molecules.
● In a condensation reaction, two different monomers are combined through
multiple condensation reaction. Each monomer must have two functional groups
attached to each end of the monomer.
● Functional Groups would either be alcohol, amine, or carboxylic acid groups
which can link up with two other monomers.
Example 1: Polyester
● Polyester are example of a polymers produced from condensation
polymerization. Polyesters are formed by the reactions between a carboxylic acid
containing two carboxyl functional groups and an alcohol containing two hydroxyl
groups.
● Ethane diol and hexanedioic acid undergo condensation polymerization to form a
polyester.

Classification of Polymers
Classification Based on Source
1. Natural Polymers
● Polymers which occur in nature and are existing in natural sources like plants
and animals.
● Common examples are: Proteins, Cellulose and Starch, Rubber

2. Synthetic Polymers
● Polymers which humans can artificially create / synthesize in a lab. Commercially
produced by industries for human necessities.
● Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are:
- Polyethylene ( a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging)
- Nylon Fibers ( commonly used in our clothes, fishing nets etc.)

3. Semi-Synthetic Polymers
● Polymers obtained by making modification in natural polymers artificially in a lab.
Formed by chemical reaction (in a controlled environment) and of commercial
importance.
● Examples: Vulcanized Rubber, Cellulose Acetate (rayon) etc.

Classification Based on Structure of Polymers

1. Linear Polymers
● A linear polymer is simply a chain in which all of the carbon-carbon bonds exist in
a single straight line.
● The monomers in these are linked together to form a long chain often referred to
as the backbone. Atoms or small groups of atoms attached to the long chain are
called pendant atoms.
● These polymers have high melting points and are of higher density.

● The arrangement of the pendant atoms or pendant groups attached to the

backbone gives different properties to the polymer. There are three distinct
arrangements; Isotactic, Syndiotactic, and Atactic.
A. Isotactic
● Arrangement where all the pendant groups or substituents (represented by R)
are on the same side of polymer chain.

B. Syndiotactic
● Chain where the substituent group alternates from left to right of the asymmetric
carbons. They pack less efficiently.

C. Atactic
● The substituents occur randomly. Therefore, they do not pack well. These
polymers are rubbery, not crystalline, and relatively weak.

● A common example of linear polymer is PVC (Poly-Vinyl Chloride). This polymer

is largely used for making electric cables and pipes.
2. Branch Chain Polymers
● When linear chains of a polymer from a branch, then, such polymers are
categorized as branched chain polymers.
● As a result, polymers are not closely packed together. They are low density
having low melting points.
● Low density polyethylene (LDPE) used in platic bags and general purpose
containers is a common example.

3. Crosslinked Polymers
● In this type, monomers are linked together to form a three-dimensional network.
● The crosslinked tie or bind the polymer strands together. Therefore, when these
crosslinked polymers heated, the strands cannot flow past each other. They do
not melt or break apart. They are brittle and hard.
● Example: Bakelite (used in electrical insulators)

Copolymers
● Two or more different monomers that are joined together to form a polymer.

Alternating Copolymer Random Copolymer Block Copolymer

● “A” and “B” are ● When two ● Each species of
arranged in an monomers monomer is
alternating arranged such grouped together,
fashion. that they do not and all of the
follow any specific other are grouped
-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B- order. together.

-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-B- -A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-